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65-766: The Victorian Alps , also known locally as the High Country , is a large mountain system in the southeastern Australian state of Victoria . Occupying the majority of eastern Victoria, it is the southwestern half of the Australian Alps (the other half being the Snowy Mountains ), the tallest portion of the Great Dividing Range . The Yarra and Dandenong Ranges , both sources of rivers and drinking waters for Melbourne (Victoria's capital , largest city and home to three quarters of

130-420: A combination of one-way and two-way levelling. These levelling parties consisted of two drivers of separate vehicles, as well as one instrument man who would alternate between the cars as they "leap-frog along the levelling route". This strategy involved the instrument man taking both a back sight and fore sight staff reading, before being driven by one of the drivers, past the other driver's stationary car, to

195-774: A large part of summer recreation in the Victorian Alps. The recently finished Mount Hotham to Falls Creek overnight walking track, spans some of the highest regions of the Victorian Alps, with overnight stops at both Cope and Dibbins hut; the walk is 37 kilometres in total. Other summer activities that draw visitors to the Victorian Alps include mountain biking (at Lake Mountain, Mount Baw Baw, Mount Beauty, Mount Buller, Bright, Falls Creek, Dinner Plain amongst others) rock climbing (particularly at Mount Buffalo), trout fishing and horse riding . Mountain system Mountain ranges are usually segmented by highlands or mountain passes and valleys . Individual mountains within

260-548: A median age of 49. The highest peak in the range is Mount Bogong at an elevation of 1,986 metres (6,516 ft) AHD , which is also the highest peak in Victoria. Other prominent peaks within the region are as follows; Mount Feathertop at an elevation of 1,922 metres (6,306 ft) AHD , Mount Hotham at an elevation of 1,862 metres (6,109 ft) AHD and Mount Buffalo at an elevation of 1,723 metres (5,653 ft) AHD ,. The majority of unique flora

325-540: A site called the cross, which is the highest section of sealed road in Australia; the site was a popular tourist destination with motorists in the 1920s and 1930s. The introduction of snow-sports to Victoria began in the 1910s, with the government-funded building of the Mount Buffalo chalet . The chalet is the largest wooden building in Australia and was for many years the only ski field in the Victorian Alps. In

390-649: A total of 485,722 visitor days. Large events such as the Peaks Challenge which sees cyclists ride 235 km through the High Plains, contribute to these numbers. The Dinner Plain Polo is another yearly event that sees a rise in tourist numbers in the area. Founded 31 years ago, the Dinner Plain Polo is the longest, and highest in altitude running polo competition in Australia. Bushwalking is also

455-502: Is Mount Hotham . Other Victorian ski fields include Mount Baw Baw , Mount Stirling , Lake Mountain , Falls Creek and previously Mount Buffalo . Ski touring within the Victorian Alps is also very popular with famed routes such as the Twin Valleys, Mount Bogong, Feathertop Ridge and other Mount Hotham side country routes. There are many converted cattleman's huts that litter the alpine landscape to accommodate such activities. On

520-666: Is a systematic error in the Australian Height Datum's horizontal surface of approximately 1.5m from the North coast to South coast of Australia. This tilt is quite problematic, as it invalidates the major assumption in using the Australian Height Datum: the datum surface has a gradient of zero (i.e. perfectly horizontal). While this systematic error is relatively insignificant for the design of “small-scale engineering projects” that use local heights,

585-534: Is also the source of many of Victoria's water ways, including Murray and Yarra Rivers and the Gippsland Lakes . The valleys beneath the high plains are surrounded by wineries and orchards because of this abundance of water. The region is also home to Victoria's largest national park , the Alpine National Park , which covers over 646,000 hectares (1,600,000 acres). The establishment of

650-538: Is at work while the mountains are being uplifted until the mountains are reduced to low hills and plains. The early Cenozoic uplift of the Rocky Mountains of Colorado provides an example. As the uplift was occurring some 10,000 feet (3,000 m) of mostly Mesozoic sedimentary strata were removed by erosion over the core of the mountain range and spread as sand and clays across the Great Plains to

715-529: Is based upon a least squares adjustment of the original, ‘primary’ levelling data spanning 97,320 km, combined with more recent, ‘supplementary’ levelling data spanning 80,000 km. Five different observing authorities contributed to primary levelling sections in the Australian National Levelling Network that were used to determine the Australian Height Datum, each utilising their own levelling parties that conducted

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780-503: Is found above the timberline at 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) AHD , the region above the forest of Eucalyptus (ADH).  The unique flora includes the largest range of Tussock Grasses ( Poa spp.), Herbaceous Daisies, Eyebrights and Carexes (small sedges) in Australia. Many other small vegetation ecosystems appear on the High Plains, including but not limited to Tussock grassland, Alpine shrubby heathland, Subalpine woodland and Tall Alpine herb field. Important or notable species within

845-535: Is now the Hume region to the Bogong high plains, settling in the area because of its abundance of natural grass fields. These early settlements were often seasonal as the harsh winter made grazing and mining impractical. The communities in the Victorian Alps were disconnected from Australian civilisation, which bred a distinctive way of life epitomised in the famed poem by Banjo Patterson , " The Man from Snowy River ". After

910-490: Is on the endangered species list due to the severe fires in the region over the past decades. The Baw Baw frog is critically endangered with estimated number being below 1,000, the major threat to this species is a disease from the fungus Amphibian Chytrid called Chytridiomycosis. Mountain streams are also populated by species of small fish such as the Mountain Galaxia . There is very limited fauna diversity within

975-865: The Alpide belt . The Pacific Ring of Fire includes the Andes of South America, extends through the North American Cordillera , the Aleutian Range , on through Kamchatka Peninsula , Japan , Taiwan , the Philippines , Papua New Guinea , to New Zealand . The Andes is 7,000 kilometres (4,350 mi) long and is often considered the world's longest mountain system. The Alpide belt stretches 15,000 km across southern Eurasia , from Java in Maritime Southeast Asia to

1040-551: The Annamite Range . If the definition of a mountain range is stretched to include underwater mountains, then the Ocean Ridge forms the longest continuous mountain system on Earth, with a length of 65,000 kilometres (40,400 mi). The position of mountain ranges influences climate, such as rain or snow. When air masses move up and over mountains, the air cools, producing orographic precipitation (rain or snow). As

1105-795: The Bogong High Plains , Bowen Range, Cathedral Range , Cobberas Range , and numerous other smaller ranges, the Victorian Alps include the Alpine Shire , parts of the East Gippsland Shire , and some parts of the Mansfield Shire local government areas . The Alps are sometimes called the High Plains or High Country. The 2016 Australian Bureau of Statistics census showed that the Alpine Shire had 12,337 permanent residents with 49.2% male and 50.8% female, and

1170-606: The Gippsland and Hume regions. The Victorian Alps were a significant meeting place for multiple Indigenous tribes from all-over South-east Australia. Seasonally Indigenous peoples from many tribes would meet at the highest peaks for trade, settling of disputes, marriage and initiation ceremonies. Whilst on the high plains the tribes would feast upon the Bogong moth , a moth that migrates from breeding grounds in Queensland to

1235-804: The Iberian Peninsula in Western Europe , including the ranges of the Himalayas , Karakoram , Hindu Kush , Alborz , Caucasus , and the Alps . The Himalayas contain the highest mountains in the world, including Mount Everest , which is 8,848 metres (29,029 ft) high. Mountain ranges outside these two systems include the Arctic Cordillera , Appalachians , Great Dividing Range , East Siberians , Altais , Scandinavians , Qinling , Western Ghats , Vindhyas , Byrrangas , and

1300-592: The Mithrim Montes and Doom Mons on Titan, and Tenzing Montes and Hillary Montes on Pluto. Some terrestrial planets other than Earth also exhibit rocky mountain ranges, such as Maxwell Montes on Venus taller than any on Earth and Tartarus Montes on Mars . Jupiter's moon Io has mountain ranges formed from tectonic processes including the Boösaule , Dorian, Hi'iaka and Euboea Montes . Australian Height Datum The Australian Height Datum

1365-568: The AUSGeoid09 model is able to “practically” eliminate the north–south error when converting GNSS readings to Australian Height Datum heights. The Australian Height Datum ( Tasmania ) is considered as a separate datum to the Australian Height Datum, consisting of a least-squares adjustment of seventy-two levelling sections across the Tasmanian state, while simultaneously assigning the mean sea level of two tidal gauges at Hobart and Burnie

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1430-568: The Alpine National Park has meant that economic activities such as mining , logging and agriculture are limited, to preserve the natural ecosystem for visitors. Tourism within the region centres around snow sports in winter and various outdoor activities during the summer months. The Australian Alps is an Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia sub- bioregion of approximately 519,866 hectares (1,284,620 acres), and an administrative sub-region of Victoria bordering

1495-527: The Australian Height Datum was determined and then adopted by the National Mapping Council of Australia in July 1971. The Australian Height Datum is the vertical height of 0.000m established within the Australian National Levelling Network (ANLN), through taking the mean sea level of 30 tide gauges along the entire Australian coastline during the period of 1966–1968. The datum surface

1560-537: The Australian mainland during World War II heavily exposed the lack of Australian topographic mapping , to such a great extent that Prime Minister Ben Chifley approved the formation of the National Mapping Council of Australia in 1945 with a primary objective of planning and managing the nation's topographic mapping activities. The inaugural National Mapping Council consisted of the Director of National Mapping,

1625-520: The Commonwealth Surveyor General and respective State Surveyors-General. The council's first meeting held discussions between the respective state authorities about the need to have a unified national scheme for surveying and mapping of Australia. Upon the meeting's completion, members of the National Mapping Council of Australia unanimously agreed that the Director of National Mapping, Frederick Johnston , would be tasked with

1690-729: The Second World War a growing population increased the demand for timber from the Victorian Alps. This added growth to the economy of the area with the building of a series of roads, train-lines and bridges, the most prominent of these being the Great Alpine Road , a 308 km fully paved mountain pass that connects Bairnsdale in East Gippsland, to Wangaratta in Central Victoria. The road reaches an altitude of 1,845 metres (6,053 ft) AHD at

1755-420: The Victorian Alps during the summer months. Baron Ferdinand von Mueller , Angus McMillan and Alfred Howitt were some of the first Victorian settlers to explore the Victorian Alps in the early 1850s. Gold was found in the region in 1852 and brought thousands to the high plains. In search of grazing pastures men such as John Mitchell, George Gray, James Brown and John Wells travelled from central Victoria in what

1820-411: The Victorian Alps originated through continental splitting; secondly the Victorian Alps were never tall enough to develop large glaciers, and it is the erosion from ice that produces jagged peaks. The Victorian Alps are still being influenced by plate tectonics today, as continental collision with New Zealand drives the range up each year. This contradicts earlier theories about the range, which assumed

1885-516: The Victorian alps include: The Victorian alps is home to a variety of small marsupials and mammals , many of which are found nowhere else on earth. The Mountain pygmy possum is a prime example of this as it can only be found within the alpine regions of Victoria and NSW . Thought to be extinct until they were rediscovered in the 1960s at Mount Hotham , the Mountain pygmy possum is now on

1950-495: The Victorian alps, due to the climate, and exposed conditions. Introduced species are considerably dangerous to the delicate ecosystem that is the Victorian Alps. Red foxes are the fourth most common species found in the area due to the abundance of other introduced species such as rabbit and hare. Brumbies/wild Australian horses are also a major pest in the Victorian High Plains. The horse's hard hooves trample

2015-627: The air descends on the leeward side, it warms again (following the adiabatic lapse rate ) and is drier, having been stripped of much of its moisture. Often, a rain shadow will affect the leeward side of a range. As a consequence, large mountain ranges, such as the Andes, compartmentalize continents into distinct climate regions . Mountain ranges are constantly subjected to erosional forces which work to tear them down. The basins adjacent to an eroding mountain range are then filled with sediments that are buried and turned into sedimentary rock . Erosion

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2080-561: The consolidation of levelling and tide gauge data from these collective surveying operations resulted in the formation of a 97,320 km "single homogenous network" of primary levelling spanning the entire country, named the Australian National Levelling Network . Through the linear adjustment of 757 primary levelling sections across the Australian National Levelling Network, while simultaneously "holding 30 tide gauges fixed at their mean sea level values",

2145-805: The coordination of local, state and Commonwealth authorities in order to execute mapping activities across the entire of the Australian continent ; an activity later named the Australian Levelling Survey. From 1945 to 1955, the New South Wales , Victorian and Western Australian state authorities, with assistance from the Royal Australian Survey Corps , commenced the Australian Levelling Survey by levelling 4,800 km of

2210-482: The critically endangered species list due to introduced predators like the fox, reduction in habitat and lowering number of the Bogong moth . The region is also home to echidna, common wombat , wallaby, kangaroo and bush rat. Other vertebrates found within the region include common native woodland bird species such as Robins, Sparrows, Rosellas, Fantails, Currawongs and Honeyeaters ; as well as six species of frog and several variants of skink. The Alpine she oak Skink

2275-471: The cull. Other introduced species within the region include Deer, pigs, goats, cats, trout and dogs. The Victorian Government's response to these pests in the national park involves extensive trapping and baiting programs ran by the Parks managers. As well as wild pests, production animals such as Cattle and sheep were previously also found in the Victorian Alps. Cattle grazing can cause major disturbances to

2340-578: The decades following skiing in the Alps grew slowly, predominantly centred around ski clubs such as the University Ski club which was founded in 1929 under the name Melbourne University Ski Club. In the early 1960s skiing began to evolve as ski fields started to install tow ropes and Austrian immigrants like Hans Grimus at Mount Buller and Peter Zirknisker at Mount Hotham , opened ski rental businesses and lodges at their respected mountains. Comprising

2405-515: The designated tidal gauges, and from 1 January 1957 to 31 December 1960 for the single tidal gauge at Karumba , Queensland . Once all the tidal data was collected and processed, the Port MacDonnell tidal gauge station was selected to be the “nominal origin” and the station's mean sea level was assigned a value of 0.000 m. Zero condition equations between Port MacDonnell and the other 29 stations’ sea level data were then utilised to hold

2470-485: The east. This mass of rock was removed as the range was actively undergoing uplift. The removal of such a mass from the core of the range most likely caused further uplift as the region adjusted isostatically in response to the removed weight. Rivers are traditionally believed to be the principal cause of mountain range erosion, by cutting into bedrock and transporting sediment. Computer simulation has shown that as mountain belts change from tectonically active to inactive,

2535-595: The entire coastline. While it remains the published vertical datum for all surveying and engineering operations performed throughout Australia , newer technologies have uncovered numerous deficiencies, offsets and distortions within the Australian Height Datum, leading to discussions about defining a new Australian vertical datum. Prior to the creation of the Australian Height Datum, levelling surveys were carried out by professional surveyors for construction and mapping purposes using only local or state-based vertical datums. The execution of military operations across

2600-399: The establishment of the two datums, the mean sea levels for the mainland and Tasmanian datums are highly likely to contain some degree of error relative to the true mean sea level value. This neglection of the differences in ocean's time-mean dynamic topography between the creation of Australian Height Datum (mainland) and Australian Height Datum (Tasmania) resulted in a distinct offset between

2665-427: The formation of a distinct 1.5m North-South slope within the Australian Height Datum. In order to counteract this slope, the AUSGeoid09 gravimetric quasigeoid model has been introduced to determine Australian Height Datum heights from Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) readings. As GPS heights provide a far greater limit of reading that the magnitude of the spirit-level errors in the Australian Height Datum,

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2730-485: The height of the mainland and Tasmania datum surfaces , estimated to be between −61 mm and +48 mm. In addition to the north–south slope, numerous other regional distortions within the Australian Height Datum have been identified across the state of Western Australia. The largest of these non-linear distortions are present across the Goldfields-Esperance and northern Kimberley regions. Unlike

2795-455: The inception of the Australian Height Datum in 1971, numerous deficiencies, distortions, offsets and other errors have been identified and examined using newer technologies. Due to Australia's desperate need for a surveying vertical control and accurate topographic mapping for mining exploration during the 1970s, the Australian Height Datum was constructed using a lower standard of spirit-levelling equipment and techniques to ensure completion in

2860-616: The local flora, because of this the Victorian Government has extended efforts to cull the wild horses from the national park. However, Initiatives to block the culling of Brumbies claiming they are “national icons” gained traction in May 2020, seeing the 2020 seasonal cull being put on hold. A supreme court injunction led by Phillip Maguire has caused this halting of the cull, as petitions on " Change.org ", led by OCEAN LEGAL have gathered over 100,000 signatures in support of preventing

2925-544: The mainland. By 1960, 20,800 km of controlled levelling had been completed with the addition of the Northern Territory and Queensland state authorities. To assist mining companies with the search for oil during the 1960s, the Federal Government made additional funds available to the Director of National Mapping to employ private contract surveyors to speed up the surveying effort. By 1970,

2990-421: The mean sea level at 0.000 m across the entire national tide gauge network, while the primary and secondary levelling records within the Australian National Levelling Network were simultaneously adjusted to fit this model. In doing so, the Australian Height Datum surface was derived and officially adopted in 1971 as the benchmark to which all new vertical height measurements in Australia are referenced to. Since

3055-537: The mountains size was due to years of erosion, in fact it is now believed that the Australian Alps are a relatively young range, forming their current peaks in the last 10 million years. The Victorian Alps receive some of the most rainfall in Victoria with locations such as Falls Creek elevation 1,765 metres (5,791 ft) AHD receiving an average of 12,273 millimetres (40.266 ft) annually from 1990 to 2020. The high volumes of water that fall within

3120-478: The natural flora and rare grass species found above the tree line 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) AHD .  The effect the cattle have on the environment is amplified through the short growing season for alpine flora, which means that once they are disturbed it can take a long time to recover. Because of the severity of damage subdued to the Alpine national park flora the Victorian government banned cattle grazing in

3185-488: The next set-up position to take the next set of reading. The two drivers’ responsibility was to hold the levelling staffs , while the instrument man would operate the level and record the readings in a level book. By employing this strategy, the levelling parties were able to achieve an average of 35 km of primary levelling each day. One-way levelling involved adopting this outlined methodology in only one direction, while two-way levelling also would repeat this again in

3250-467: The north–south slope is very influential on the design of “large-scale studies” that span larger distances across the country. The north–south slope is primarily due to the fact that the Australian Height Datum was taken as the fixed mean sea level of 30 tide gauges around Australia over a 2-year period, ignoring the natural variations in sea-surface topography . The National Mapping Council of Australia chose to use this ‘mean sea level’ approach to minimise

3315-547: The opposite direction to improve the accuracy of the readings. The following outlines the cumulative contribution of the levelling parties for their respective observing authority: (Combined) National Mapping the Interior Hydro-Electric Authority One-Way Levelling Two-Way Levelling Sea level data from thirty tidal gauges positioned around the Australian mainland coastline

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3380-497: The park in 2015 as a part  of the National Parks Amendment (Prohibiting Cattle Grazing) Bill 2015 . Cobungra station however continues the heritage of alpine cattle grazing, without damaging the flora above the tree line as it nestled between 1500m and 1000m in the foothills below Mount Hotham . Cobungra station is a significant staple of the Victorian alpine region as it boasts the largest wagyu station in

3445-627: The rate of erosion drops because there are fewer abrasive particles in the water and fewer landslides. Mountains on other planets and natural satellites of the Solar System, including the Moon , are often isolated and formed mainly by processes such as impacts, though there are examples of mountain ranges (or "Montes") somewhat similar to those on Earth. Saturn 's moon Titan and Pluto , in particular, exhibit large mountain ranges in chains composed mainly of ices rather than rock. Examples include

3510-515: The region, feed waterways such as the Yarra river, and Gippsland lakes. The Murray River is also fed by the Victorian Alps, and although the region only accounts for 1% of the Murray's catchment area it is estimated to provide over 29% to the annual flow.  This is due to the high amounts of snow, and the unique alpine vegetation which has the ability to hold water and regulate its release throughout

3575-531: The same mountain range do not necessarily have the same geologic structure or petrology . They may be a mix of different orogenic expressions and terranes , for example thrust sheets , uplifted blocks , fold mountains, and volcanic landforms resulting in a variety of rock types . Most geologically young mountain ranges on the Earth's land surface are associated with either the Pacific Ring of Fire or

3640-502: The shortest possible period of time. For example, approximately 80% (76520 km) of the primary levelling contributing to the Australian National Levelling Network was completed by private contractors during the 10-year period from 1960 to 1970. Since then, significant errors have been identified including the north–south slope of 1.5m, offset between Australia mainland and Tasmania of 26 cm, as well as regional distortions throughout Western Australia. The North-South Slope

3705-568: The state's population), are branches of the Victorian Alps. The promise of gold in the mid-1800s, during the Victorian Gold rush led to the European settlement of the area. The region's rich natural resources brought a second wave of agricultural settlers; the foothills around the Victorian Alps today has a large agrarian sector, with significant cattle stations being sold recently for over thirty million dollars. The Victorian Alps

3770-415: The state. In the Victorian Alps, bedrock is exposed along the entire range. Because of the exposed bedrock, Geologists have been able to determine that the rock types at surface of the range today were formed in an ancient ocean, between 530 and 400 million years ago. The Mountains in the range are flat and round when compared other prominent ranges around the world, this is due to two main factors. Firstly

3835-549: The use of negative heights, that are quite problematic for surveyors and engineers, near coastal areas where most of the population resides. By utilising the mean sea level approach, the creation of the Australian Height Datum neglected the significant influence the ocean's time- mean dynamic topography on the fluctuations in sea surface levels around the country. Spatial variation of sea level change , freshwater outflow in harbour areas where tide gauges are positioned, and an amalgamation of ocean dynamics have all contributed to

3900-405: The vertical height of 0.000m over the year of 1972. This method deviates from the method employed to determine the mean sea level used to create the mainland Australian Height Datum, which was taken across the period from 1966 – 1968 for 29 of the tidal gauges and 1957-1960 for the single tidal gauge at Karumba . By employing inconsistent approaches to the study period of the mean sea level during

3965-474: The well-defined and measurable north–south tilt across the state, the linear regression of these distortions does not lend itself to any distinct trends. Moreover, the utilising gravimetric quasigeoid models to “practically” eliminate the impact of the ocean's time-mean dynamic topography does not minimise the extent of these regional distortions. For these reasons, the regional distortions throughout Western Australia are attributed to random errors “present in

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4030-415: The whole the snow-sports industry brought over $ 911 million of gross state profit to the Victorian economy in the 2016/2017 financial year. Over the same period the region saw over 762,981 visitors across ski season which produced almost 1.4 million visitor nights. Summer recreation brings in lower annual visitor numbers as seen over the summer months in 2016/2017, when the region received 348,366 tourist for

4095-598: The year. Water from the Victorian Alps is also used for power generation at the Kiewa Hydroelectric scheme , although not as extensive as the Snowy Mountains Scheme , the Kiewa scheme still provides Victoria with 241MW. In the winter the main attraction in the Victorian Alps is the ski fields, the largest of which by number of lifts is Mount Buller and the largest of which by skiable terrain

4160-423: Was also collected in order to derive the Australian Height Datum. The distances between each successive tidal gauge varied significantly around the country, with the smallest interval between Port Kembla to Camp Cove (128 km) and the largest interval between Point Lonsdale to Port Kembla (1,150 km). Sea level observations were conducted on an hourly basis from 1 January 1966 to 31 December 1968 for 29 of

4225-422: Was introduced in 1971 as the official vertical datum for Australia, and thereby serves as the benchmark to which all height measurements are referred. The Australian Height Datum is an amalgamation of decades of spirit levelling work conducted by numerous state and territory authorities across the country, and was corrected to align with the mean sea level observations of thirty tide gauges positioned around

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