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63-663: Possibly accompanied by smaller columns honouring of Diocletian's co-emperors . Rededicated to Phocas by Smaragdus , the Exarch of Italy , in 608 with an inscription and gilded statue of that augustus ; last addition to the Forum Romanum. The statue fell in an earthquake in 480. Rededicated to Anastasius I in 506 with a new bronze statue. Demolished 16th century; precise site in Theodoisus's Forum unknown. The statue fell in an earthquake in 740. Demolished 1719; only

126-573: A gold medallion from his reign depict the Emperor's bust in profile jugate with Sol Invictus, with the legend INVICTUS CONSTANTINUS . The official cults of Sol Invictus and Sol Invictus Mithras were popular amongst the soldiers of the Roman Army. Statuettes of Sol Invictus, carried by the standard-bearers, appear in three places in reliefs on the Arch of Constantine . Constantine's triumphal arch

189-527: A leader, speaking in unison under his command. Only Lactantius , a contemporary of Diocletian and a deep ideological opponent of the Diocletianic state, referred to the tetrarchs as a simple multiplicity of rulers. Much modern scholarship was written without the term. Although Edward Gibbon pioneered the description of the Diocletianic government as a "New Empire", he never used the term "tetrarchy"; neither did Theodor Mommsen . It did not appear in

252-497: A political monument alongside the older Roman triumphal arches , providing a lingering model for its successors to this day. The imperial capitals of Rome and Constantinople house the most ancient triumphal columns. All dimensions are given here in metres , though it was the Roman foot by which ancient architects determined the harmonious proportions of the columns, and which is thus crucial for understanding their design. The list

315-555: A popular notion of Constantine seeing the Chi-Rho sign on the evening before the battle. Both authors agree that the sign was not widely understandable to denote Christ (although among the Christians, it was already being used in the catacombs along with other special symbols to mark and/or decorate Christian tombs). Its first imperial appearance is on a Constantinian silver coin from c. 317, which proves that Constantine did use

378-602: A port on the Adriatic coast, and Eboracum (modern York , in northern England near the Celtic tribes of modern Scotland and Ireland), were also significant centres for Maximian and Constantius respectively. In terms of regional jurisdiction there was no precise division among the four tetrarchs, and this period did not see the Roman state actually split up into four distinct sub-empires. Each emperor had his zone of influence within

441-620: A praetorian prefecture), see Roman province . In the West, the augustus Maximian controlled the provinces west of the Adriatic Sea and the Syrtis , and within that region his caesar , Constantius, controlled Gaul and Britain. In the East, the arrangements between the augustus Diocletian and his caesar , Galerius, were much more flexible. Although power was shared in the tetrarchic system,

504-413: A quarter of a kingdom as they saw fit; the Diocletianic tetrarchy was a college led by a single supreme leader. When later authors described the period, this is what they emphasized: Ammianus had Constantius II admonish Gallus for disobedience by appealing to the example in submission set by Diocletian's lesser colleagues; his successor Julian compared the Diocletianic tetrarchs to a chorus surrounding

567-476: A skillful general, Constantine first launched his cavalry at the cavalry of Maxentius and broke them. Constantine's infantry then advanced; most of Maxentius's troops fought well but they began to be pushed back toward the Tiber. Maxentius then decided to order a retreat, intending to make another stand at Rome itself. However, there was only one escape route, via the bridge. Constantine's men inflicted heavy losses on

630-598: A vision sent by the Christian God. This was interpreted as a promise of victory if the sign of the Chi Rho , the first two letters of Christ's name in Greek, was painted on the soldiers' shields. The Arch of Constantine , erected in celebration of the victory, certainly attributes Constantine's success to divine intervention; however, the monument does not display any overtly Christian symbolism. The underlying causes of

693-517: A vision which led him to fight under the protection of the Christian God. Some details of that vision, however, differ between the sources reporting it. Lactantius states that, in the night before the battle, Constantine was commanded in a dream to "delineate the heavenly sign on the shields of his soldiers" ( On the Deaths of the Persecutors 44.5). He followed the commands of his dream and marked

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756-480: Is divided among four individuals. Although the term "tetrarch" was current in antiquity, it was never used in the imperial college (as it's often called) under Diocletian. Instead, the term was used to describe independent portions of a kingdom that were ruled under separate leaders. The tetrarchy of Judaea , established after the death of Herod the Great , is the most famous example of the antique tetrarchy. The term

819-563: Is sorted by date of erection. Part of this page is based on the article Siegessäule in the German-language Misplaced Pages . Tetrarchy The Tetrarchy was the system instituted by Roman emperor Diocletian in 293 AD to govern the ancient Roman Empire by dividing it between two emperors, the augusti , and their junior colleagues and designated successors, the caesares . Initially Diocletian chose Maximian as his caesar in 285, raising him to co- augustus

882-734: The Milvian Bridge , a stone bridge that carries the Via Flaminia road across the Tiber River into Rome (the bridge stands today at the same site, somewhat remodelled, named in Italian Ponte Milvio or sometimes Ponte Molle , "soft bridge"). Holding it was essential if Maxentius was to keep his rival out of Rome, where the Senate would surely favour whoever held the city. As Maxentius had probably partially destroyed

945-658: The Temple of Romulus and the Basilica of Maxentius . Maxentius' strongest supporters in the military were neutralized when the Praetorian Guard and Imperial Horse Guard ( equites singulares ) were disbanded. Constantine is thought to have replaced the former imperial guards with a number of cavalry units termed the Scholae Palatinae . Paul K. Davis writes, "Constantine’s victory gave him total control of

1008-456: The Lord prevailed, and the forces of Maxentius were routed. He fled towards the broken bridge; but the multitude pressing on him, he was driven headlong into the Tiber." Constantine entered Rome on 29 October. He staged a grand arrival ceremony in the city ( adventus ) , and was met with popular jubilation. Maxentius' body was fished out of the Tiber and decapitated. His head was paraded through

1071-732: The Milvian Bridge 350–353 Late period The Battle of the Milvian Bridge took place between the Roman Emperors Constantine I and Maxentius on 28 October AD 312. It takes its name from the Milvian Bridge , an important route over the Tiber . Constantine won the battle and started on the path that led him to end the Tetrarchy and become the sole ruler of the Roman Empire . Maxentius drowned in

1134-523: The Roman Empire, but little more, mainly high command in a 'war theater'. Each tetrarch was himself often in the field, while delegating most of the administration to the hierarchic bureaucracy headed by his respective praetorian prefect , each supervising several vicarii , the governors-general in charge of another, lasting new administrative level, the civil diocese . For a listing of the provinces, now known as eparchy , within each quarter (known as

1197-542: The Tetrarchy a number of important military victories were secured. Both the dyarchic and the tetrarchic system ensured that an emperor was near to every crisis area to personally direct and remain in control of campaigns simultaneously on more than just one front. After suffering a defeat by the Persians in 296, Galerius crushed Narseh in 298—reversing a series of Roman defeats throughout the century—capturing members of

1260-426: The Tiber during the battle; his body was later taken from the river and decapitated, and his head was paraded through the streets of Rome on the day following the battle before being taken to Africa. According to Christian chroniclers Eusebius of Caesarea and Lactantius , the battle marked the beginning of Constantine's conversion to Christianity . Eusebius of Caesarea recounts that Constantine and his soldiers had

1323-975: The West and Licinius in the East. The tetrarchic system was at an end, although it took until 324 for Constantine to finally defeat Licinius, reunite the two halves of the Roman Empire and declare himself sole augustus . ( Whole, then East ) Galerius ( caesar , 1 March 293) Constantius I ( caesar , 1 March 293) ( West ) 28 October 306 – 11 November 308 (2 years and 14 days) Galerius ( caesar , 21 March 293) Constantius I ( caesar , 1 March 293) Maxentius (co- augustus , 306–308) Constantine I (rival augustus , 25 July 306; co- augustus , 307) ( East ) Maximian ( augustus , 21 March 293–1 May 305) Constantius I ( caesar , 1 March 293; co- augustus , 1 May 305–25 July 306) Severus II ( caesar , 1 May 305; co- augustus , August 306–April 307) Maxentius ( caesar , 28 October 306; junior co- augustus , April 307–May 311) Licinius (designated augustus for

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1386-549: The West, 11 November 308–311) Maximinus II ( caesar , 1 May 305; co- augustus , 1 May 310–early May 311) ( West ) Maximian ( augustus , 1 April 286–1 May 305) Galerius ( caesar , 21 March 293; co- augustus , 1 May 305–25 July 306) Severus II ( caesar , 1 May 305 –July 306) Maximinus II ( caesar , 1 May 305–25 July 306) ( West ) Maxentius (rival augustus , 306–307; co- augustus ; 308) Licinius (rival augustus , 308–310; co- augustus , 310–316; rival, 316–324) Battle of

1449-695: The Western Roman Empire paving the way for Christianity to become the dominant religion for the Roman Empire and ultimately for Europe." The following year, 313, Constantine and Licinius issued the Edict of Milan , which made Christianity an officially recognised and tolerated religion in the Roman Empire. The most important ancient sources for the battle are Lactantius , De mortibus persecutorum 44; Eusebius of Caesarea , Ecclesiastical History ix, 9 and Life of Constantine i, 28–31 (the vision) and i, 38 (the actual battle); Zosimus ii, 15–16; and

1512-399: The apparition, but in the following night he had a dream in which Christ explained to him that he should use the sign against his enemies. Eusebius then continues to describe the labarum , the military standard used by Constantine in his later wars against Licinius , showing the Chi-Rho sign. The accounts of the two contemporary authors, though not entirely consistent, have been merged into

1575-659: The base, c. 10.5 m, survives. (present) Destroyed before the 1540s; fragments remain in the grounds of the Topkapı Palace . The imperial statue on top may survive in Italy as the Colossus of Barletta . Column's bronze sheath removed after the Fourth Crusade's 1204 Sack of Constantinople . Statue removed soon after 1453 Fall of Constantinople . Toppled by Ottomans in 1515. Socle and statue destroyed in 1529. Of

1638-729: The battle were the rivalries inherent in Diocletian 's Tetrarchy . After Diocletian stepped down on 1 May 305, his successors began to struggle for control of the Roman Empire almost immediately. Although Constantine was the son of the Western Emperor Constantius , the Tetrarchic ideology did not necessarily provide for hereditary succession. When Constantius died on 25 July 306, his father's troops proclaimed Constantine as Augustus in Eboracum ( York ). In Rome,

1701-426: The belief that the Christian God helped Constantine but does not mention any vision. In his later Life of Constantine , Eusebius gives a detailed account of a vision and stresses that he had heard the story from the Emperor himself. According to this version, Constantine with his army was marching (Eusebius does not specify the actual location of the event, but it clearly is not in the camp at Rome), when he looked up to

1764-399: The bridge during his preparations for a siege, he had a wooden or pontoon bridge constructed to get his army across the river. The sources vary as to the nature of the bridge central to the events of the battle. Zosimus mentions it, vaguely, as being constructed in two parts connected by iron fastenings, while others indicate that it was a pontoon bridge; sources are also unclear as to whether

1827-498: The bridge was deliberately constructed as a collapsible trap for Constantine's forces or not. The next day, the two armies clashed, and Constantine won a decisive victory. The dispositions of Maxentius may have been faulty as his troops seem to have been arrayed with the River Tiber too close to their rear, giving them little space to allow re-grouping in the event of their formations being forced to give ground. Already known as

1890-476: The claimants to the imperial office died or were killed in various civil wars. Constantine forced Maximian's suicide in 310. Galerius died naturally in 311. Maxentius was defeated by Constantine at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312 and subsequently killed. Maximinus committed suicide at Tarsus in 313 after being defeated in battle by Licinius. By 313, therefore, there remained only two rulers: Constantine in

1953-632: The coins indicate which one of the four emperors is being shown. The Byzantine sculpture Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs shows the tetrarchs again with identical features and wearing the same military costume. One of the greatest problems facing emperors in the Third Century Crisis was that they were only ever able to personally command troops on one front at any one time. While Aurelian and Probus were prepared to accompany their armies thousands of miles between war regions, this

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2016-434: The columns listed above, the following are the Roman columns. Roman triumphal columns were either monolithic pillars or composed of column drums; in the later case, these were often hollowed out to accommodate an ancient spiral staircase leading up to the platform on top. The earliest triumphal column was Trajan's Column which, dedicated in 113 AD, defined its architectural form and established its symbolic value as

2079-552: The day of the battle was the same as the day of his accession (28 October), which was generally thought to be a good omen. Additionally, Maxentius is reported to have consulted the oracular Sibylline Books , which stated that "on October 28 an enemy of the Romans would perish". Maxentius interpreted this prophecy as being favourable to himself. Lactantius also reports that the populace supported Constantine with acclamations during circus games. Maxentius chose to make his stand in front of

2142-536: The eastern regions of the empire while Maximian similarly took charge of the western regions. In 293, Diocletian thought that more focus was needed on both civic and military problems, so with Maximian's consent, he expanded the imperial college by appointing two caesares (one responsible to each augustus )— Galerius and Constantius I . In 305, the senior emperors jointly abdicated and retired, allowing Constantius and Galerius to be elevated in rank to augustus . They in turn appointed two new caesares — Severus II in

2205-522: The eastern steppes) at the Rhine and Danube . These centres are known as the tetrarchic capitals. Although Rome ceased to be an operational capital, Rome continued to be nominal capital of the entire Roman Empire, not reduced to the status of a province but under its own, unique Prefect of the city ( praefectus urbi , later copied in Constantinople). The four tetrarchic capitals were: Aquileia ,

2268-663: The favorite was Maxentius, the son of Constantius' imperial colleague Maximian , who seized the title of emperor on 28 October 306. But whereas Constantine's claim was recognized by Galerius , ruler of the Eastern provinces and the senior emperor in the Empire, Maxentius was treated as a usurper. Galerius, however, recognized Constantine as holding only the lesser imperial rank of Caesar. Galerius ordered his co-Augustus, Severus , to put Maxentius down in early 307. Once Severus arrived in Italy, however, his army defected to Maxentius. Severus

2331-718: The following year; Maximian was to govern the western provinces and Diocletian would administer the eastern ones. The role of the augustus was likened to Jupiter , while his caesar was akin to Jupiter's son Hercules . Galerius and Constantius were appointed caesares in March 293. Diocletian and Maximian retired on 1 May 305, raising Galerius and Constantius to the rank of augustus . Their places as caesares were in turn taken by Valerius Severus and Maximinus Daza . The orderly system of two senior and two junior rulers endured until Constantius died in July 306, and his son Constantine

2394-629: The imperial household and a substantial amount of booty and gaining a highly favourable peace treaty, which secured peace between the two powers for a generation. Similarly, Constantius defeated the British usurper Allectus , Maximian pacified the Gauls, and Diocletian crushed the revolt of Domitianus in Egypt . When in 305 the 20-year term of Diocletian and Maximian ended, both abdicated. Their caesares , Galerius and Constantius Chlorus, were both raised to

2457-558: The literature until used in 1887 by schoolmaster Hermann Schiller in a two-volume handbook on the Roman Empire ( Geschichte der Römischen Kaiserzeit ), to wit: " die diokletianische Tetrarchie ". Even so, the term did not catch on in the literature until Otto Seeck used it in 1897. The first phase, sometimes referred to as the diarchy ("rule of two"), involved the designation of the general Maximian as co-emperor—firstly as caesar (heir apparent) in 285, followed by his promotion to augustus in 286. Diocletian took care of matters in

2520-641: The occasion are still extant. It was expected that Maxentius would remain within Rome and endure a siege; he had successfully employed this strategy twice before, during the invasions of Severus and Galerius. Indeed, Maxentius had organised the stockpiling of large amounts of food in the city in preparation for such an event. Surprisingly, he decided otherwise, choosing to meet Constantine in open battle. Ancient sources commenting on these events attribute this decision either to divine intervention (e.g. Lactantius, Eusebius) or superstition (e.g. Zosimus). They also note that

2583-410: The place which they had chosen for combat." Maxentius was among the dead, having drowned in the river while trying to swim across it in an attempt to escape or, alternatively, he is described as having been thrown by his horse into the river. Lactantius describes the death of Maxentius in the following manner: "The bridge in his rear was broken down. At sight of that the battle grew hotter. The hand of

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2646-528: The position of caesar to Severus. At the same time, Maxentius , the son of Maximian, resented being left out of the new arrangements, so he rebelled against and defeated Severus before forcing him to abdicate and then arranging his murder in 307. Maxentius and Maximian both then declared themselves augusti . By 308 there were therefore no fewer than four claimants to the rank of augustus (Galerius, Constantine, Maximian and Maxentius), and only one to that of caesar (Maximinus Daza). In 308 Galerius, together with

2709-427: The promotion of the augustus Licinius as their superior. After an abortive attempt to placate both Constantine and Maximinus with the meaningless title filius augusti ("son of the augustus ", essentially an alternative title for caesar ), they both had to be recognised as Augusti in 309. However, four full Augusti all at odds with each other did not bode well for the tetrarchic system. Between 309 and 313 most of

2772-408: The public image of the four members of the imperial college was carefully managed to give the appearance of a united empire ( patrimonium indivisum ). This was especially important after the numerous civil wars of the 3rd century . The tetrarchs appeared identical in all official portraits. Coinage dating from the tetrarchic period depicts every emperor with identical features—only the inscriptions on

2835-455: The rank of augustus , and two new caesares were appointed: Maximinus Daza ( caesar to Galerius) and Valerius Severus ( caesar to Constantius). These four formed the second tetrarchy. However, the system broke down very quickly thereafter. When Constantius died in 306, Constantine , Constantius' son, was proclaimed augustus by his father's troops; however, Galerius instead chose to promote Severus to augustus while granting Constantine

2898-700: The retired emperor Diocletian and the supposedly retired Maximian, called an imperial "conference" at Carnuntum on the River Danube. The council agreed that Licinius would become augustus in the West, with Constantine as his caesar . In the East, Galerius remained augustus and Maximinus remained his caesar . Maximian was to retire, and Maxentius was declared a usurper. This agreement proved disastrous: by 308 Maxentius had become de facto ruler of Italy and Africa even without any imperial status, and neither Constantine nor Maximinus—who had both been caesares since 306 and 305 respectively—were prepared to tolerate

2961-495: The retreating army. Finally, the temporary bridge set up alongside the Milvian Bridge, over which many of the Maxentian troops were escaping, collapsed, and those stranded on the north bank of the Tiber were either taken prisoner or killed. Maxentius' Praetorian Guard , who had originally acclaimed him emperor, seem to have made a stubborn stand on the northern bank of the river; "in despair of pardon they covered with their bodies

3024-485: The shields with a sign "denoting Christ". Lactantius describes that sign as a "staurogram", or a Latin cross with its upper end rounded in a P-like fashion. There is no certain evidence that Constantine ever used that sign, opposed to the better known Chi-Rho sign described by Eusebius. From Eusebius, two accounts of the battle survive. The first, shorter one in the Ecclesiastical History promotes

3087-549: The sign at that time, though not very prominently. He made more extensive use of the Chi-Rho and the Labarum later, during the conflict with Licinius. Some have considered the vision in a solar context (e.g. as a solar halo phenomenon called a sun dog ), which may have preceded the Christian beliefs later expressed by Constantine. Coins of Constantine depicting him as the companion of a solar deity were minted as late as 313,

3150-430: The spring of 312, Constantine gathered an army of 40,000 soldiers and decided to oust Maxentius himself. He easily overran northern Italy, winning two major battles: the first near Turin , the second at Verona , where the praetorian prefect Ruricius Pompeianus , Maxentius' most senior general, was killed. It is commonly understood that on the evening of 27 October with the armies preparing for battle, Constantine had

3213-536: The streets for all to see. After the ceremonies, Maxentius' head was sent to Carthage as proof of his downfall; Africa then offered no further resistance. The battle gave Constantine undisputed control of the western half of the Roman Empire. The descriptions of Constantine's entry into Rome omit mention of him ending his procession at the temple of Capitoline Jupiter, where sacrifice was usually offered. Though often employed to show Constantine's Christian sensibilities, this silence cannot be taken as proof that Constantine

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3276-460: The sun and saw a cross of light above it, and with it the Greek words " Ἐν Τούτῳ Νίκα", En toutōi níka , usually translated into Latin as " in hoc signo vinces ". The literal meaning of the phrase in Greek is "in this (sign), conquer" while in Latin it's "in this sign, you shall conquer"; a more free translation would be "Through this sign [you shall] conquer". At first he was unsure of the meaning of

3339-483: The tetrarchic system lasted until c. 324, when mutually destructive civil wars eliminated most of the claimants to power: Licinius resigned as augustus after losing the Battle of Chrysopolis , leaving Constantine in control of the entire empire. The Constantinian dynasty 's emperors retained some aspects of collegiate rule; Constantine appointed his son Constantius II as another caesar in 324, followed by Constans in 333 and his nephew Dalmatius in 335, and

3402-630: The three surviving sons of Constantine in 337 were declared joint augusti together, and the concept of the division of the empire under multiple joint emperors endured until the Fall of the Western Roman Empire . In the Eastern Roman Empire , augusti and caesares continued to be appointed sporadically. The term tetrarchy (from the Greek : τετραρχία , tetrarchia , "leadership of four [people]") describes any form of government where power

3465-428: The west in 308 and elevated Maximinus Daza to augustus in 310. Constantine's victory over Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312 left him in control of the western part of the empire, while Licinius was left in control of the east on the death of Maximinus Daza. Constantine and Licinius jointly recognized their sons – Crispus , Constantine II , and Licinius II – as caesares in March 317. Ultimately

3528-416: The west under Constantius, and Maximinus in the east under Galerius—thereby creating the second Tetrarchy. The four tetrarchs based themselves not at Rome but in other cities closer to the frontiers, mainly intended as headquarters for the defence of the empire against bordering rivals (notably Sassanian Persia ) and barbarians (mainly Germanic, and an unending sequence of nomadic or displaced tribes from

3591-589: The year following the battle. The solar deity Sol Invictus is often pictured with a nimbus or halo. Various emperors portrayed Sol Invictus on their official coinage, with a wide range of legends, only a few of which incorporated the epithet invictus , such as the legend SOLI INVICTO COMITI , claiming the Unconquered Sun as a companion to the emperor, used with particular frequency by Constantine. Constantine's official coinage continues to bear images of Sol until 325/6. A solidus of Constantine as well as

3654-504: Was a Christian at this point. He chose to honour the Senatorial Curia with a visit, where he promised to restore its ancestral privileges and give it a secure role in his reformed government: there would be no revenge against Maxentius' supporters. Maxentius was condemned to damnatio memoriae ; all his legislation was invalidated and Constantine usurped all of Maxentius' considerable building projects within Rome, including

3717-414: Was captured, imprisoned, and executed. Galerius himself marched on Rome in the autumn, but failed to take the city. Constantine avoided conflict with both Maxentius and the Eastern emperors for most of this period. By 312, however, Constantine and Maxentius were engaged in open hostility with one another, although they were brothers-in‑law through Constantine's marriage to Fausta , sister of Maxentius. In

3780-490: Was carefully positioned to align with the colossal statue of Sol by the Colosseum , so that Sol formed the dominant backdrop when seen from the direction of the main approach towards the arch. Constantine reached Rome at the end of October 312 approaching along the Via Flaminia . He camped at the location of Malborghetto near Prima Porta , where remains of a Constantinian monument, the Arch of Malborghetto , in honour of

3843-439: Was not an ideal solution. Furthermore, it was risky for an emperor to delegate power in his absence to a subordinate general, who might win a victory and then be proclaimed as a rival emperor himself by his troops (which often happened). All members of the imperial college, on the other hand, were of essentially equal rank, despite two being senior emperors and two being junior; their functions and authorities were also equal. Under

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3906-514: Was understood in the Latin world as well, where Pliny the Elder glossed it as follows: "each is the equivalent of a kingdom, and also part of one" ( regnorum instar singulae et in regna contribuuntur ). As used by the ancients, the term describes not only different governments, but also a different system of government from the Diocletianic arrangements. The Judaean tetrarchy was a set of four independent and distinct states, where each tetrarch ruled

3969-405: Was unilaterally acclaimed augustus and caesar by his father's army. Maximian's son Maxentius contested Severus' title, styled himself princeps invictus , and was appointed caesar by his retired father in 306. Severus surrendered to Maximian and Maxentius in 307. Maxentius and Constantine were both recognized as augusti by Maximian that same year. Galerius appointed Licinius augustus for

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