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119-714: At a January 28, 1969, meeting of the National Security Council , General Andrew Goodpaster , deputy to General Creighton Abrams and commander of the Military Assistance Command, Vietnam , stated that the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) had been steadily improving, and the point at which the war could be "de-Americanized" was close. Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird agreed with

238-625: A NATO or Warsaw Pact level of proficiency. In a postwar interview with the RAND Corporation , Nguyễn Bá Cẩn said: "Vietnamese officials called Vietnamization the U.S. Dollar and Vietnam Blood Sharing Plan." United States National Security Council The United States National Security Council ( NSC ) is the national security council used by the president of the United States for consideration of national security , military, and foreign policy matters. Based in

357-640: A Communist attempt to take Cambodia, Nixon announced a large scale U.S.–ARVN incursion into Cambodia to directly hit the PAVN headquarters and supply dumps ; the area bordered ARVN III Corps tactical zone . The campaign began on May 1. The U.S. Task Force Shoemaker, of the 1st Cavalry Divisions , carried out B-52 strikes in the Fishhook area of Cambodia . T.F. Shoemaker operated with the ARVN Airborne Brigade. Separate ARVN operations took place in

476-778: A Navy admiral based in Honolulu , through his subordinate, the Air Force commander of Pacific Air Forces ( PACAF ). Due to their influence, the Navy could not be persuaded to integrate its air operations over North Vietnam with those of the Air Force. General William W. Momyer , commander of the Seventh, had the impression that CINCPAC and PACAF wanted to keep the Thai-based aircraft out of his hands. "By denying Momyer, they were really denying Westmoreland and keeping air operations against

595-485: A cable to US Ambassador to South Vietnam Maxwell Taylor , Johnson stressed that the paramount goal of a bombing campaign would be to boost Saigon's morale, not to influence Hanoi, expressing hope "that the building of a minimum government will benefit by ... assurances from us to the highest levels [of the South Vietnamese government] that we ... intend to take continuing action." Questions then arose among

714-459: A criterion system considering: (a) reducing North Vietnamese support of communist operations in Laos and South Vietnam, (b) limiting North Vietnamese capabilities to take direct action against Laos and South Vietnam, and finally (c) impairing North Vietnam's capacity to continue as an industrially viable state. There was widespread concern that an air campaign could lead to a wider conflict involving

833-456: A domestic level. He had been elected with 43.4% of the votes , and Laird was concerned with his support at home. Indeed, he could sense the impatience of the American public regarding the war. Nixon himself believed American casualties reduced the support for the war. For members of his administration, a campaign of attrition was useless against an Asian power, because they were able to tolerate

952-533: A dominant role in their areas. Other ARVN units faced more of a challenge. For example, the ARVN 5th Division was directed to move from its existing base camp, Phu Cuong, to that of the U.S. 1st Infantry Division in Lai Khê , while the U.S. division moved southeast to Dĩ An . The ARVN unit had to retain its previous operational responsibility, while replacing a division that was far better equipped with helicopters than

1071-636: A greater number of casualties compared to a Western power. On the left, Senator Fulbright , chairman of the Foreign Relations committee, feared Vietnamization would not be enough to reduce the numbers of casualties: My fear is that the current policy will keep the US bogged down in Vietnam – with the killing and cost continuing indefinitely. Nixon directed the Joint Chiefs of Staff to prepare

1190-674: A key role in most major events in U.S. foreign policy , from the Korean War to the War on Terror. The NSC has counterparts in the national security councils of many other nations. The immediate predecessor to the National Security Council was the National Intelligence Authority (NIA), which was established by President Harry S. Truman 's Executive Letter of January 22, 1946, to oversee

1309-613: A more flexible position". Dobrynin expressed the Soviet position that the U.S. needed to stop trying to divide the Paris Peace Talks into two parts: Dobrynin, however, misunderstood the extent to which the U.S. was willing to apply military force not involving ground troops, culminating in Operation Linebacker II . The process of Vietnamization was partly influenced by Nixon’s delicate political position on

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1428-528: A more moderate target list, which the Joint Chiefs opposed. No action was taken while these, and other, plans were considered. But matters came to a head with the attack on Camp Holloway on 7 February 1965, which demanded immediate action, and resulted in a reprisal raid known as Operation Flaming Dart . A sapper raid against an American enlisted men's billet at Qui Nhon on the 10th led to Flaming Dart II. These small-scale operations were launched against

1547-653: A neutralist while aware of the PAVN use of his country. In June 1969, the Viet Cong and its allied organizations formed the Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam (PRG), recognized by Hanoi as the legal government of South Vietnam. At that time, communist losses dating from the Tet Offensive numbered 75,000, and morale was faltering, even among the party leadership. On April 30, 1970, responding to

1666-553: A one-time strike was authorized against two missile sites. The sites were traps with dummies defended by anti-aircraft artillery (AAA). Six strike aircraft were destroyed, with two pilots killed, one missing, two captured, and one rescued. A U.S. pilot described the action as "looking like the end of the world." On 29 June 1965, airstrikes against the North's petroleum, oil, and lubricants (POL) storage areas were authorized by Johnson. The American military had advocated such strikes since

1785-550: A river bed after running short of fuel. A repeat the next day resulted in a classic dogfight with F-100 Super Sabres and F-105s fighting with more MiG-17s. In total, the USAF lost eleven aircraft to air and ground forces, while the VPAF lost three of their fighters. The entire complexion of the American effort was altered on 8 March 1965, when 3,500 U.S. Marines came ashore at Da Nang , ostensibly to defend Da Nang Air Base which

1904-717: A sanctuary by North Vietnam forces. The orders for U.S. bombing of Cambodia were classified, and thus kept from the U.S. media and Congress. In a given strike, each B-52 normally dropped 42,000 lb (19,000 kg) of bombs, and each strike consisted of three or six bombers. Much of North Vietnamese infiltration went through Cambodia. Nixon authorized unacknowledged bombing in Cambodia while U.S. ground troops were in South Vietnam. General Lon Nol had overthrown Prince Norodom Sihanouk in March 1970, who had presented himself as

2023-522: A short-term inconvenience for North Vietnam, however, since Hanoi had anticipated just such a campaign and had during that time dispersed the majority of its POL stocks in 190-litre (50 US gal) drums across the length of the country. The POL attacks were halted on 4 September, after U.S. intelligence admitted that there was "no evidence yet of any shortages of POL in North Vietnam." By 24 December 1965, 180 U.S. aircraft had been lost during

2142-537: A six-step withdrawal plan. The Commandant of the Marine Corps General Leonard F. Chapman Jr. remembered, "I felt, and I think that most Marines felt, that the time had come to get out of Vietnam." Leading the ground force withdrawals, Marine redeployments started in mid-1969 , and by the end of the year the entire 3rd Marine Division had departed. In the aftermath of the Tet Offensive, ARVN units were able to take control of areas held by

2261-557: A small nation like North Vietnam, with a tiny industrial base that was just emerging after the First Indochina War , would be reluctant to risk its new-found economic viability to support the insurgency in the south. Constantly affecting this decision-making process were fears of possible counter moves or outright intervention by the Soviet Union, China, or both. The civilians and the military were divided, however, on

2380-521: A standard U.S. division. At Phu Cong, Major General Nguyen Van Hieu , the 5th Division commander, was able to use a local Popular Force battalion for base security. The Popular Force battalions, however, did not move away from the area in which they were formed. In 1969, Nixon ordered B-52 strikes against the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) bases and supply routes in Cambodia , which had been used as

2499-496: Is known the crash was at low altitude; it has been argued it had crashed due to mechanical failure or enemy fire. Certainly, mechanical failure was less demoralizing. The 25,000-man ARVN force, which U.S. planners had considered half the necessary size, took admitted 25% casualties, which some estimates put as high as 50%. By the beginning of 1972, over 400,000 U.S. personnel had been withdrawn, most of whom were combat troops. Politically, this allowed Nixon to negotiate with China and

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2618-1063: The Attorney General , the Secretary of Energy , the Secretary of Homeland Security , the White House Chief of Staff , the Director of National Intelligence , the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency , the Homeland Security Advisor , and the United States Ambassador to the United Nations . The White House Counsel , the Deputy Counsel to

2737-1321: The Deputy Secretary of Energy , the Deputy Secretary of Homeland Security , the Deputy Director of the Office of Management and Budget , the Deputy Director of National Intelligence , the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , the National Security Advisor to the Vice President, the Administrator of the United States Agency for International Development , and the Deputy Director of the Central Intelligence Agency . Invitations to participate in or attend specific meetings are extended to Deputy or Under Secretary level of executive departments and agencies and to other senior officials when relevant issues are discussed. The Executive Secretary and

2856-542: The Disposition Matrix database, has described the Obama Administration targeted killing policy by stating that "in order to ensure that our counterterrorism operations involving the use of lethal force are legal, ethical, and wise, President Obama has demanded that we hold ourselves to the highest possible standards and processes". Reuters reported that Anwar al-Awlaki , an American citizen,

2975-622: The Nixon administration, Henry Kissinger , Nixon's chief adviser, asked the Rand Corporation to provide a list of policy options, prepared by Daniel Ellsberg . On receiving the report, Kissinger and Schelling asked Ellsberg about the apparent absence of a victory option; Ellsberg said "I don't believe there is a win option in Vietnam." While Ellsberg eventually did send a withdrawal option, Kissinger would not circulate something that could be perceived as defeat, though privately, he realized

3094-486: The Parrot's Beak area . III Corps tactical zone commander Do Cao Tri , the most visible ARVN leader, encouraged the deepest ARVN penetrations. The incursion prevented the immediate takeover of Cambodia by Pol Pot and his Khmer Rouge , and cost the PAVN the supply line from the port of Sihanoukville. The Khmer Rouge broke with its North Vietnamese sponsors, and aligned with China. This made American involvement visible to

3213-637: The Secretary of Commerce , the United States Trade Representative , and the Assistant to the President for Economic Policy. The National Security Council Deputies Committee is the senior sub-Cabinet interagency forum for consideration of national security policy issues. The Deputies Committee is also responsible for reviewing and monitoring the interagency national security process including for establishing and directing

3332-621: The Soviet Union in light of the tension between the Soviet Union and the United States. The intent was to ensure coordination and concurrence among the Army , Marine Corps , Navy , Air Force and other instruments of national security policy such as the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), also created in the National Security Act. In 2004, the position of Director of National Intelligence (DNI)

3451-532: The Soviet Union , the People's Republic of China and North Korea . The operation became the most intense air/ground battle waged during the Cold War period; it was the most difficult such campaign fought by the United States since the aerial bombardment of Germany during World War II . Supported by its communist allies, North Vietnam fielded a potent mixture of MiG fighter-interceptor jets and sophisticated air-to-air and surface-to-air weapons that created one of

3570-613: The United States Department of Justice . [REDACTED]  This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the U.S. Government Publishing Office . [REDACTED]  This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the Congressional Research Service . Operation Rolling Thunder U.S. : 1,054 killed, wounded or captured 922 aircraft shotdown (excluding

3689-596: The Viet Cong . General Tran Van Tra of the Viet Cong forces in the South stated: We suffered large sacrifices and losses with regard to manpower and materiel, especially cadres at the various echelons, which clearly weakened us. Afterwards, we were not only unable to retain the gains we had made but had to overcome a myriad of difficulties in 1969 and 1970. Some ARVN units, especially that had been operating closely with U.S. troops or using facilities, could quickly move into

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3808-667: The Vietcong (VC), who were fighting an insurgency to topple the American-supported Saigon government. To combat the VC and to shore up the government in the south, the U.S. initially delivered monetary aid, military advisors, and supplies. Between 1957 and 1963, the U.S. found itself committed, through its acceptance of the policy of containment and belief in the domino theory , to defending South Vietnam from what it saw as expansive communist aggression. U.S. policy

3927-677: The White House , it is part of the Executive Office of the President of the United States , and composed of senior national security advisors and Cabinet officials. Since its inception in 1947 by President Harry S. Truman , the function of the Council has been to advise and assist the president on national security and foreign policies. It also serves as the president's principal arm for coordinating these policies among various government agencies. The Council has subsequently played

4046-476: The communist insurgency in South Vietnam without sending ground forces into communist North Vietnam; to destroy North Vietnam's transportation system, industrial base, and air defenses; and to halt the flow of men and materiel into South Vietnam. Attainment of these objectives was made difficult by both the restraints imposed upon the U.S. and its allies by Cold War exigencies, and the military aid and assistance received by North Vietnam from its communist allies,

4165-724: The fall of Saigon and the subsequent merger of the north and south, to form the Socialist Republic of Vietnam . From 1950, after several years of the First Indochina War , French commanders adopted a policy they called "yellowing" ( jaunissement ), expressly to minimize white casualties. This change, at the time, was mostly due to a deficit of troops in the FTEO, the Far-East segment of the French army. Vietnamese soldiers were progressively integrated in battalions. U.S. critics of

4284-405: The secretary of homeland security (non-statutory), and the representative of the United States to the United Nations (non-statutory). The chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff is the military advisor to the Council, the director of national intelligence is the intelligence advisor, and the director of national drug control policy is the drug control policy advisor. The chief of staff to

4403-478: The vice president (statutory), the secretary of state (statutory), the secretary of the treasury (statutory), the secretary of defense (statutory), the secretary of energy (statutory), the assistant to the president for national security affairs (non-statutory), the assistant to the president and director of the Office of Science and Technology Policy (non-statutory), the attorney general (non-statutory),

4522-577: The Air Force high command foresaw that the war would drag on for nearly a decade. The Air Force did possess an aircraft which had an all-weather capability, radar-guided bombing equipment and considerable destructive potential—the B-52 Stratofortress . The civilian administration, however, never considered utilizing the large bombers (whose operations remained under the control of the Strategic Air Command ) very far north of

4641-601: The CDC. In January 2021, the directorate was reinstated by President Joe Biden , who appointed Elizabeth Cameron as Senior Director for Global Health Security and Biodefense, a position she had previously held under the Obama administration and briefly under the Trump administration. During his presidential transition , President-elect Joe Biden announced the creation of the position of U.S. Special Presidential Envoy for Climate ,

4760-679: The Central Intelligence Group, the CIA's predecessor. The NIA was composed of the secretary of state , the secretary of war , the secretary of the navy , and the chief of staff to the commander in chief . The National Security Council was created in 1947 by the National Security Act . It was created because policymakers felt that the diplomacy of the State Department was no longer adequate to contain

4879-405: The Chinese or Soviets. Westmoreland referred to "an almost paranoid fear of nuclear confrontation with the Soviet Union" and a "phobia" that the Chinese would invade. Johnson later noted: By keeping a lid on all the designated targets, I knew I could keep the control of the war in my own hands. If China reacted to our slow escalation by threatening to retaliate, we'd have plenty of time to ease off

Vietnamization - Misplaced Pages Continue

4998-405: The DMZ, believing that it was too overt an escalation. Air Force Chief of Staff John P. McConnell also opposed sending the bombers into the air defense environment in the north and limited B-52 strikes to Route Package One. Compounding these issues was the one-year rotation policy adopted by the Pentagon in Southeast Asia. Although the first aircrews arriving in-theater were highly experienced,

5117-500: The DRV under their control." To complicate matters, the U.S. ambassadors to Thailand ( Graham Martin ) and Laos ( William H. Sullivan ) exerted undue influence over operational and command arrangements. This bizarre command structure went against the grain of the Air Force's single air manager concept, which dictated that one commander was to control and coordinate all aircraft within a combat theater. The chain through which operational strike requests had to flow gave some indication of

5236-448: The Deputy White House Counsel also attend. The relevant Senior Director on the National Security Council staff is also invited to attend when relevant. The Policy Coordination Committees of the National Security Council, established and directed by the Deputies Committee, are responsible for the management of the development and implementation of national security policies through interagency coordination. Policy Coordination Committees are

5355-410: The NSC when appropriate. The Principals Committee of the National Security Council is the Cabinet-level senior interagency forum for consideration of national security policy issues. The Principals Committee is convened and chaired by the National Security Advisor. The regular attendees of the Principals Committee are the Secretary of State , the Secretary of the Treasury , the Secretary of Defense ,

5474-506: The North Vietnamese to negotiate; a peace treaty was signed and all U.S. combat forces were withdrawn. The Armed Forces of the Republic of Vietnam had some excellent ground combat units, but still had very serious problems of command, control, and communications at division level and above. Many units had become overdependent on American air support, and, while the RVN Air Force had not developed large-scale interdiction capability, they were also of varied quality for close air support . Beyond

5593-401: The Policy Coordination Committees. The Deputies Committee is convened and chaired by the Deputy National Security Advisor or the Deputy Homeland Security Advisor. Regular members of the Deputies Committee are the Deputy National Security Advisor for Strategy, the Deputy Secretary of State , Deputy Secretary of the Treasury , the Deputy Secretary of Defense , the Deputy Attorney General ,

5712-439: The President for National Security Affairs, the Director of the Office of Management and Budget , the Deputy National Security Advisor , the Deputy National Security Advisor for Strategy, the National Security Advisor to the Vice President, and the NSC Executive Secretary may also attend all meetings of the Principals Committee. When considering international economic issues, the Principals Committee's regular attendees will include

5831-471: The Principals Committee (a subset of the full National Security Council), while at the same time altering the attendance of the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and director of national intelligence . According to "National Security Presidential Memorandum 2", the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and director of national intelligence were to only sit on the Principals Committee as and when matters pertaining to them arise, but will remain part of

5950-440: The Reorganization Plan, the Council was placed in the Executive Office of the President. The High Value Detainee Interrogation Group also reports to the NSC. One of the tasks of the National Security Council is to determine and identify people, including United States citizens who are deemed to be threats to national security and add them to a "kill list". In this case, no public record of this decision or any operation to kill

6069-430: The South Vietnamese in numbers, equipment, leadership and combat skills", while the second was "the extension of the pacification program [i.e. military aid to civilians] in South Vietnam". To achieve the first goal, U.S. helicopters would fly in support; however, helicopter operations were too much part of ground operations to involve U.S. personnel. Thus, ARVN candidates were enrolled in U.S. helicopter schools to take over

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6188-433: The Soviet Union without suggesting that he was compromising U.S. soldiers in the field. North Vietnam made a major conventional attack on the South , for which the U.S. provided major air support under Operation Linebacker I , which enabled the ARVN to regain substantial control. When North Vietnam, late in the year, left the negotiating table, Nixon authorized the destructive Operation Linebacker II campaign, which forced

6307-573: The Strategic Intelligence Section (SIS) of CRD. Henry Kissinger began secret talks with the North Vietnamese official, Lê Đức Thọ , in February 1970. However, this is credible. Subsequent congressional action banned further U.S. ground intervention outside the boundaries of South Vietnam, so the next major drive, Operation Lam Son 719 , would have to be based on ARVN ground forces, U.S. air and artillery support, and U.S. advisory and logistical assistance. The Vietnamization policy achieved limited rollback of Communist gains inside South Vietnam only, and

6426-437: The U.S. administration and military leadership as to the best method by which Hanoi (the perceived locus of the insurgency) could be dissuaded from its course of action. The answer seemed to lie in the application of air power. By 1964 most of the civilians surrounding President Lyndon B. Johnson shared the Joint Chiefs of Staff 's collective faith in the efficacy of strategic bombing to one degree or another. They reasoned that

6545-489: The U.S. and the communist leadership. In particular, Raymond Aubrac , an official of the World Health Organization , knew Ho Chi Minh and agreed to carry a message. After discussing the matter with Assistant Secretary of State William Bundy and Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara , a message was sent. Ho said he would be willing to negotiate if the U.S. bombing of North Vietnam under Operation Rolling Thunder ceased. Mai Van Bo, Hanoi's diplomatic representative in Paris,

6664-448: The U.S. population, and there were intense protests, including deaths in a confrontation between rock-throwing protesters and National Guardsmen at Kent State University. The U.S. intelligence collection systems, a significant amount of which (especially the techniques) were not shared with the ARVN, and, while not fully declassified, examples have been mentioned earlier in this article. The Communist side's intelligence operations, beyond

6783-425: The United States was in a difficult position and priorities needed to be set. According to a record, prepared by Soviet Ambassador to the United States Anatoliy Dobrynin , of discussions between Dobrynin and Kissinger, the crux of the U.S. position, was progress still must be made at the Paris talks and, for domestic political reasons, Nixon "simply cannot wait a year for Hanoi to decide to take some new step and take

6902-403: The air war turned out to be the Navy-developed AIM-9 Sidewinder and AIM-7 Sparrow , not its own AIM-4 Falcon . The Air Force continuously opposed adapting to the war in Southeast Asia, since its leadership believed that it was an aberration that would be quickly resolved. It could then turn its attention (and its more modern weapons) against the greater threat posed by the Soviet Union. None in

7021-469: The aircraft carriers of Task Force 77 , cruising off the North Vietnamese coast at Yankee Station . Naval aircraft, which had shorter ranges (and carried lighter bomb loads) than their air force counterparts, approached their targets from seaward with the majority of their strikes flown against coastal targets. On 3 April the Joint Chiefs persuaded McNamara and Johnson to launch a four-week attack on North Vietnam's lines of communication, which would isolate

7140-515: The bombing was halted; the U.S. had removed all of its troops from the south; the Saigon government recognized the demands of the VC, and it was agreed that the reunification of Vietnam would be settled by the Vietnamese themselves. As part of a large attack on the Thanh Hóa Bridge on 3 April, the VPAF first appeared as two flights of four Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17s launched from Noi Bai airbase and shot down an F-8 Crusader , while losing just one of their own aircraft, written off when it landed on

7259-456: The bombing. But this control—so essential for preventing World War III—would be lost the moment we unleashed a total assault on the North—for that would be rape rather than seduction—and then there would be no turning back. The Chinese reaction would be instant and total. For a time, no overt action was taken, and the plans continued to evolve. A further refinement of the plan was developed by William and McGeorge Bundy on 29 November 1964, with

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7378-411: The broader constellation of forces and the bigger world powers . Nixon had ordered Kissinger to negotiate diplomatic policies with Soviet statesman Anatoly Dobrynin . Nixon also opened high-level contact with China. U.S. relations with the Soviet Union and China were of higher priority than South Vietnam . Nixon said Vietnamization had two components. The first was "strengthening the armed force of

7497-483: The campaign (85 Air Force, 94 Navy and one Marine Corps). Eight RVNAF aircraft had also been lost. Air Force aircrews had flown 25,971 sorties and dropped 32,063 tons of bombs. Naval aviators had flown 28,168 sorties and dropped 11,144 tons. The RVNAF had contributed 682 missions with unknown ordnance tonnages. Rolling Thunder exposed many problems within the American military services committed to it and tended to exacerbate others. A key interservice issue (and one which

7616-412: The campaign, were also off-limits. Although some of these restrictions were later loosened or rescinded, Johnson (with McNamara's support) kept a tight rein on the campaign, which continuously infuriated the American military commanders, right-wing members of Congress, and even some within the administration itself. One of the primary objectives of the operation, at least to the military, should have been

7735-424: The closure of Haiphong and other ports by aerial mining, thereby slowing or halting the flow of seaborne supplies entering the north. Johnson refused to take such a provocative action, however, and such an operation was not implemented until 1972. There was also little consultation between Johnson and the military chiefs during the target selection process. Even the chairman of the Joint Chiefs, General Earle Wheeler ,

7854-467: The country from its overland sources of supply in China and the Soviet Union. About one-third of the North's imports came down the Hanoi–Lào Cai railway from China, while the remaining two-thirds came by sea through Haiphong and other ports. For the first time in the campaign, targets were to be chosen for their military, rather than their psychological, significance. During the four weeks, 26 bridges and seven ferries were destroyed. Other targets included

7973-459: The elimination of the office. The responsibilities that formerly belonged to the directorate, along with those of arms control and nonproliferation, and of weapons of mass destruction terrorism, were absorbed into a single new directorate, counterproliferation and biodefense, and assigned to Tim Morrison in July 2018 as director. Morrison characterized the consolidation as part of an overall NSC "reduction of force" and called it "specious" to say

8092-499: The end of 1965. Eventually, armed reconnaissance missions constituted 75 percent of the total bombing effort, in part because the system through which fixed targets were requested, selected, and authorized was so complicated and unwieldy. If Rolling Thunder was supposed to "send signals" to Hanoi to desist in its actions, it did not seem to be working. On 8 April, responding to requests for peace negotiations, North Vietnamese premier Pham Van Dong stated that they could only begin when:

8211-523: The extensive North Vietnamese radar system, barracks, and ammunition depots. The panhandle of southern North Vietnam remained the primary focus of operations, and total sorties flown there rose from 3,600 in April to 4,000 in May. Slowly moving away from the destruction of fixed targets, "armed reconnaissance" missions, in which small formations of aircraft patrolled highways, railroads, and rivers, searching for targets of opportunity, were authorized. These missions increased from two to 200 sorties per week by

8330-402: The full National Security Council. However, Chief of Staff Reince Priebus clarified the next day that they still are invited to attend meetings. With "National Security Presidential Memorandum 4" in April 2017, the director of national intelligence and the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff "shall" attend Principals Committee meetings and the director of the Central Intelligence Agency

8449-407: The growing overcomplexity of the campaign. Requests for airstrikes originated with the 2nd Air Division and Task Force 77 in Vietnam and then proceeded to CINCPAC, who in turn reported to his superiors, the Joint Chiefs, at the Pentagon . After input from the State Department and the CIA, the requests then proceeded to the White House , where the president and his "Tuesday Cabinet" made decisions on

8568-477: The inception of the operation, believing that to deny North Vietnam its POL would cause its military effort to grind to a halt. At first, the strikes appeared highly successful, destroying tank farms near Hanoi and Haiphong and leading the CIA to estimate that 70 percent of North Vietnam's oil facilities had been destroyed for the loss of 43 aircraft. The loss of the oil storage tank farms and refineries proved to be only

8687-541: The issue that the Air Force was always fragmented to the corps commanders, they also did not receive various expected equipment upgrades. Photoreconnaissance was extremely limited. Armored units had developed the greatest confidence in their ability to fight without U.S. air support. Ground commanders also learned that armored units were not for infantry support and static defenses, but needed to be used as mobile reserves. Neither North nor South Vietnam, however, had really mastered large-scale combined arms methods, compared to

8806-644: The main day-to-day for interagency coordination of national security policy development, implementation and analysis in aide of the Deputies Committee and the Principals Committee. Policy Coordination Committees are chaired by Senior Directors on the National Security Council staff, or sometimes National Economic Council staff, with Assistant Secretary-level officials from the relevant executive department or agency acting as co-chairs. The Directorate of Global Health Security and Biodefense

8925-742: The majority of the Air Force's strikes in North Vietnam), had a dual command structure. It reported to the Seventh on operational matters and to the Thirteenth Air Force (whose headquarters was in the Philippines ) for logistical and administrative concerns. These command and control complexities grew even more tangled with the division of the aerial effort into four competing operational areas (those in South Vietnam, North Vietnam, and Laos (both north and south). The Navy's Task Force 77 took its orders via 7th Fleet from CINCPAC ,

9044-535: The manner of affecting Hanoi's will to support the southern insurgency. The civilians thought in terms of changing the regime's behavior while the military men were more concerned with breaking its will. In August 1964, as a result of the Gulf of Tonkin Incident , in which U.S. naval vessels were attacked by North Vietnamese patrol boats, Johnson ordered retaliatory air strikes ( Operation Pierce Arrow ) launched against

9163-816: The material from Touchdown also gave insight into the North Vietnamese intelligence system. For example, the NVA equivalent of the Defense Intelligence Agency was the Central Research Directorate (CRD) in Hanoi. COSVN intelligence staff, however, disseminated the tactically useful material. Their espionage was under the control of the Military Intelligence Sections (MIS), which were directed by

9282-488: The most effective air defenses ever faced by American military aviators. The limited effectiveness of the operation and the pursuit of peace talks led to the scaling back of the operation in March 1968 and its cancellation in November 1968. In response to President Ngo Dinh Diem 's abrogation of the 1956 reunification election and suppression of communists during the late 1950s, Hanoi had begun sending arms and materiel to

9401-590: The north. This did not, however, satisfy the military chiefs, who demanded a wider and more aggressive campaign. In March 1964 the Commander in Chief Pacific (CINCPAC) began developing plans for a sustained eight-week air campaign designed to escalate in three stages. This was published at the end of August as CINCPAC OPLAN 37–64, which included the "94 target list". Bridges, rail yards, docks, barracks and supply dumps were all targeted, and selected based on

9520-493: The number of aircraft that were badly damaged beyond repair ) South Vietnam : unknown North Vietnam : 20,000 soldiers and 30,000–182,000 civilians killed 85 - 120 aircraft destroyed American intervention 1965 1966 1967 Tet Offensive and aftermath Vietnamization 1969–1971 1972 Post- Paris Peace Accords (1973–1974) Spring 1975 Air operations Naval operations Lists of allied operations Operation Rolling Thunder

9639-526: The occupant of which will be a member of the National Security Council. [REDACTED]  This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Archives and Records Administration . [REDACTED]  This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the White House . [REDACTED]  This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of

9758-551: The office was "dissolved," describing the previous size of the organization as "bloat," and stating "That is why Trump began streamlining the NSC staff in 2017." Trump defended the 2018 cuts, describing the financial motivation, when questioned in a February 2020 press conference, suggesting that people on a pandemic response team are unnecessary between pandemics, saying "Some of the people we cut, they haven't been used for many, many years." No source of information could be found to support

9877-421: The operation is detailed in a separate sub-article, the key issues were that the ARVN were inexperienced in executing large operations. They underestimated the needed forces, and the senior officers had developed in a context that rewarded loyalty rather than competence. Let there be no doubt that there were individual ARVN commanders who would be credit to any military, but, Thieu, like those RVN leaders before him,

9996-410: The operations. As observed by Lieutenant General Dave Palmer , to qualify an ARVN candidate for U.S. helicopter school, he first needed to learn English; this, in addition to the months-long training and practice in the field, made adding new capabilities to the ARVN take at least two years. Palmer did not disagree that the first component, given time and resources, was achievable. However: "Pacification,

10115-434: The part of the North Vietnamese, but was intended as a larger response to the growing hostilities as a whole. Although some within the administration believed that the campaign would be costly, and that it might not work, they reasoned that it was "an acceptable risk, especially when considered against the alternative of introducing American combat troops." Rolling Thunder called for an eight-week air campaign consistent with

10234-507: The point, but not with the language: "What we need is a term like 'Vietnamizing' to put the emphasis on the right issues." Nixon immediately liked Laird's word. Vietnamization fit into the broader détente policy of the Nixon administration, in which the United States no longer regarded its fundamental strategy as the containment of communism but as a cooperative world order, in which Nixon and his chief adviser Henry Kissinger were focused on

10353-470: The port of Haiphong . A thirty-mile buffer zone also extended along the length of the Chinese frontier. According to U.S. Air Force historian Earl Tilford: Targeting bore little resemblance to reality in that the sequence of attacks was uncoordinated and the targets were approved randomly—even illogically. The North's airfields, which, according to any rational targeting policy, should have been hit first in

10472-467: The president , White House counsel , and the assistant to the president for economic policy are also regularly invited to attend NSC meetings. The attorney general, the director of the Office of Management and Budget and the director of the Central Intelligence Agency are invited to attend meetings pertaining to their responsibilities. The heads of other executive departments and agencies, as well as other senior officials, are invited to attend meetings of

10591-402: The president's statement, likely because the team was created in 2016 and disbanded in 2018. He continued: "And rather than spending the money—and I'm a business person—I don't like having thousands of people around when you don't need them." The size of the team before cuts was estimated at 430 people, but the "thousands" referenced by the president also included reduction in the staff numbers of

10710-583: The president. The name of the staff organization was changed back to National Security Council Staff in 2014. The Directorate of Global Health Security and Biodefense was formed in 2016 under the Obama administration , disbanded in 2018 under the Trump Administration , and reinstated in January 2021 during the presidency of Joe Biden . On January 29, 2017, President Donald Trump restructured

10829-438: The rapidly growing tempo and ever-expanding length of the operation demanded more personnel. This exacerbated a growing lack of experienced aircrews. This dilemma was further compounded by an Air Force policy which dictated universal pilot training while proscribing involuntary second combat tours, which combined, had the effect of rotating personnel to different aircraft. Conversely, the Navy tended to maintain its aircrews within

10948-459: The restrictions imposed by that Johnson and Secretary of Defense McNamara. If the insurgency continued "with DRV support, strikes against the DRV would be extended with intensified efforts against targets north of the 19th parallel." It was believed that selective pressure, controlled by Washington, combined with diplomatic overtures, would prevail and compel Hanoi to end its aggression. The military

11067-522: The same community for the duration of their careers, thereby retaining their expertise, but also incurring greater losses among experienced crews undergoing multiple combat tours. Another factor was the weather within the operational theater. The cyclical monsoon patterns meant that the weather was deplorable for flight operations eight months of the year (from late September to early May) when rain and fog tended to conceal targets. Lack of adequate all-weather and night-bombing capability made it necessary for

11186-483: The same day, 19 RVNAF A-1 Skyraiders struck the Quang Khe Naval Base . The Americans were shocked when six of their aircraft were shot down during the mission. Five of the downed crewmen were rescued, but it was a portent of things to come. Under the doctrine of "gradualism", in which threatening destruction would serve as a more influential signal of American determination than destruction itself, it

11305-424: The second component, presented the real challenge ... it was benevolent government action in areas where the government should always have been benevolently active ... doing both was necessary if Vietnamization were to work." The policy of Vietnamization, despite its successful execution, was ultimately a failure as the improved ARVN forces and the reduced American and allied component were unable to prevent

11424-439: The southern battlefield were either cut back or canceled. On 5 April 1965, U.S. reconnaissance discovered that the construction of North Vietnamese surface-to-air missile (SAM) launching sites. Washington refused to allow the Air Force and Navy to attack the sites since most were near the restricted urban areas. Then, on 24 July, an McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II was shot down by a SA-2 Guideline missile. Three days later,

11543-509: The southern region of the country, where the bulk of North Vietnam's ground forces and supply dumps were located. These actions led to the plans for a sustained air campaign being reconsidered. On 13 February a new plan was approved and given the name "Rolling Thunder", merging targets and priorities from the lists produced by the Bundys and the JCS. This campaign was not aimed at specific actions on

11662-456: The spies that were discovered, are much less known. While there had been many assumptions that the South Vietnamese government was penetrated by many spies, and there indeed were many, a December 1969 capture of a Viet Cong communications intelligence center and documents revealed that they had been getting a huge amount of information using simple technology and smart people, as well as sloppy U.S. communications security. This specific discovery

11781-506: The strike forces would either fly directly back to Thailand or exit over the relatively safe waters of the Gulf of Tonkin. It was quickly decided that, in order to limit airspace conflicts between air force and naval strike forces, North Vietnam was divided into six target regions called " route packages ", each of which was assigned to either the Air Force or Navy and into which the other was forbidden to intrude. Naval strikes were launched from

11900-490: The strike requests on a weekly basis. Another problem exposed by Rolling Thunder was the unpreparedness of the Air Force for the operations it was undertaking. Its aircraft had been designed and its pilots trained for strategic operations against the Soviet Union—for nuclear, not conventional war. The new campaign exposed years of neglect in conventional tactics, while aircraft capabilities and armament were ill-suited to

12019-442: The suspect will be made available. The panel's actions are justified by "two principal legal theories": They "were permitted by Congress when it authorized the use of military forces against militants in the wake of the attacks of September 11, 2001 ; and they are permitted under international law if a country is defending itself." Homeland Security Advisor John O. Brennan , who helped codify targeted killing criteria by creating

12138-552: The task at hand. The Air Force was also embarrassed by the fact that the Navy was better prepared. It possessed the only all-weather bomber in the U.S. inventory in the new A-6 Intruder and was also responsible for the development of the F-4 Phantom fighter-bomber, which became ubiquitous during the Vietnam War. Once air-to-air combat began over North Vietnam, the Air Force was again found lacking. The mainstay missiles of

12257-439: The war compared Vietnamization to jaunissement . Lyndon Johnson 's major political interests were domestic; the war interfered with his domestic focus, and he was eager to end the war in a way that he considered politically acceptable. In 1967, Kissinger attended a Pugwash Conference of scientists interested in nuclear disarmament . Two participants approached Kissinger and offered a disavowable means of communication between

12376-509: Was a gradual and sustained aerial bombardment campaign conducted by the United States (U.S.) 2nd Air Division (later Seventh Air Force ), U.S. Navy , and Republic of Vietnam Air Force (RVNAF) against North Vietnam from 2 March 1965 until 2 November 1968, during the Vietnam War . The four objectives of the operation (which evolved over time) were to boost the morale of South Vietnam ; to persuade North Vietnam to cease its support for

12495-587: Was a political and media disaster. Newsman Walter Cronkite announced that he saw a stalemate as the best case scenario for the Tet Offensive. Other members of the press added to the call to retrench (reduce costs and spending). President Johnson's popularity plummeted and he announced a bombing halt on March 31, simultaneously announcing he would not run for re-election. Though he had low expectations, on May 10, 1968, Johnson began peace talks between U.S. and North Vietnamese in Paris . The war, however, continued. Under

12614-446: Was committed to prosecuting Rolling Thunder. The mission of the ground forces was expanded to combat operations, and the aerial campaign became a secondary operation, overwhelmed by troop deployments and the escalation of ground operations in South Vietnam. Until the third week of April, Rolling Thunder had enjoyed at least equal status with air missions conducted in the south. After that time, strikes that interfered with requirements for

12733-481: Was constantly concerned at preventing a military coup. "Promotions were won in Saigon, not in battle. And vital to advancement was the avoidance of risk, even at the price of defeat." Thieu relieved the operational commander, head of I Corps tactical zone commander Hoang Xuan Lam with the most respected combat commander in the ARVN, Do Cao Tri . Tri died 2.5 hours later in his first helicopter crash of inspection. It

12852-600: Was created by Barack Obama in 2016 in response to the 2014 Ebola outbreak . Its goal was "to prepare for the next disease outbreak and prevent it from becoming an epidemic or pandemic." The directorate was disbanded when a May 2018 change in organizational structure by John Bolton, Trump's recently appointed head of the National Security Council, resulted in the effective elimination of the office then led by Rear Admiral Tim Ziemer , Sr. Director for Global Health Security and Biothreats. Remaining staff were moved to other NSC departments, prompting Ziemer's resignation, thus completing

12971-711: Was created, taking over the responsibilities previously held by the head of the CIA, the director of central intelligence , as a cabinet-level position to oversee and coordinate activities of the Intelligence Community On May 26, 2009, President Barack Obama merged the White House staff supporting the Homeland Security Council (HSC) and the National Security Council into one National Security Staff (NSS). The HSC and NSC each continue to exist by statute as bodies supporting

13090-478: Was for a time dictated by its perception of improvement in the Saigon government. No further commitment by the Americans would occur without tangible proof of the regime's survivability. Events in South Vietnam, however, outpaced this plan. By the beginning of 1965, the policy was reversed in the belief that without further American action the Saigon government could not survive. As late as 8 February, however, in

13209-582: Was included as a regular attendee. The reorganization also placed the administrator of the United States Agency for International Development as a permanent member of the Deputies Committee, while the White House chief strategist was removed. The National Security Council was established by the National Security Act of 1947 (PL 235 – 61 Stat. 496; U.S.C. 402), amended by the National Security Act Amendments of 1949 (63 Stat. 579; 50 U.S.C. 401 et seq.). Later in 1949, as part of

13328-530: Was made by U.S. Army infantry, with interpretation by regular communications officers; the matter infuriated General Abrams in regards to the communications specialists. Before and after, there had been a much more highly classified, and only now available in heavily censored form, National Security Agency analysis of how the Communists were getting their information, which has led to a good deal of modern counterintelligence and operations security . Some of

13447-488: Was named a point of contact. Since Hanoi would not communicate with an American official without a bombing halt, Kissinger served as an intermediary. Johnson made a speech in San Antonio on September 29, offering the possibility of talks. They were rejected, although brought up again in 1967. The departure of Lyndon B. Johnson did not end the war; rather, it spread throughout Southeast Asia . The Tet Offensive (1968)

13566-460: Was not present for most of the critical discussions of 1965 and participated only occasionally thereafter. The majority of strikes during Rolling Thunder were launched from four air bases in Thailand : Korat , Takhli , Udorn , and Ubon . The aircraft refueled from aerial tankers over Laos before flying on to their targets in the DRV. After attacking their targets (usually by dive-bombing )

13685-668: Was not solved until 1968) was the command and control arrangement in Southeast Asia. The USAF's 2nd Air Division (replaced by the Seventh Air Force on 1 April 1966) was ostensibly responsible for aerial operations over North and South Vietnam. It was subordinate, however, to MACV and its commander, U.S. Army General William C. Westmoreland , who tended to see his problems centered in the south. The U.S. Seventh/Thirteenth Air Force , based in Thailand (which carried out

13804-431: Was on such a kill list and was killed accordingly. On February 4, 2013, NBC published a leaked Department of Justice memo providing a summary of the rationale used to justify targeted killing of US citizens who are senior operational leaders of Al-Qa'ida or associated forces. The National Security Council, as of 2021 and as per statute and National Security Memorandum–2, is chaired by the president . Its members are

13923-759: Was primarily aimed at providing the arms, training and funding for the South to fight and win its own war, if it had the courage and commitment to do so. By 1971, the Communists lost control of most, but not all, of the areas they had controlled in the South in 1967. The Communists still controlled many remote jungle and mountain districts, especially areas that protected the Ho Chi Minh Trail . Commanded by Hoang Xuan Lam , known more for loyalty to Nguyen Van Thieu than for military talent, Saigon's effort to strike against one of these strongholds, Operation Lam Son 719 , failed in 1971. The SVN forces, with some U.S. air support, were unable to defeat PAVN regulars. While

14042-424: Was still not satisfied, since, for the time being, the bombing campaign was to be limited to targets below the 19th parallel, each of which would have to be cleared individually by the President and McNamara. The first mission of the new operation was launched on 2 March against an ammunition storage area near Xom Bang carried out by a strike package of 104 US aircraft containing B-57s , F-105s , and F-100s . On

14161-460: Was thought better to hold important targets "hostage" by bombing trivial ones. From the beginning of Rolling Thunder, Washington dictated which targets would be struck, the day and hour of the attack, the number, and types of aircraft and the tonnages and types of ordnance utilized, and sometimes even the direction of the attack. Airstrikes were strictly forbidden within 30 nautical miles (60 km) of Hanoi and within 10 nautical miles (20 km) of

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