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64-451: In 1605 Cardinal Scipione Borghese , nephew of Pope Paul V and patron of Bernini , began turning this former vineyard into the most extensive gardens built in Rome since Antiquity. The vineyard's site is identified with the gardens of Lucullus , the most famous in the late Roman republic. Domenico Savino da Montepulciano was responsible for the layout of the gardens. The Borghese Balustrade

128-473: A definition similar to "all theropods closer to birds than to Deinonychus ", with Troodon being sometimes added as a second external specifier in case it is closer to birds than to Deinonychus . Avialae is also occasionally defined as an apomorphy-based clade (that is, one based on physical characteristics). Jacques Gauthier , who named Avialae in 1986, re-defined it in 2001 as all dinosaurs that possessed feathered wings used in flapping flight , and

192-498: A great deal of controversy and resentment by utilizing numerous "gifts" from the papal government to fund Borghese family investments. Identifying rental properties as the most efficient means to ensure financial stability, he purchased entire towns and other extensive properties, including approximately one-third of the land south of Rome. Exploiting his authority as Cardinal Nephew, he often compelled owners to sell their holdings to him at substantial discounts. Borghese thus ensured that

256-442: A group called Paraves . Some basal members of Deinonychosauria, such as Microraptor , have features which may have enabled them to glide or fly. The most basal deinonychosaurs were very small. This evidence raises the possibility that the ancestor of all paravians may have been arboreal , have been able to glide, or both. Unlike Archaeopteryx and the non-avialan feathered dinosaurs, who primarily ate meat, studies suggest that

320-541: A lifelong passion for art and sculpture. In 1896, he purchased the balustrade and had it installed at his English estate Cliveden . It is a Grade II Listed Building. In 2004, a colony of small Mediterranean land snails of the species Papillifera bidens was discovered living on the Borghese Balustrade. Presumably, this species, new to the English fauna, was accidentally imported along with the balustrade in

384-524: A papal motu proprio . The Borgheses were forced to provide Perugia with two excellent copies of the painting to avoid conflict with the angered city becoming violent, but the original remains in the Borghese collection. Among the pictures that Borghese acquired through the 1607 seizure from Cavaliere d'Arpino were two important early works by Caravaggio (both 1593, still in Galleria Borghese):

448-500: A probable self-portrait, usually called Sick Bacchus , and Boy with a Basket of Fruit , an overtly homoerotic image of a youth extending a large basket of fruit seductively toward the viewer. Borghese also greatly admired Caravaggio's naturalistic and psychologically complex later religious paintings, such as the brooding Saint John the Baptist (1605/6), which the collector acquired from the artist's estate shortly after his death, and

512-511: A project declared his devotion to the city's Christian heritage, while also marking a gesture of respect for the great Church reformer of the previous generation. The restoration of San Sebastiano fuori le mura (November 1607 – 1614), a church built under Constantine (c. 312) housing the greatest collection of relics known at the time. San Sebastiano was in addition one of the Seven Pilgrim Churches of Rome and its restoration

576-406: A sister group, the order Crocodilia , contain the only living representatives of the reptile clade Archosauria . During the late 1990s, Aves was most commonly defined phylogenetically as all descendants of the most recent common ancestor of modern birds and Archaeopteryx lithographica . However, an earlier definition proposed by Jacques Gauthier gained wide currency in the 21st century, and

640-498: A specially made wooden cupboard, which he would open with a theatrical flourish to the amusement of his close friends. However, this sculpture was given in the early 19th century to Napoleon upon Camillo Borghese 's marriage to Pauline Bonaparte , sister of Napoleon, and is now in the Louvre . The Borghese collection today contains another 2nd-century copy that was found. Pope Paul V willingly assisted his nephew's efforts to obtain

704-717: A time, sometimes for years, and rarely for life. Other species have breeding systems that are polygynous (one male with many females) or, rarely, polyandrous (one female with many males). Birds produce offspring by laying eggs which are fertilised through sexual reproduction . They are usually laid in a nest and incubated by the parents. Most birds have an extended period of parental care after hatching. Many species of birds are economically important as food for human consumption and raw material in manufacturing, with domesticated and undomesticated birds being important sources of eggs, meat, and feathers. Songbirds , parrots, and other species are popular as pets. Guano (bird excrement)

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768-469: A very uncharacteristic work by Michelangelo , a depiction of Cupid now called "The Manhattan Marble". Avifauna Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates constituting the class Aves ( Latin: [ˈaveːs] ), characterised by feathers , toothless beaked jaws, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart , and a strong yet lightweight skeleton . Birds live worldwide and range in size from

832-429: Is harvested for use as a fertiliser. Birds figure throughout human culture. About 120 to 130 species have become extinct due to human activity since the 17th century, and hundreds more before then. Human activity threatens about 1,200 bird species with extinction, though efforts are underway to protect them. Recreational birdwatching is an important part of the ecotourism industry. The first classification of birds

896-598: Is most associated with the development of the Baroque , he also eagerly collected works of many artists of quite different styles. Borghese's collection includes works as diverse as Early Renaissance altarpieces such as Fra Angelico 's Last Judgment (ca 1450); examples of northern art such as two paintings of Venus (early 16th century) by Lucas Cranach ; sixteenth-century Venetian paintings such as Titian 's Sacred and Profane Love (1514); and classicizing pictures such as Domenichino 's Diana (1616/7). The Cardinal even owned

960-503: Is not considered a direct ancestor of birds, though it is possibly closely related to the true ancestor. Over 40% of key traits found in modern birds evolved during the 60 million year transition from the earliest bird-line archosaurs to the first maniraptoromorphs , i.e. the first dinosaurs closer to living birds than to Tyrannosaurus rex . The loss of osteoderms otherwise common in archosaurs and acquisition of primitive feathers might have occurred early during this phase. After

1024-516: Is synonymous to Avifilopluma. † Scansoriopterygidae † Eosinopteryx † Jinfengopteryx † Aurornis † Dromaeosauridae † Troodontidae Avialae Based on fossil and biological evidence, most scientists accept that birds are a specialised subgroup of theropod dinosaurs and, more specifically, members of Maniraptora , a group of theropods which includes dromaeosaurids and oviraptorosaurs , among others. As scientists have discovered more theropods closely related to birds,

1088-544: Is the façade dedication: Scipione Borghese, Grand Penitentiary , Cardinal and Priest of the Holy Roman Church, 1626. His coat of arms in the major panels of the ceiling's long axis is mounted not as normal in excucheons, but directly in the frame, the keystone of the proscenium arch at the end of the nave; underneath an inscription at the base of the baldachin dome there is another inscription. As Cardinal, Borghese took seriously his responsibility to contribute to

1152-535: Is used by many scientists including adherents to the PhyloCode . Gauthier defined Aves to include only the crown group of the set of modern birds. This was done by excluding most groups known only from fossils , and assigning them, instead, to the broader group Avialae, on the principle that a clade based on extant species should be limited to those extant species and their closest extinct relatives. Gauthier and de Queiroz identified four different definitions for

1216-669: The Tiaojishan Formation of China, which has been dated to the late Jurassic period ( Oxfordian stage), about 160 million years ago. The avialan species from this time period include Anchiornis huxleyi , Xiaotingia zhengi , and Aurornis xui . The well-known probable early avialan, Archaeopteryx , dates from slightly later Jurassic rocks (about 155 million years old) from Germany . Many of these early avialans shared unusual anatomical features that may be ancestral to modern birds but were later lost during bird evolution. These features include enlarged claws on

1280-543: The Villa Borghese (initiated in 1613 and elaborated for the rest of the Cardinal's life). Both these influential gardens featured innovative elements such as waterfalls, and they incorporated dense groves of trees, which provided rural seclusion within the city. In the first half of his career, Scipione's church building was associated with his commendatrial or titular duties; in the latter half his public patronage

1344-575: The only known living dinosaurs . Likewise, birds are considered reptiles in the modern cladistic sense of the term, and their closest living relatives are the crocodilians . Birds are descendants of the primitive avialans (whose members include Archaeopteryx ) which first appeared during the Late Jurassic . According to recent estimates, modern birds ( Neornithes ) evolved in the Late Cretaceous and diversified dramatically around

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1408-475: The xylophagous insects, it is worth mentioning the great capricorn beetle ( Cerambyx cerdo ) visible in late spring towards sunset on the tree trunks. Scipione Borghese Scipione Borghese ( Italian pronunciation: [ʃiˈpjoːne borˈɡeːze; -eːse] ; 1 September 1577 – 2 October 1633) was an Italian cardinal , art collector and patron of the arts . A member of the Borghese family, he

1472-433: The 5.5 cm (2.2 in) bee hummingbird to the 2.8 m (9 ft 2 in) common ostrich . There are over 11,000 living species and they are split into 44 orders . More than half are passerine or "perching" birds. Birds have wings whose development varies according to species; the only known groups without wings are the extinct moa and elephant birds . Wings, which are modified forelimbs , gave birds

1536-742: The Apostolic Briefs, Archbishop of Bologna , protector of Germany and the Habsburg Netherlands , of the Orders of Dominicans , Camaldolese and Olivetans , of the Shrine of Loreto and of the Swiss Guard , and numerous other ecclesiastical positions. In each of these offices the cardinal received stipends. His income in 1609 was about 90,000 scudi , and by 1612 it had reached 140,000 scudi. With his enormous wealth, he bought

1600-764: The Borghese family. Scipione received many honours from his uncle. He became superintendent general of the Papal States , legate in Avignon , archpriest of the Lateran and Vatican basilicas, prefect of the Signature of Grace, Abbot of Subiaco and San Gregorio da Sassola on the Coelian, and librarian of the Roman Catholic Church . He also assumed the offices of Grand Penitentiary , secretary of

1664-713: The Caffarelli chapel in Santa Maria sopra Minerva (1620–23). The second was the massive timber catafalque decorated with life-size plaster figures designed by Gian Lorenzo Bernini , erected in Santa Maria Maggiore (1622). Borghese's first work after entering the Sacred College where he studied was the building and decoration of the oratory chapels of St. Andrew and St. Sylvia beside San Gregorio Magno al Celio . For Borghese to complete such

1728-597: The English taste contains several villas. The Spanish Steps lead up to this park, and there is another entrance at the Porte del Popolo by Piazza del Popolo . The Pincio (the Pincian Hill of ancient Rome), in the south part of the park, offers one of the greatest views over Rome. Camillo Borghese threw grandiose shows and popular festivals, such as a ride in an air balloon from the Piazza di Siena. The first horse show

1792-480: The ability to fly, although further evolution has led to the loss of flight in some birds , including ratites , penguins , and diverse endemic island species. The digestive and respiratory systems of birds are also uniquely adapted for flight. Some bird species of aquatic environments, particularly seabirds and some waterbirds , have further evolved for swimming. The study of birds is called ornithology . Birds are feathered theropod dinosaurs and constitute

1856-428: The appearance of Maniraptoromorpha, the next 40 million years marked a continuous reduction of body size and the accumulation of neotenic (juvenile-like) characteristics. Hypercarnivory became increasingly less common while braincases enlarged and forelimbs became longer. The integument evolved into complex, pennaceous feathers . The oldest known paravian (and probably the earliest avialan) fossils come from

1920-573: The art works that aroused his interest. In 1607, the Pope gave the Cardinal a collection of 107 paintings which had been confiscated from the painter Cavalier D'Arpino after the artist did not pay a tax bill. In the following year, Raphael's Deposition was secretly removed from the Baglioni Chapel in the church of San Francesco in Perugia and transported to Rome to be given to Scipione through

1984-509: The birds that descended from them. Despite being currently one of the most widely used, the crown-group definition of Aves has been criticised by some researchers. Lee and Spencer (1997) argued that, contrary to what Gauthier defended, this definition would not increase the stability of the clade and the exact content of Aves will always be uncertain because any defined clade (either crown or not) will have few synapomorphies distinguishing it from its closest relatives. Their alternative definition

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2048-422: The care and decoration of the churches under his supervision. Particularly after the death of his uncle, he seems to have utilized the embellishment of church buildings to demonstrate concern for the well-being of the faithful. The reconstruction of San Crisogono , Rome (1618–28) was probably the most costly project of redecoration undertaken in any church in the city during the early seventeenth century. Gold covers

2112-670: The ceiling and many other surfaces. Such public undertakings helped Borghese rehabilitate his reputation, though he never regained his political influence. Borghese used the immense wealth that he acquired as Cardinal Nephew to assemble one of the largest and most impressive art collections in Europe. The Borghese Collection began around a collection of paintings by Caravaggio, Raphael , and Titian , and of ancient Roman art . Scipione also bought widely from leading painters and sculptors of his day. Even though later generations dispersed some of his acquisitions through sales and diplomatic gifts ,

2176-640: The decoration of the Villa Borghese, Bernini produced a life-sized figure of David (1623) and three sculptural groups with mythological themes. The culminating work in this series that Bernini created for Borghese, Apollo and Daphne (1623–1625), represents an incident popular in Italian poetry of the early seventeenth century, and ultimately derived from the Metamorphoses by the ancient Roman poet Ovid. Bernini depicts Apollo reaching out toward

2240-665: The earliest members of Aves, is removed from this group, becoming a non-avian dinosaur instead. These proposals have been adopted by many researchers in the field of palaeontology and bird evolution , though the exact definitions applied have been inconsistent. Avialae, initially proposed to replace the traditional fossil content of Aves, is often used synonymously with the vernacular term "bird" by these researchers. † Coelurus † Ornitholestes † Ornithomimosauria † Alvarezsauridae † Oviraptorosauria   Paraves Most researchers define Avialae as branch-based clade, though definitions vary. Many authors have used

2304-462: The early stages of the commission that the altarpiece would end up in his own collection. Borghese's early patronage of artist Gian Lorenzo Bernini assisted to establish him as the leading Italian sculptor and architect of the seventeenth century. Between 1618 and 1623, Bernini worked primarily for the Cardinal, creating innovative pieces that would become early touchstones of the Baroque style. For

2368-486: The elegant and sensual depictions of young male figures that were prominently featured in Borghese's collection. One of his most prized works was the Hermaphrodite (Roman copy after Greek original of 2nd century BCE). From the young sculptor Gian Lorenzo Bernini , Scipione commissioned in 1620 a realistically rendered mattress on which to lay this sensuous nude figure. Borghese is reported to have kept this statue in

2432-451: The first avialans were omnivores . The Late Jurassic Archaeopteryx is well known as one of the first transitional fossils to be found, and it provided support for the theory of evolution in the late 19th century. Archaeopteryx was the first fossil to display both clearly traditional reptilian characteristics—teeth, clawed fingers, and a long, lizard-like tail—as well as wings with flight feathers similar to those of modern birds. It

2496-445: The fortunes of the family were not permanently dependent on ecclesiastical office. Cardinal Scipione Borghese died in Rome in 1633 and is buried in the Borghese chapel in Santa Maria Maggiore . Contemporaries commented on the near-public scandals that resulted on occasions from Scipione's possible homosexuality , reflected in his taste for collecting art with strong homoerotic overtones. In 1605, Scipione allegedly angered his uncle

2560-710: The intense David with the Head of Goliath (1609/10), which represents the Biblical hero extending outwards a severed head with the features of the artist Borghese appropriated Caravaggio's Madonna and Child with St. Anne , a large altarpiece commissioned in 1605 for a chapel in the Basilica of Saint Peter's, but rejected by the College of Cardinals because of its earthly realism and unconventional iconography. Recent archival research has established that Borghese intended from

2624-410: The late 19th century and managed to survive the intervening winters to the present day. In the 18th century Marcantonio Borghese, 5th Prince of Sulmona transformed the villa's gardens from a formal garden architecture into an English landscape garden . Architect Antonio Asprucci and his son Mario worked on landscaping the villa's gardens, from 1782 for over twenty years. They placed statues around

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2688-402: The outermost half) can be seen in the evolution of maniraptoromorphs, and this process culminated in the appearance of the pygostyle , an ossification of fused tail vertebrae. In the late Cretaceous, about 100 million years ago, the ancestors of all modern birds evolved a more open pelvis, allowing them to lay larger eggs compared to body size. Around 95 million years ago, they evolved

2752-496: The papacy as Pope Paul V in 1605, he quickly conferred a cardinalship on Scipione and gave him the right to use the Borghese name and coat of arms. In the classic pattern of papal nepotism , Cardinal Borghese wielded enormous power as the Pope's secretary and effective head of the Vatican government . On his own and the Pope's behalf he amassed an enormous fortune through papal fees and taxes, and acquired vast land holdings for

2816-596: The park and started the construction of the Garden of the Lake and Piazza di Siena. They built the Temple of Aesculapius in the ionic style in the center of the lake between 1785 and 1792. The Sea Horse Fountain was executed by Vincenzo Pacetti in 1791, based on a design by Christopher Unterberger . The Fountain of Venus was probably designed by Giovanni Vasanzio . Marcantonio's sons, Camillo and Francesco Borghese expanded

2880-406: The park further. The Villa Borghese gardens were long informally open, but was bought by the commune of Rome and given to the public in 1903. Since 1904 monuments depicting famous foreign personalities and writers such as Victor Hugo , have been placed along the avenues of the villa. The statue of Goethe was a gift to the city of Rome from Wilhelm II, German Emperor . The large landscape park in

2944-610: The park: Furthermore, the park hosts the Casa del cinema , the Casina di Raffaello and the Gigi Proietti Globe Theatre . Below is the list of the main trees of Villa Borghese: And here is the list of herbaceous plants of Villa Borghese: Avifauna located throughout the villa: Great tit Parus major Birdlife located in the small artificial lake: Ichthyofauna : Mammals : Reptiles: Finally, among

3008-510: The pope by bringing Stefano Pignatelli , to whom Scipione was closely attached, to Rome. According to the later writer Gaetano Moroni , Scipione: ...mindful for Stefano's affection, invited him to Rome and admitted him to his court, where Stefano acquired such an ascendancy over the cardinal that he did everything according to his advice. It was enough for envy and jealousy among courtiers to utter malicious and venomous calumnies against him, which prompted cardinals and ambassadors to report to

3072-457: The pope that Stefano was full of loathsome vices, and that for his nephew's honour, it was necessary to banish him entirely. Scipione subsequently fell into a long and serious sickness, and only recovered when Pignatelli was allowed to come. The pope decided to keep a check on Pignatelli and had him ordained, the beginning of a career which led to him becoming a cardinal in 1621. Indeed, the Italian historian Lorenzo Cardella notes that Pignatelli

3136-536: The previously clear distinction between non-birds and birds has become blurred. By the 2000s, discoveries in the Liaoning Province of northeast China, which demonstrated many small theropod feathered dinosaurs , contributed to this ambiguity. The consensus view in contemporary palaeontology is that the flying theropods, or avialans , are the closest relatives of the deinonychosaurs , which include dromaeosaurids and troodontids . Together, these form

3200-481: The river nymph Daphne just as she is transformed into a laurel tree by her father in order to prevent her from being burned by the touch of the god of the sun. Understood within its original intellectual context, this group represents frustrated desire and enduring despair and pain, provoked by love. These meanings may have had special resonance for Borghese, who, at the time, was widely ridiculed for his attraction to other men. The specific moment depicted by Bernini also

3264-452: The same biological name "Aves", which is a problem. The authors proposed to reserve the term Aves only for the crown group consisting of the last common ancestor of all living birds and all of its descendants, which corresponds to meaning number 4 below. They assigned other names to the other groups.   Lizards & snakes   Turtles   Crocodiles   Birds Under the fourth definition Archaeopteryx , traditionally considered one of

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3328-551: The second toe which may have been held clear of the ground in life, and long feathers or "hind wings" covering the hind limbs and feet, which may have been used in aerial maneuvering. Avialans diversified into a wide variety of forms during the Cretaceous period. Many groups retained primitive characteristics , such as clawed wings and teeth, though the latter were lost independently in a number of avialan groups, including modern birds (Aves). Increasingly stiff tails (especially

3392-600: The time of the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 66 million years ago, which killed off the pterosaurs and all non- ornithuran dinosaurs. Many social species preserve knowledge across generations ( culture ). Birds are social, communicating with visual signals, calls, and songs , and participating in such behaviour as cooperative breeding and hunting, flocking , and mobbing of predators. The vast majority of bird species are socially (but not necessarily sexually) monogamous , usually for one breeding season at

3456-439: The villages of Montefortino and Olevano Romano from Pier Francesco Colonna , Duke of Zagarolo for 280,000 scudi. As Cardinal Nephew (an official post until it was abolished in 1692), Borghese was placed in charge of both the internal and external political affairs of the Papal States. In addition, Paul V entrusted his nephew with the management of the finances of both the papacy and the Borghese family. Borghese aroused

3520-557: The works that he assembled form the core of the holdings of the Galleria Borghese , a museum housed in the villa commissioned by Scipione (1613–15) from the architect Giovanni Vasanzio . Additional holdings were exhibited at the Villa Mondragone . His collection was poetically described as early as 1613 by Scipione Francucci. The Satyr and Dolphin (Roman marble copy of lost Greek bronze, 4th century BCE) typifies

3584-444: Was a key element in the pilgrimage-driven revival of the circuit. Borghese's restoration was in effect a complete modernization: rebuilding the main façade, adding a rear entrance, and thoroughly overhauling the interior in a modern decorative idiom. The most striking feature of the restoration is the incidence of Borghese's name and symbols. Atop the portico's parapet stand eagle and dragon (the Borghese symbols) statuettes; underneath

3648-487: Was cleared twice by the Roman Inquisition of having "improper influence" on Cardinal Borghese. However, more recently published espionage reports of Giovanni Antonio Marta speak against the results of such official investigation and substantially confirm the homosexual inclinations of Cardinal Scipione. They include a report of a nobleman whom Scipione was said to love "to the point of insanity", and for whom he

3712-543: Was crafted by G di Gincome and P. Massoni in 1618 for the south forecourt of the Casino Nobile . At the center opening there were two stone statues on top and fountains with shell-shaped basins below. The statues were a later addition from 1715 by Claude-Augustin Cayot. In 1882, President Chester A. Arthur appointed William Waldorf Astor Minister to Italy, a post he held until 1885. While living in Rome, Astor developed

3776-576: Was determined to secure a cardinal's hat; as well as a darker episode where a young man of eighteen was supposedly murdered in Scipione's ante-chamber by his servants after leaving the cardinal's bed. Borghese took special interest in the development of the extensive gardens undertaken by various artists at his Roman residences, the Palazzo Borghese on the Quirinal (primarily 1610–16) and

3840-466: Was developed by Francis Willughby and John Ray in their 1676 volume Ornithologiae . Carl Linnaeus modified that work in 1758 to devise the taxonomic classification system currently in use. Birds are categorised as the biological class Aves in Linnaean taxonomy . Phylogenetic taxonomy places Aves in the clade Theropoda as an infraclass or a subclass, more recently a subclass. Aves and

3904-592: Was held at the Piazza di Siena in 1922. The Piazza di Siena hosted the equestrian dressage , individual jumping , and the jumping part of the eventing competition for the 1960 Summer Olympics . It is located in Largo P. Picasso. It has remained more or less unchanged since the 17th century and is also known by the name of "Valle dei cani" ("Valley of the dogs"), because it is used as a play area for dogs. It consists, among other things, of platani planted by Cardinal Scipione. Numerous museums are located inside or near

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3968-461: Was more wide-ranging, intervening at San Crisogono , Santa Maria sopra Minerva , Santa Maria della Vittoria , Santa Chiara a Casa Pia , San Gregorio Magno , as well as building new churches in the nearby towns of Montefortino and Monte Compatri . During the Ludovisi papacy the major focus of Borghese's ecclesiastical patronage was on commemorative projects. The first was the embellishment of

4032-524: Was the patron of the painter Caravaggio and the artist Bernini . His legacy is the establishment of the art collection at the Villa Borghese in Rome . He was born in Artena with name Scipione Caffarelli, the son of Francesco Caffarelli and Ortensia Borghese. Because his father ran into financial difficulties, Scipione's education was paid for by his maternal uncle Camillo Borghese. Upon Camillo's election to

4096-484: Was thought in the early seventeenth century to signify the fusion of genders, more explicitly depicted in the Hermaphrodite also in the Cardinal's collection. In 1632 Bernini executed two marble portrait busts of Borghese (both in Rome's Galleria Borghese ). These works capture the exuberance that the Cardinal's friends admired and which his critics decried as frivolity inappropriate to his office. Although he

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