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169-516: Vincente Minnelli (born Lester Anthony Minnelli ; February 28, 1903 – July 25, 1986) was an American stage director and film director. For a career spanning over half a century, he is best known for his sophisticated innovation and artistry in musical films . As of 2024, six of his films have been selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry . Minnelli made his stage debut as an actor in

338-457: A music director , or chief conductor , or by the German words Kapellmeister , or Dirigent (in the feminine, Dirigentin ). Conductors of choirs or choruses are sometimes referred to as choral director , chorus master , or choirmaster , particularly for choirs associated with an orchestra. Conductors of concert bands , military bands , marching bands and other bands may hold

507-411: A pedal point with string players, when a section has been playing the pedal point for a lengthy period; a cue is important to indicate when they should change to a new note. Cueing is achieved by "engaging" the players before their entry (by looking at them) and executing a clear preparation gesture, often directed toward the specific players. An inhalation, which may or may not be an audible "sniff" from

676-483: A rallentando (slowing down the pace of the music), a conductor may introduce beat subdivisions. While some conductors use both hands to indicate the beat, with the left hand mirroring the right, formal education discourages such an approach. The second hand can be used for cueing the entrances of individual players or sections and to aid indications of dynamics, phrasing, expression, and other elements. During an instrumental solo section (or, in an opera orchestra during

845-644: A European orchestra. He made one of the earliest recordings of a complete symphony: the Beethoven Fifth with the Berlin Philharmonic in November 1913. Nikisch was the first conductor to have his art captured on film—alas, silently. The film confirms reports that he made particularly mesmerizing use of eye contact and expression to communicate with an orchestra; such later conductors as Fritz Reiner stated that this aspect of his technique had

1014-688: A New York-bound fruit steamer . At three years old, Minnelli made his debut stage performance portraying Little Willie in East Lynne , alongside his mother performing dual roles as Lady Isabel and Madame Vine. During the performance, Minnelli broke character when his character was supposed to have died. His family moved to Delaware, Ohio , where he spent the first three years of high school at St. Mary's. Since St. Mary's had no twelfth grade, he spent his last year at Willis High School [1] in Delaware , graduating at 16 years of age. There, he appeared in

1183-429: A broad education about the history of music, including the major periods of classical music and regarding music theory . Many conductors learn to play a keyboard instrument such as the piano or the pipe organ , a skill that helps them to be able to analyze symphonies and try out their interpretations before they have access to an orchestra to conduct. Many conductors get experience playing in an orchestra or singing in

1352-516: A choir, an experience which gives them good insights into how orchestras and choirs are conducted and rehearsed. Orchestra conductors typically hold a master's degree in music, and choir conductors in the U.S. typically hold a bachelor's degree in music. Bachelor's degrees (referred to as B.Mus. or B.M) are four-year programs that include conducting lessons, amateur orchestra experience, and a sequence of courses in music history, music theory, and liberal arts courses (e.g., English literature), which give

1521-440: A concertmaster or keyboard player act as leader, eventually the role of a conductor was established. The size of the usual orchestra expanded during this period, and the use of a baton became more common as it was easier to see than bare hands or rolled-up paper. Among the earliest notable conductors were Louis Spohr , Carl Maria von Weber , Louis-Antoine Jullien and Felix Mendelssohn , all of whom were also composers. Mendelssohn

1690-399: A conductor will also be the musical director of the symphony, choosing the program for the entire season, including concerts by guest conductors, concerto soloists, pop concerts, and so on. A senior conductor may attend some or all of the auditions for new members of the orchestra, to ensure that the candidates have the playing style and tone that the conductor prefers and that candidates meet

1859-403: A contract to produce and direct films. Although he was initially reluctant, Minnelli accepted the offer and was paid $ 2,500 a week. His first project was Times Squares , a mystery film set on Broadway. Leo Birinski was hired to write the script, with the plot detailing characters venturing throughout various musical numbers from Broadway shows to piece together vital clues. Minnelli also proposed

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2028-423: A designated leader using subtle motions of their fingers and/or hands to dictate melodic shape and contour. Typically a theme in vocal music, the practice predated many notated forms of rhythm and therefore acted as a way for performers to visually understand when to move together, although it was also used to memorize music. As notated rhythm and beat as well as more complex rhythmic figures became more prominent in

2197-549: A directing job by Lee Shubert for his stage company. Despite the offer, Minnelli continued working for Radio City Music Hall until he left in April 1935. After months of considering, he joined Shubert's organization, signing a contract to produce three musical shows over eighteen months. Minnelli was handed his first directorial project titled At Home Abroad , with music composed by Arthur Schwartz and Howard Dietz . Starring Beatrice Lillie , Ethel Waters , and Eleanor Powell ,

2366-411: A graduate programme based on the premise that directors are autodidacts who need as many opportunities to direct as possible. Under Fowler, graduate student directors would stage between five and ten productions during their three-year residencies, with each production receiving detailed critiques. As with many other professions in the performing arts, theatre directors would often learn their skills "on

2535-427: A great deal of training in their area of expertise (instrumental performance or singing). Some conductors learn on the job by conducting amateur orchestras, school orchestras, and community orchestras (or the equivalent choral ensembles). The median salary of conductors in the U.S. in 2021 was $ 49,130. A 5% growth rate is forecast for conducting jobs from 2021 to 2031, an average growth rate. The Alexander Technique

2704-460: A great deal of variety, particularly with the use of the left hand, facial and eye expression, and body language. Women conductors were almost unheard of in the ranks of leading orchestral conductors through most of the 19th and 20th centuries, but today, artists like Hortense von Gelmini  [ de ] , Marin Alsop and Simone Young lead orchestras. Alsop was appointed music director of

2873-529: A musical during their honeymoon. The story tells of Manuela, a local Caribbean woman, who daydreams of the pirate Macoco, better known as Mack the Black. She is unknowingly engaged to him, now identifying as Don Pedro, the portly and elderly village mayor. Serafin, a traveling actor, roleplays as the pirate to win Manuela's affection. Freed initially resisted the idea but reluctantly agreed to produce it after reading

3042-408: A note or chord so that the choir members can determine their starting notes. Then the conductor gives one or more preparatory beats to commence the music. The preparatory beat before the orchestra or choir begins is the upbeat . The beat of the music is typically indicated with the conductor's right hand, with or without a baton. The hand traces a shape in the air in every bar (measure) depending on

3211-408: A performer or section should begin playing (perhaps after a long period of rests), is called "cueing". A cue must forecast with certainty the exact moment of the coming ictus, so that all the players or singers affected by the cue can begin playing simultaneously. Cueing is most important for cases where a performer or section has not been playing for a lengthy time. Cueing is also helpful in the case of

3380-677: A production of East Lynne , staged by the Minnelli Brothers' Tent Theater (co-founded by his father and paternal uncle). After graduating from high school, he worked as an apprentice window designer at Marshall Field's department store in Chicago . There, he attended the Art Institute of Chicago and became a costume designer for the Balaban and Katz theater chain. By the early 1930s, he moved to New York City and served as

3549-446: A profound impression on young artists like Richard Strauss , who at age 20 served as his assistant, and Felix Weingartner , who came to disapprove of his interpretations but was deeply impressed by his orchestral standards. Composer Gustav Mahler was also a noted conductor. Technical standards were brought to new levels by the next generation of conductors, including Arthur Nikisch (1855–1922) who succeeded Bülow as music director of

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3718-451: A range of conducting programs, including courses in conducting as part of bachelor's degrees, a small number of master of music degrees in conducting, and an even smaller number of doctor of musical arts degrees in conducting. In addition, there are a variety of other training programs such as classical summer camps and training festivals, which give students the opportunity to conduct a wide range of music. Aspiring conductors need to obtain

3887-516: A romantic and professional interest in Jerry. Meanwhile, Jerry romances Lise Bouvier ( Leslie Caron ), a young teen engaged to Henri Baurel ( Georges Guétary ), a friend of Jerry's. Filming began on August 1, 1950 at the MGM studios, though production was halted on September 15 to prepare for the ballet sequence. Minnelli left to direct another film, Father's Little Dividend (1951), the sequel to Father of

4056-484: A scandalous affair. Upon its release, critics praised the film's seedy depiction of Hollywood and the performances from the cast, most particularly Douglas, Turner and Gloria Grahame . The scene of Georgina's emotional breakdown inside a moving vehicle was highlighted. At the 1953 Academy Awards , The Bad and the Beautiful was nominated for six Oscars, winning five including Grahame for Best Supporting Actress . At

4225-718: A school production of H.M.S. Pinafore and starred in The Fortune Hunter at the Delaware Opera House. Following his high school graduation, Minnelli moved to Chicago, where he lived briefly with his maternal grandmother Le Beau and his aunt Amy. In search for a job, Minnelli took his portfolio of watercolor paintings to the Marshall Field's department store . Arthur Valair Fraser, the store's display director, reviewed his portfolio and hired him immediately as an apprentice window dresser . There,

4394-400: A show has opened (premiered before a regular audience), theatre directors are generally considered to have fulfilled their function. From that point forward the stage manager is left in charge of all essential concerns. Conducting Conducting is the art of directing a musical performance , such as an orchestral or choral concert . It has been defined as "the art of directing

4563-553: A strong influence on their own. Conductors of the generations after Nikisch often left extensive recorded evidence of their arts. Two particularly influential and widely recorded figures are often treated, somewhat inaccurately, as interpretive antipodes. They were the Italian conductor Arturo Toscanini (1867–1957) and the German conductor Wilhelm Furtwängler (1886–1954). Toscanini played in orchestras under Giuseppe Verdi and made his debut conducting Aida in 1886, filling in at

4732-404: A surrealist ballet featuring Paramount's contract actors, and held conversations with Kurt Weill about a potential musical film. Minnelli discussed the project with Adolph Zukor , the head of Paramount, but he was uninterested; discussions with William LeBaron , the studio's head of production, did not move the project forward. Meanwhile, Minnelli proposed the title Shall We Dance (1937) to

4901-469: A surrealist fantasy titled The Light Fantastic , with Beatrice Lillie in mind to star. He offered her four musical numbers and four sketches outlining his vision, but Lillie, then in England, had not responded in time. He then shifted to a musicalization of S. N. Behrman 's play Serena Blandish , wanting to feature Black American actors. Cole Porter was hired to write the musical score. Sid Perelman wrote

5070-423: A tabletop, while George Pal provided the stop motion animation of the musicians made of fruit. During filming, Minnelli met Garland, who had just turned 18 years old, for the first time. Minnelli subsequently worked on Busby Berkeley 's Babes on Broadway (1941), which also starred Rooney and Garland, for the "Ghost Theater" sequence. Minnelli suggested they imitate veteran Broadway stars, but Berkeley rejected

5239-536: A team of Tin Pan Alley lyricists. The show premiered on Christmas Day 1936 and ran for 237 performances during its initial run. A reprise opened in September 1937 and played for two weeks. Based on his Broadway success, Hollywood had taken notice of Minnelli as a rising director. Samuel Goldwyn tentatively approached Minnelli to direct The Goldwyn Follies (1938), and in 1937, Paramount Pictures offered him

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5408-497: A treatment. To replicate the success of For Me and My Gal (1942), Gene Kelly was cast to reunite his pairing with Garland. On December 27, 1946, a recording session with Garland had to be cancelled due to her illness. Due to Garland's frequent absences, filming did not begin until February 1947. Out of 135 days for rehearsals, filming and reshoots, Garland was absent for 99. After a preview in October, Minnelli agreed to shorten

5577-443: A vocalist's unaccompanied solo), some conductors stop counting out all the subdivisions and simply tap the baton down once per bar, to aid performers who are counting bars of rests. There is a difference between the "textbook" definition of where the ictus of a downbeat occurs and the actual performance practice in professional orchestras. With an abrupt, loud sforzando chord, a professional orchestra will often play slightly after

5746-459: A week. On April 2, 1940, Minnelli began working for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. In 1941, he did minor consulting work, which included critiquing Norman Z. McLeod 's Lady Be Good (1941) and advising Pandro Berman to change the beginning of Rio Rita (1942). Sometime later, McLeod had filmed Panama Hattie (1942) but received lackluster responses during test screenings. In reaction, Freed hired Roy Del Ruth to film reshoots and Minnelli to direct

5915-458: A young heiress living a sheltered life in a convent and decide to con her. One night, Yolanda prays for a "guardian angel" which Astaire's character impersonates. Freed had come across the magazine story and hired Bemelmans and Théry to write a treatment, and Robert Nathan to write the final screenplay. Filming began on January 15, 1945 and wrapped four months later. Upon its release, the film received mixed reviews with criticism towards its script and

6084-445: Is a means of communicating artistic directions to performers during a performance. Although there are many formal rules on how to conduct correctly, others are subjective, and a wide variety of different conducting styles exist depending upon the training and sophistication of the conductor. The primary responsibilities of the conductor are to unify performers, set the tempo, execute clear preparations and beats, listen critically and shape

6253-540: Is a popular alternative therapy based on the notion that poor posture encourages health problems. The Alexander Technique is meant to help performers and musicians identify and release tension in the body. Conductors are often trained with similar techniques, focusing on maintaining relaxation and balance in the upper body, as forcing movements can lead to jarred nerves, muscles, and joints. Many conductors forcefully throw their right arm when conducting beats, which can lead to back pain and neck tension, and especially puts

6422-735: Is an art form that has grown with the development of theatre theory and theatre practice. With the emergence of new trends in theatre, so too have directors adopted new methodologies and engaged in new practices. Interpretation of the drama, by the late twentieth century, had become central to the director's work. Relativism and psychoanalytic theory influenced the work of innovative directors such as Peter Brook , Ingmar Bergman , Peter Stein , and Giorgio Strehler . Kimberly Senior, director of Disgraced on Broadway, explains her role as director by saying “I get to take things that were previously in one dimension and put them into three dimensions using my imagination and intellect and people skills.” Once

6591-564: Is bringing the Seoul Philharmonic Orchestra to international attention. Notable black conductors include Henry Lewis , Dean Dixon , James DePreist , Paul Freeman , and Michael Morgan . According to Charlotte Higgins ' 2004 article in The Guardian , "black conductors are rare in the classical music world and even in symphony orchestras it is unusual to see more than one or two black musicians". Conducting

6760-473: Is called attacca . The conductor will instruct the orchestra members and choristers to write the term in their parts, so that they will be ready to go immediately to the next movement. When a marching band is performing a field show, there will typically be a drum major conducting the band. This is known as field conducting. Drum majors may each have a different style of conducting. Some may be smoother, but others are more rigid. The most commonly used pattern

6929-436: Is called the " takt " (the German word for bar, measure and beat). If the tempo is slow or slowing, or if the time signature is compound , a conductor will sometimes indicate "subdivisions" of the beats. The conductor can do this by adding a smaller movement in the same direction as the movement for the beat that it belongs to. Changes to the tempo are indicated by changing the speed of the beat. To carry out and to control

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7098-405: Is called the "Down-in-out-up" pattern. The pattern is shown by the first beat being straight down and normal. The second beat goes down then after the focal point it goes in a 45-degree angle to the inside. The third beat is when the arm is coming back from the angle to the focal point at the angle and hits the point and goes to the outside at the same 45-degree angle. The last beat, fourth, goes from

7267-464: Is claimed to have been the first conductor to utilize a wooden baton to keep time, a practice still generally in use today. Prominent conductors who did not or do not use a baton include Pierre Boulez , Kurt Masur , James Conlon , Yuri Temirkanov , Leopold Stokowski , Vasily Safonov , Eugene Ormandy (for a period), and Dimitri Mitropoulos . The composers Hector Berlioz and Richard Wagner attained greatness as conductors, and they wrote two of

7436-407: Is evidence that points to many early societies utilizing visual and aural cuing to maintain a sense of beat, rhythm, and shape. The earliest documented forms of conducting arose out of a variety of different musical needs in varying regions around the world. An early example of utilizing gesture to influence a performance was cheironomy . Documented as early as the 11th century, the practice entailed

7605-430: Is highly selective. Examinations in music history, music theory, ear training/dictation, and an entrance examination and conducting audition are required. Students perform conducted concerts, including a combination lecture-conducted concert with an accompanying doctoral dissertation, and advanced coursework. Students must typically maintain a minimum B average. A DMA in conducting is a terminal degree and as such qualifies

7774-580: Is not uncommon to see a pianist perform a concerto while also conducting the orchestra. Communication is typically non-verbal during a performance. However, in rehearsals, frequent interruptions allow the conductor to give verbal directions as to how music should be performed. Conductors act as guides to the orchestras or choirs they conduct. They choose the works to be performed and study their scores, to which they may make certain adjustments (such as in tempo, articulation, phrasing, repetitions of sections), work out their interpretation, and relay their vision to

7943-421: Is often indicated by a hand held flat with palm up. The end of a note, called a "cutoff" or "release", may be indicated by a circular motion, the closing of the palm, or the pinching of finger and thumb. A release is usually preceded by a preparation and concluded with a complete stillness. Conductors aim to maintain eye contact with the ensemble as much as possible, encouraging eye contact in return and increasing

8112-439: Is often the required minimum credential for people who wish to become a professor of conducting. Doctor of musical arts (referred to as D.M.A., DMA, D.Mus.A. or A.Mus.D) degrees in conducting provide an opportunity for advanced study at the highest artistic and pedagogical level, requiring usually an additional 54+ credit hours beyond a master's degree (which is about 30+ credits beyond a bachelor's degree). For this reason, admission

8281-547: Is suspected of murdering, and investigates his disappearance. Robert Mitchum , who portrayed the missing brother, was loaned out to MGM by RKO Radio Pictures to co-star in the film. During filming, Hepburn was initially displeased with Minnelli as her director, though both became cordial as production continued. Meanwhile, Taylor grew irritated at their developing friendship and was feeling overshadowed by Mitchum. The idea to adapt S. N. Behrman's play The Pirate originated with Minnelli, with Garland suggesting it be adapted into

8450-464: Is typical for high school marching bands, college bands and drum corps may have that much or more, up to more than eleven minutes of music) a drum major must memorize dynamics as well as tempo in order to provide proper direction and cues, particularly in area where the drum major has some discretion, such as a ritardando or fermata . The roles of a conductor vary a great deal between different conducting positions and different ensembles. In some cases,

8619-411: Is usually indicated by a sudden (though not necessarily large) click of the wrist or change in baton direction. In some instances, "ictus" is also used to refer to a horizontal plane in which all the ictuses are physically located, such as the top of a music stand where a baton is tapped at each ictus. The gesture leading up to the ictus is called the "preparation", and the continuous flow of steady beats

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8788-630: The Baltimore Symphony Orchestra in 2007—the first woman appointed to head a major U.S. orchestra—and also of the Orquestra Sinfônica do Estado de São Paulo in 2012, and Alsop was the first woman to conduct on the last night of The Proms . Young scored similar firsts when she became head of the Hamburg State Opera and Philharmoniker Hamburg in 2005; she is also the first woman conductor to record

8957-514: The Fred Astaire – Ginger Rogers film. He consulted on Raoul Walsh 's 1937 film Artists and Models devising the "Public Melody No. 1" number, featuring Louis Armstrong and Martha Raye . After six months of negotiating, Minnelli was released from his contract and returned to Broadway. Lee Shubert offered him the musical Hooray for What! , which starred Ed Wynn and featured music and lyrics by Harold Arlen and E. Y. Harburg. Minnelli

9126-590: The Moscow Art Theatre in Russia and similarly emancipate the role of the director as artistic visionary. The French regisseur is also sometimes used to mean a stage director, most commonly in ballet . A more common term for theatre director in French is metteur en scène . Post World War II , the actor-manager slowly started to disappear, and directing become a fully fledged artistic activity within

9295-467: The Orchestre de la Société des concerts du Conservatoire in 1828, though Berlioz was later alarmed at Habeneck's loose standards of rehearsal. Pianist and composer Franz Liszt was also a conductor. Wagner's one-time champion Hans von Bülow (1830–1894) was particularly celebrated as a conductor, although he also maintained his initial career as a pianist, an instrument on which he was regarded as among

9464-708: The Ring Cycle of Richard Wagner . The Guardian called conducting "one of the last glass ceilings in the music industry". A 2013 article states that in France, out of 574 concerts only 17 were conducted by women and no women conducted at the National Opéra in Paris . " Bachtrack reported that in a list of the world's 150 top conductors that year, only five were women." While Mexico has produced several major international conductors, Alondra de la Parra has become

9633-666: The Yale School of Drama produced a number of pioneering directors with D.F.A. (Doctor of Fine Arts) and M.F.A. degrees in Drama (rather than English) who contributed to the expansion of professional resident theaters in the 1960s and 1970s. In the early days such programmes typically led to the staging of one major thesis production in the third (final) year. At the University of California, Irvine , Keith Fowler (a Yale D.F.A. and ex-producer of two LORT companies) led for many years

9802-604: The Ziegfeld Follies musical revues, starring many of MGM's contracted talents. Midway through filming, Sidney asked to leave the production and Minnelli was hired to finish filming. Garland's segment was shot in July 1944, with principal photography concluding in August. Minnelli directed a total of ten segments, with the remaining four directed by Sidney, Lemuel Ayers , Roy Del Ruth, and Robert Lewis . The Clock (1945)

9971-511: The chorus , sometimes compose the music, and supervise every aspect of production. The fact that the director was called didaskalos , the Greek word for "teacher," indicates that the work of these early directors combined instructing their performers with staging their work. In medieval times, the complexity of vernacular religious drama, with its large scale mystery plays that often included crowd scenes, processions and elaborate effects, gave

10140-467: The dailies . At the time, Garland was married to David Rose , but after they divorced, she began dating Joseph L. Mankiewicz . Premiering in November 1944, the film received universal critical acclaim and exceeded box office expectations, earning $ 7.56 million worldwide during its initial run. Meanwhile, the 1945 musical Ziegfeld Follies was in production with George Sidney as the film's initial director. The film featured several musical numbers from

10309-435: The time signature , indicating each beat with a change from downward to upward motion. The images show the most common beat patterns, as seen from the conductor's point of view. The downbeat indicates the first beat of the bar, and the upbeat indicates the beat before the first note of the piece and the last beat of the bar. The instant at which the beat occurs is called the ictus (plural: ictūs or ictuses ) and

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10478-616: The 1960s–80s, Karajan as music director of the Berlin Philharmonic (1955–89) and Bernstein as music director of the New York Philharmonic (1957–69) and later frequent guest conductor in Europe. Karajan's technique was highly controlled, and eventually he conducted with his eyes often closed, as he often memorized scores; Bernstein's technique was demonstrative, with highly expressive facial gestures and hand and body movements; when conducting vocal music, Bernstein would often mouth

10647-433: The 19th century, the role of director was often carried by the actor-manager . This would usually be a senior actor in a troupe who took the responsibility for choosing the repertoire of work, staging it and managing the company. This was the case for instance with Commedia dell'Arte companies and English actor-managers like Colley Cibber and David Garrick . The modern theatre director can be said to have originated in

10816-402: The 20th century: it was not standardized. Great and influential conductors of the middle 20th century like Leopold Stokowski (1882–1977), Otto Klemperer (1885–1973), Herbert von Karajan (1908–1989) and Leonard Bernstein (1918–1990)—the first American conductor to attain greatness and international fame—had widely varied techniques. Karajan and Bernstein formed another apparent antipode in

10985-547: The Berlin Philharmonic in 1895. Nikisch premiered important works by Anton Bruckner and Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky , who greatly admired his work; Johannes Brahms , after hearing him conduct his Fourth Symphony , said it was "quite exemplary, it's impossible to hear it any better." Nikisch took the London Symphony Orchestra on tour through the United States in April 1912, the first American tour by

11154-607: The Bride (1950), An American in Paris (1951), The Bad and the Beautiful (1952), Lust for Life (1956) and Gigi (1958). An American in Paris and Gigi respectively both won the Academy Award for Best Picture , with Minnelli winning the Best Director for the latter film. For over 26 years, Minnelli became the longest-tenured film director for MGM. By 1962, Minnelli's relationship with MGM worsened due to

11323-423: The Bride . Filming began on October 9 and was finished 23 days later. After this, Minnelli returned to film the ballet sequence, starting on December 6 and wrapping on January 8, 1951. The film proved popular with audiences, earning over $ 8 million in the United States. Kelly and Caron were praised by film critics, though the film's dramatic continuity was criticized. At the 1952 Academy Awards , An American in Paris

11492-662: The Broadway musical centered on a married couple who flee the United States, and travel across Europe, Africa, Japan , and the West Indies . The musical had a try-out in Boston and opened at the Winter Garden Theatre on September 19, 1935. In his New York Times review, Brooks Atkinson praised Minnelli's efforts, writing: "Without resorting to opulence he has filled the stage with rich, glowing colors that give

11661-494: The Good Old Summertime (1949). Pandro Berman phoned Minnelli at his office, offering him to direct a film adaptation of Gustave Flaubert 's novel Madame Bovary . Minnelli accepted as it was one of his favorite novels. Lana Turner was initially offered the lead role but Minnelli rejected the idea as Turner was perceived as a sex symbol . The Production Code also warned that Turner's onscreen image, along with

11830-442: The Minnelli Brothers' Tent Theater, serving as the musical conductor . Both had met each other at a musical revue; although they initially argued over her accompaniment, they grew closer and were married in November 1894. Following the marriage, she joined the Minnelli Brothers troupe. His paternal grandfather, Vincenzo Minnelli, and grand-uncle, Domenico Minnelli, both Sicilian revolutionaries , were forced to leave Sicily after

11999-581: The Sky (1943). A year later, Minnelli directed Meet Me in St. Louis (1944) starring Judy Garland . He married Garland a year later, and their daughter Liza was born in 1946. He subsequently directed Garland in The Clock (1945), Ziegfeld Follies (1945) and The Pirate (1948). He divorced Garland in 1951. Throughout the 1950s, Minnelli directed numerous comedies, dramas and musicals, including Father of

12168-616: The Stage: From Naturalism to Growtowski , and Will's The Director in a Changing Theatre (1976). Because of the relatively late emergence of theatre directing as a performing arts profession when compared with for instance acting or musicianship, a rise of professional vocational training programmes in directing can be seen mostly in the second half of the 20th century. Most European countries nowadays know some form of professional directing training, usually at drama schools or conservatoires , or at universities. In Britain,

12337-476: The Streeter treatise much beloved." The film was nominated for three Academy Awards for Best Picture, Best Actor, and Best Screenplay. The basis for An American in Paris (1951) began from Freed's friendship with Ira Gershwin at his residence. Freed told Ira he wanted to adapt his brother George 's orchestral piece An American in Paris into a film and potentially include a ballet sequence. In 1949, MGM and

12506-581: The aid of a baton , and may use other gestures or signals such as facial expression and eye contact. A conductor usually supplements their direction with verbal instructions to their musicians in rehearsal . The conductor typically stands on a raised podium with a large music stand for the full score, which contains the musical notation for all the instruments or voices. Since the mid-19th century, most conductors have not played an instrument when conducting, although in earlier periods of classical music history, leading an ensemble while playing an instrument

12675-608: The art direction for the operetta, The Dubarry . During rehearsals, Minnelli and Moore had creative differences but remained cordial. The operetta had tryouts in Boston , and premiered in New York in November 1932 where it ran for 87 performances. Based on his success, Paramount executives selected him for costume and set design for the 1933 edition of Ziegfeld Follies . However, by 1933, Paramount-Publix filed for bankruptcy protection, in which Adolph Zukor fired B. P. Schulberg as

12844-636: The art director for the Radio City Music Hall . In 1935, Minnelli became a theatre director with At Home Abroad (1935), starring Beatrice Lillie and Eleanor Powell . In 1937, Minnelli moved to Hollywood and served a brief stint at Paramount Pictures before returning to Broadway. In 1940, Minnelli was hired by Arthur Freed to work for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer , where he directed sequences in Babes on Broadway (1941) and Panama Hattie (1942). He made his directorial film debut with Cabin in

13013-638: The behest of Sidney Franklin , Minnelli was approached to direct two segments ("Mademoiselle" and "Why Should I Cry") for the 1953 anthology film The Story of Three Loves . Minnelli agreed to direct the segment "Mademoiselle," adapted from the short story "Lucy and the Stranger" by Arnold Phillips . Reuniting with Leslie Caron, the segment featured Ricky Nelson , Zsa Zsa Gabor , Farley Granger , and Ethel Barrymore . Filming lasted for three weeks before wrapping in February 1952. The segment "Why Should I Cry"

13182-465: The bride and her mother respectively. Filming began on January 16, 1950 and wrapped a month and a day later. Released in May 1950, the film earned $ 4.15 million in distributor rentals at the box office. Critical reception was positive, with Bosley Crowther of The New York Times calling the film "equally wonderful" when compared to the book, with "all the warmth and poignancy and understanding that makes

13351-420: The character of the ictus, ranging from short and sharp for staccato , to long and fluid for legato . Many conductors change the tension of the hands: strained muscles and rigid movements may correspond to marcato , while relaxed hands and soft movements may correspond to legato or espressivo . Phrasing may be indicated by wide overhead arcs or by a smooth hand motion either forwards or side-to-side. A held note

13520-654: The collapse of the provisional Sicilian government that arose from the 1848 revolution against Ferdinand II and Bourbon rule . Domenico Minnelli had been Vice-Chancellor of the Gran Corte Civile in Palermo at the time he helped organize the January 12, 1848, uprising there. After the Bourbon return to power Vincenzo reportedly hid in the catacombs of Palermo for 18 months before being successfully smuggled onto

13689-595: The commercial failures of The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse and Two Weeks in Another Town . He formed his production company called Venice Productions, partnering with MGM and 20th Century Fox on The Courtship of Eddie's Father (1963) and Goodbye Charlie (1964). He directed his final film A Matter of Time (1976), starring his daughter Liza. Ten years later, in 1986, Minnelli died at his Beverly Hills residence, at age 83. Lester Anthony Minnelli

13858-615: The conductor at risk for rotator cuff injury from repetitive motion. A review of evidence provided by the UK National Health Service suggests the Alexander Technique aids pain-relief: "long-term back pain – lessons in the technique may lead to reduced back pain-associated disability and reduce how often you feel pain for up to a year or more; long-term neck pain – lessons in the technique may lead to reduced neck pain and associated disability for up to

14027-430: The conductor while studying the score but may sometimes be spontaneous. A distinction is sometimes made between orchestral conducting and choral conducting. Typically, orchestral conductors use a baton more often than choral conductors. The grip of the baton varies from conductor to conductor. At the beginning of a piece of music, the conductor raises their hands (or hand if they only use a single hand) to indicate that

14196-405: The conductor, is a common element in the cueing technique of some conductors. Mere eye contact or a look in the general direction of the players may be sufficient in many instances, as when more than one section of the ensemble enters at the same time. Larger musical events may warrant the use of a larger or more emphatic cue designed to encourage emotion and energy. Articulation may be indicated by

14365-845: The curriculum. While working at Marshall Field's, a blind female customer arrived to rent stage props for the Radical Playhouse. She asked Minnelli to join their acting group where they were performing one-act plays by Eugene O'Neill . Minnelli agreed, and read for the part of a retired sea captain in O'Neill's Where the Cross is Made . He disliked this acting job, but Minnelli remained a frequent attendee of Chicago's theatre district . In his spare time, he painted watercolor sketches of contemporary theatre actors, including Ina Claire and Mary Nash . Encouraged by his friends, he sold his paintings backstage, and earned enough money to live on his own. One night, while selling his artwork backstage, he

14534-426: The dialogue between players/singers and conductor. Facial expressions may also be important to demonstrate the character of the music or to encourage the players. In some cases, such as where there has been little rehearsal time to prepare a piece, a conductor may discreetly indicate how the bars of music will be beat immediately before the start of the movement by holding up their fingers in front of their chest (so only

14703-431: The earliest essays dedicated to the subject. Berlioz is considered the first virtuoso conductor. Wagner was largely responsible for shaping the conductor's role as one who imposes his own view of a piece onto the performance rather than one who is just responsible for ensuring entries are made at the right time and that there is a unified beat . Predecessors who focused on conducting include François Habeneck , who founded

14872-604: The early baroque era, performers relied on other indications to be able to understand the intent behind their parts. Beginning in the sixteenth century, the role of the Kapellmeister in Germany represented someone who audibly tapped the beat on a hard surface using a staff , rolled sheet of paper, or other object and took many other forms throughout Europe. Having an audible source of beat allowed ensemble members to maintain consistency and execute rhythms with precision before

15041-406: The erecting of a stage and scenery (there were no permanent, purpose-built theatre structures at this time, and performances of vernacular drama mostly took place in the open air), casting and directing the actors (which included fining them for those that infringed rules), and addressing the audience at the beginning of each performance and after each intermission. From Renaissance times up until

15210-477: The estate of George Gershwin entered negotiations, by which the studio acquired the rights to Gershwin's catalogue for $ 158,750 (equivalent to $ 2,032,888 in 2023). The story was inspired by a Life magazine article of American G.I.s studying art in Paris on sponsorship from the G.I. Bill , which Freed had remembered. In the film, Jerry Mulligan (Kelly) is an artist studying in Paris. He meets Milo Roberts ( Nina Foch ), an heiress and arts patron who expresses

15379-607: The experimental films of Jean Cocteau and Luis Buñuel , and the writings of Sigmund Freud . Around this time, Minnelli dropped Lester from his name, replacing it with "Vincente"; the final "e" was added in order to seem more sophisticated and elegant. One day, Minnelli approached Frank Cambria, who headed the Chicago Theatre , which was a part of the Balaban and Katz theater chain. He told Cambria that he should open his own costume department, and allow him to run it. Cambria took Minnelli to A. J. Balaban 's office, where he

15548-791: The family's celebration of the 1904 St. Louis World's Fair . Judy Garland was cast as Esther Smith, though she felt her role would be overshadowed by Margaret O'Brien , who was portraying Tootie. Principal photography began on December 7, 1943 though continued filming was frequently delayed by Garland's tardiness and claims of illness. Determined to have Garland's physical beauty showcased, he requested make-up artist Dorothy Ponedel be assigned to Garland. Ponedel refined her appearance, which included extending and reshaping her eyebrows, changing her hairline, modifying her lip line and removing her nose discs and dental caps. Filming wrapped on April 7, 1944. During filming, Garland and Minnelli had some creative differences, though Garland grew closer to him after watching

15717-554: The film and Jones's performance, though it earned $ 2 million at the box office. That same year, Minnelli reportedly directed the climax sequence in Robert Z. Leonard 's The Bribe (1949). Minnelli's subsequent collaboration with Berman was Father of the Bride (1950) based on the bestselling 1949 novel by Edward Streeter . Jack Benny pursued the lead role and was given a screen test, but Minnelli wanted Spencer Tracy and cast him. Elizabeth Taylor and Joan Bennett were cast as

15886-553: The film unfinished, and MGM dissatisfied with his cut. The film's producer Jack Cummings hoped Minnelli would inject his style into the film. Onboard as director, Minnelli hired Sig Herzig and Fred Saidy to rewrite the script. A loose remake of Spite Marriage (1929), Skelton plays Joseph Renolds, a tailor's assistant, who becomes enamored with Constance Shaw (Powell), a Broadway star, and attends every performance of her Civil War melodrama. Shaw impulsively marries Renolds to spite her lover ( Richard Ainley ). Herzig and Saidy updated

16055-472: The film's run time. Between October 21 and December 19, reshoots were taken with the musical number "Voodoo" replaced with a livelier reshoot of "Mack the Black". When filming concluded, the film had gone over budget, costing $ 3.7 million. The film earned over $ 2.9 million at the box office, but posted a net loss of $ 2.2 million. Despite the financial failure of The Pirate , Minnelli was slated to direct Easter Parade (1948) with Garland and Gene Kelly cast in

16224-557: The first Mexican-born woman to attain distinction in the profession. Similarly, conductors of East Asian descent have become more prominent within the contemporary orchestral landscape—notably Seiji Ozawa who was thematic director of the Boston Symphony Orchestra from 1973 until 2002 after holding similar posts in San Francisco and Toronto. Myung-Whun Chung , who has held major posts in Germany and France,

16393-620: The greatest performers. Bülow raised the technical standards of conducting to an unprecedented level through such innovations as separate, detailed rehearsals of different sections of the orchestra ("sectional rehearsal"). In his posts as head of (sequentially) the Bavarian State Opera , Meiningen Court Orchestra , and Berlin Philharmonic he brought a level of nuance and subtlety to orchestral performance previously heard only in solo instrumental playing, and in doing so made

16562-463: The holder to teach in colleges, universities and conservatories. In addition to academic study, another part of the training pathway for many conductors is conducting amateur orchestras, such as youth orchestras , school orchestras and community orchestras. A small number of conductors become professionals without formal training in conducting. These individuals often have achieved renown as instrumental or vocal performers, and they have often undertaken

16731-419: The idea. In 1942, Minnelli was called to Freed's office where he was offered to direct Cabin in the Sky (1943). Minnelli accepted, writing he "interpreted the assignment, with more freedom than I'd dreamed possible, as just reward for past contributions." Based on the 1940 musical by Vernon Duke and John La Touche , Cabin in the Sky tells the story of Petunia ( Ethel Waters ), a devout woman, who prays for

16900-404: The increasing size of instrumental ensembles in opera and symphonic performances meant the players were increasingly less able to follow along. Solutions to this issue were temporarily addressed by the use of two conductors, with the keyboard player in charge of the singers while the principal violinist or leader was in charge of the orchestra, however this did not prove to be a sustainable effort in

17069-435: The invention of the metronome many years later. In instrumental music throughout the 18th century, a member of the ensemble usually acted as the conductor. This was sometimes the concertmaster , who could use their bow , or a keyboard player (often harpsichordist) using their hands, and would direct the tempo/rhythm of the music in patterns similar to those we are familiar with today. Although effective in smaller ensembles,

17238-696: The job"; to this purpose, theatres often employ trainee assistant directors or have in-house education schemes to train young theatre directors. Examples are the Royal National Theatre in London , which frequently organizes short directing courses, or the Orange Tree Theatre and the Donmar Warehouse on London's West End , which both employ resident assistant directors on a one-year basis for training purposes. Directing

17407-473: The last minute for an indisposed conductor. He is to this day regarded by such authorities as James Levine as the greatest of all Verdi conductors. But Toscanini's repertory was wide, and it was in his interpretations of the German symphonists Beethoven and Brahms that he was particularly renowned and influential, favoring stricter and faster tempi than a conductor like Bülow or Wagner. Still, his style shows more inflection than his reputation may suggest, and he

17576-444: The lead roles (though Kelly was later replaced by Fred Astaire after a rehearsal injury). Rehearsals began on September 5, 1947, but five days later, Minnelli was called into Freed's office and removed from the film. Freed had cited Minnelli's removal based on the advice of Garland's psychiatrist. Charles Walters was hired to replace him. For almost a year, Minnelli was without a film project while Garland filmed Easter Parade and In

17745-483: The libretto, while Lena Horne read for the title role. After six months of development, Minnelli abandoned the project. Exhausted, Minnelli took a sabbatical break until producer Max Gordon offered him to direct Very Warm for May . Oscar Hammerstein II and Jerome Kern were hired to write the lyrics and compose the musical score, respectively. Pleased with the musical's first act, Minnelli unsuccessfully tried to rearrange

17914-439: The long run. Moving out of the eighteenth century, it was clear that music was growing too complicated and performances too refined, to rely purely on aural skills to stay in time. By the early 19th century ( c.  1820 ), it became the norm to have a dedicated conductor who did not also play an instrument during the performance. While some orchestras protested the introduction of the conductor, since they were used to having

18083-428: The look, Minnelli used the 1880s as inspiration for the hair styles and elegant costumes. Opening on January 30, 1936, the Ziegfeld Follies was a commercial success, running for five months and reopened for another five months after a summer hiatus. Minnelli was not involved in the revival, but instead chose to direct a musical revue titled The Show Must Go . Minnelli devised an original story, featuring new songs from

18252-677: The major languages used in choral writing (including French, Italian and Latin, among others) and they must understand the correct diction of these languages in a choral singing context. The opposite is also true: a choral conductor will be expected to rehearse and lead a string orchestra or full orchestra when performing works for choir and orchestra. As such, a choral conductor needs to know how to rehearse and lead instrument sections. Master of music degrees (M.mus. or M.M.) in conducting consist of private conducting lessons, ensemble experience, coaching, and graduate courses in music history and music theory, along with one or two conducted concerts. A M.mus.

18421-747: The most part) live concert recordings, believing that music-making did not come to life in a studio without an audience. In the last third of the 20th century, conducting technique—particularly with the right hand and the baton—became increasingly standardized. Conductors like Willem Mengelberg in Amsterdam until the end of World War II had had extensive rehearsal time to mold orchestras very precisely and thus could have idiosyncratic techniques; modern conductors, who spend less time with any given orchestra, must get results with much less rehearsal time. A more standardized technique allows communication to be much more rapid. Nonetheless, conductors' techniques still show

18590-465: The musical numbers featuring Lena Horne . Meanwhile, Minnelli visited the set for Strike Up the Band (1940), starring Mickey Rooney and Judy Garland . Freed mentioned they needed a musical number for a scene where Rooney's character aspires to be like Paul Whiteman , a bandleader. Minnelli suggested using a bowl of fruits, having spotted one on set. Freed liked the idea and hired Henry Fox to create

18759-497: The novel's portrayal of marriage infidelity, would violate its guidelines. Jennifer Jones was considered but was under contract to her husband David O. Selznick , but MGM executive Benjamin Thau successfully negotiated a stipulation deal to borrow her. James Mason had wanted to play the role of Flaubert, while Louis Jourdan and Alf Kjellin (billed as Christopher Kent) were lent onto the film courtesy of Selznick. Madame Bovary

18928-505: The offer to direct Lili (1953). During a lunch meeting at the Romanoff's, MGM producer John Houseman showed Minnelli a screenplay draft titled Memorial to a Bad Man based on a short story by George Bradshaw . It was later retitled The Bad and the Beautiful (1952). Minnelli agreed to direct, with Kirk Douglas as his sole choice to portray ruthless film producer Jonathan Shields. However, MGM production head Dore Schary had offered

19097-449: The orchestra to produce an "ugly" tone in a certain passage in which he believed it suited the expressive meaning of the music (the first horn player refused and finally agreed to let an understudy play instead of himself). Both Karajan and Bernstein made extensive use of advances in media to convey their art, but in tellingly different ways. Bernstein hosted major prime-time national television series to educate and reach out to children and

19266-415: The outside angle back to the focal point. Then the process repeats. It is typical for drum majors to use smaller, simpler patterns to accommodate faster tempos for endurance and clarity, emphasizing beats 1 and 3 and minimizing beats 2 and 4. What is "appropriate" conducting has evolved over the decades. During the 1970s and prior it was not uncommon for a stationary drum major to do a high-lift mark time on

19435-408: The performance standards. Some choral conductors are hired to prepare a choir for several weeks which will subsequently be directed by another conductor. The choral conductor is usually acknowledged for their preparatory work in the concert program. Some conductors may have a significant public relations role, giving interviews to the local news channel and appearing on television talk shows to promote

19604-443: The performers can see). For example, in a 4 piece that the conductor will beat "in two" (two ictus points or beats per bar, as if it were 2 ), the conductor would hold up two fingers in front of their chest. In most cases, there is a short pause between movements of a symphony, concerto or dance suite. This brief pause gives orchestra or choir members time to turn the pages of their part and ready themselves for

19773-414: The performers. They may also attend to organizational matters, such as scheduling rehearsals, planning a concert season, hearing auditions and selecting members, and promoting their ensemble in the media. Orchestras, choirs, concert bands , and other sizable musical ensembles, such as big bands are usually led by conductors. The principal conductor of an orchestra or opera company is referred to as

19942-427: The piece is about to begin. This is a signal for the orchestra members to ready their instruments to be played or for the choristers to be ready and watching. The conductor then looks at the different sections of the orchestra (winds, strings, etc.) or choir to ensure that all the orchestra members are ready to play and choir members are ready. In some choral works, the conductor may signal to a pianist or organist to play

20111-583: The plot by having Skelton's character reveal John Hodiak 's character to be a spy for the Axis powers . Between projects, Minnelli directed Lena Horne in her " Honeysuckle Rose " segment in Thousands Cheer (1943). For Meet Me in St. Louis (1944), Freed again hired Minnelli to direct. Framed around the four seasons, the film tells of the Smith family and their conflicts, with the conclusion focused on

20280-401: The podium for an audible and visual tempo ; with the arrival of increasingly higher drum major platforms and thus greater visibility this has become both dangerous and unnecessary. Current drum majors use a variety of conducting patterns and styles that suit the needs of their respective marching bands and/or drum corps. In addition to memorizing the music (between six and nine minutes of music

20449-451: The public at large about classical music; Karajan made a series of films late in his life, but in them he did not talk. Both made numerous recordings, but their attitudes toward recording differed: Karajan frequently made new studio recordings to take advantage of advances in recording technique, which fascinated him—he played a role in setting the specifications of the compact disc—but Bernstein, in his post-New York days, came to insist on (for

20618-453: The rehearsals are often stopped to draw the musicians' attentions to performance errors or transposition mistakes. Conducting requires an understanding of the elements of musical expression ( tempo , dynamics , articulation ) and the ability to communicate them effectively to an ensemble. The ability to communicate nuances of phrasing and expression through gestures is also beneficial. Conducting gestures are preferably prepared beforehand by

20787-488: The role of director (or stage manager or pageant master ) considerable importance. A miniature by Jean Fouquet from 1460 (pictured) bears one of the earliest depictions of a director at work. Holding a prompt book, the central figure directs, with the aid of a long stick, the proceedings of the staging of a dramatization of the Martyrdom of Saint Apollonia . According to Fouquet, the director's tasks included overseeing

20956-570: The role to Clark Gable but he declined. Douglas read the script and accepted the role. Lana Turner was hired to portray Georgina Lorrison, the "beautiful"; when both casting choices were announced, the trades questioned: "when these two get together..." The story focuses on Jonathan Shields (Douglas) and his Hollywood rise by manipulating three individuals: actress Georgina (Turner) whom he deceives by professing his love, director Fred Amiel ( Barry Sullivan ) whose picture he expropriates, and screenwriter James Bartlow ( Dick Powell ) who loses his wife to

21125-484: The scene which then was excised from the film. Modestly budgeted at $ 679,260 (in 1942 dollars), Cabin in the Sky earned $ 1.6 million at the box office. Three weeks after he finished filming Cabin in the Sky , Minnelli was assigned to direct I Dood It (1943), starring Red Skelton and Eleanor Powell . Del Ruth was the film's original director but he had been drafted into the United States Army , leaving

21294-403: The score. Both men collaborated with David Freeman on the script, but Saroyan exited the project. During the spring of 1940, Harburg brought Arthur Freed into Minnelli's studio on East 54th Street. Minnelli remembered, "Then Arthur Freed came to see me at my studio and convinced me to come to MGM to do the kind of thing that I liked, you know?" After a discussion, Minnelli agreed to be paid $ 300

21463-481: The screenwriting team of Betty Comden and Adolph Green to devise the script. The film tells of Tony Hunter, an aging musical star who hopes a Broadway show will restart his career. He meets with two writer friends and a Broadway producer who stage a musical, starring Hunter and a ballerina. Fred Astaire was cast as Troy Hunter, while the writers Lester and Lilly Marton (portrayed by Oscar Levant and Nanette Fabray ) were loosely based by Comden and Green. Cyd Charisse

21632-532: The second act. The musical opened at the Alvin Theatre on November 17, 1939, with musical critic Brooks Atkinson writing in his review that Minnelli had not "solved the confusion of the story." Adjacent of this time, William Saroyan 's play The Time of Your Life had opened three weeks before and was well-regarded. Minnelli became friends with Saroyan and they partnered on a black surrealist musical comedy, with Richard Rodgers and Lorenz Hart composing

21801-413: The simultaneous performance of several players or singers by the use of gesture." The primary duties of the conductor are to interpret the score in a way that reflects the specific indications in that score, set the tempo , ensure correct entries by ensemble members, and "shape" the phrasing where appropriate. Conductors communicate with their musicians primarily through hand gestures, usually with

21970-464: The size of conducting movements frequently results in changes in the character of the music depending upon the circumstances. Dynamics can be fine-tuned using various gestures: showing one's palm to the performers or leaning away from them may demonstrate a decrease in volume. To adjust the overall balance of the various instruments or voices, these signals can be combined or directed toward a particular section or performer. The indication of entries, when

22139-569: The soul of her gambler-husband "Little" Joe Jackson ( Eddie "Rochester" Anderson ). Filming began in August 1942, with only Waters and Rex Ingram reprising their Broadway roles. Lena Horne was cast as Georgia Brown, a seductive woman who tempts Jackson. During production, Minnelli had shot a musical number "Ain't It the Truth," featuring Horne in a bubble bath. Joseph Breen of the Motion Picture Production Code objected to

22308-412: The sound of the ensemble, and control the interpretation and pacing of the music. Communication is non-verbal during a performance; however, in rehearsal frequent interruptions allow directions as to how the music should be played. During rehearsals the conductor may stop the playing of a piece to request changes in the phrasing or request a change in the timbre of a certain section. In amateur orchestras,

22477-724: The staging of elaborate spectacles of the Meininger Company under George II, Duke of Saxe-Meiningen . The management of large numbers of extras and complex stagecraft matters necessitated an individual to take on the role of overall coordinator. This gave rise to the role of the director in modern theatre, and Germany would provide a platform for a generation of emerging visionary theatre directors, such as Erwin Piscator and Max Reinhardt . Simultaneously, Constantin Stanislavski , principally an actor-manager, would set up

22646-438: The start of the next movement. String players may apply rosin or wipe sweat off their hands with a handkerchief. Reed players may take this time to change to a new reed. In some cases, woodwind or brass players will use the pause to switch to a different instrument (e.g., from trumpet to cornet or from clarinet to E ♭ clarinet). If the conductor wishes to immediately begin one movement after another for musical reasons, this

22815-473: The store windows were changed four times a year with elaborate themes matched to each corresponding season. Minnelli was first assigned to design the men's store, but he instead asked to design windows on Wabash Avenue where furniture and decorative antique items were frequently rearranged. Meanwhile, Minnelli enrolled in the Art Institute of Chicago with personal ambitions to become a painter. However, he dropped out due to his work schedule and lack of interest in

22984-423: The striking of the ictus point of the baton stroke. Dynamics are indicated in various ways. The dynamic may be communicated by the size of the conducting movements, larger shapes representing louder sounds. Changes in dynamic may be signalled with the second hand to indicate the beat: an upward motion (usually palm-up) indicates a crescendo ; a downward motion (usually palm-down) indicates a diminuendo . Changing

23153-529: The structure and philosophy of individual theatre companies. Directors use a wide variety of techniques, philosophies, and levels of collaboration. In ancient Greece , the birthplace of European drama, the writer bore principal responsibility for the staging of his plays. Actors were generally semi-professionals, and the director oversaw the mounting of plays from the writing process all the way through to their performance, often acting in them too, as Aeschylus for example did. The author-director would also train

23322-572: The student a more well-rounded education. Students do not usually specialize in conducting at the B.Mus. stage; instead, they usually develop general music skills such as singing, playing an orchestral instrument, performing in a choir, playing in orchestra, and playing a keyboard instrument such as the piano or the organ. Another topic that conducting students study is the languages used in classical music opera. Orchestral conductors are expected to be able to rehearse and lead choirs in works for orchestra and choir. As such, orchestral conductors need to know

23491-772: The studio's head of production and began a corporate restructuring. Paramount's East Coast studios were relocated to Astoria, New York , but it was decided their touring theatre unit was no longer profitable and was closed down in favor of touring big bands . Minnelli was eventually employed as a set designer at Radio City Music Hall , after it opened in December 1932. During rehearsals, theatre businessman Samuel "Roxy" Rothafel harshly criticized Minnelli, art director Clark Robinson, and dance director Russell Markert. Following another heated discussion, Robinson immediately resigned, to which Minnelli assumed Robinson's former position. In July 1933, Minnelli's first art direction assignment

23660-560: The theatre profession. The director originating artistic vision and concept, and realizing the staging of a production, became the norm rather than the exception. Great forces in the emancipation of theatre directing as a profession were notable 20th-century theatre directors like Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko , Vsevolod Meyerhold , Yevgeny Vakhtangov , Michael Chekhov , Yuri Lyubimov (Russia), Orson Welles , Peter Brook , Peter Hall (Britain), Bertolt Brecht (Germany), Giorgio Strehler , and Franco Zeffirelli (Italy). A cautionary note

23829-476: The title of band director , bandmaster , or drum major . Respected senior conductors are sometimes referred to by the Italian word maestro (feminine, maestra ), which translates as "master" or "teacher". The beginnings of conducting as a form of beat-keeping can be traced back to ancient times in the Egyptian, Greek, and Roman societies. Through examining historical records- notably hieroglyphics , there

23998-536: The tradition that theatre directors emerge from degree courses (usually in English literature) at the Oxbridge universities has meant that for a long time, professional vocational training did not take place at drama schools or performing arts colleges, although an increase in training programmes for theatre directors can be witnessed since the 1970s and 1980s. In American universities, the seminal directing program at

24167-608: The upcoming season or particular concerts. On the other hand, a conductor hired to guest conduct a single concert may only have the responsibility of rehearsing the orchestra for several pieces and conducting one or two concerts. While a handful of conductors have become well-known celebrities, such as Leonard Bernstein, most are only known within the classical music scene. Classical choral and instrumental conducting have established comprehensive systems of instruction and training. Aspiring conductors can study at colleges, conservatories, and universities. Music schools and universities offer

24336-519: The whole work an extraordinary loveliness. Nothing quite so exhilarating as this has borne the Shubert seal before." While At Home Aboard continued its Broadway run, Minnelli returned to costume and scenic design for the Ziegfeld Follies of 1936 , starring Fannie Brice . John Murray Anderson was the director, but during rehearsals, he transferred directing duties to Minnelli. To update

24505-519: The words along with the vocalists. Karajan could conduct for hours without moving his feet, while Bernstein was known at times to leap into the air at a great climax. As the music director of the Berlin Philharmonic, Karajan cultivated warm, blended beauty of tone, which has sometimes been criticized as too uniformly applied; by contrast, in Bernstein's only appearance with the Berlin Philharmonic in 1979—performing Mahler's Symphony No. 9 —he tried to get

24674-525: Was Yolanda and the Thief (1945) starring Fred Astaire and Lucille Bremer . Before he was hired for The Clock , Yolanda and the Thief was intended to be Minnelli's next film. Adapted from the 1943 magazine short story by Ludwig Bemelmans and Jacques Théry , the film tells of two con men (Astaire and Frank Morgan ) who are hiding from extradition in South America . Both men learn about Yolanda,

24843-508: Was Garland's first straight dramatic film after starring in several musical films. Fred Zinnemann was initially hired to direct the film. By August 1944, he was removed at Garland's request after they could not get along and the dailes proved disappointing. When Freed asked who she wanted to replace him, Garland requested Minnelli to direct. Minnelli accepted the assignment on two conditions: Zinnemann would not object to his hiring and he would have creative control over Garland. Zinnemann's footage

25012-409: Was Italianate, with a long, large baton and clear beats (often not using his left hand); Furtwängler beat time with less apparent precision, because he wanted a more rounded sound (although it is a myth that his technique was vague; many musicians have attested that he was easy to follow in his own way). In any event, their examples illustrate a larger point about conducting technique in the first half of

25181-519: Was a commercial disappointment. By this point, Garland had become pregnant with her first daughter, Liza . A musicalized biopic of Jerome Kern titled Till the Clouds Roll By (1946) was scheduled to begin production in October 1945. Garland had been cast as Marilyn Miller and Minnelli had been assigned to direct Garland's scenes. Her scenes took two weeks to complete and were finished on November 8, 1945. However, one number "D'Ya Love Me?"

25350-447: Was an accomplished composer as well as performer; and he was a disciple of the theorist Heinrich Schenker , who emphasized concern for underlying long-range harmonic tensions and resolutions in a piece, a strength of Furtwängler's conducting. Along with his interest in the large-scale, Furtwängler also shaped the details of the piece in a particularly compelling and expressive manner. The two men had very different techniques: Toscanini's

25519-597: Was approached by Paul Stone, who admired Minnelli's pictorial composition. "If you can do this sort of thing, you can become a fine photographer," Stone told him. Minnelli left his Marshall Field's job, and worked for Stone as an assistant photographer. Stone specialized in photographing actors and socialites from Chicago's theater district at theatrical luminaries, society matrons and wedding parties. At Stone's Raymor studio, Minnelli photographed numerous celebrities, including Ina Claire, where he coaxed them into capturing their best angles. Minnelli reflected, "Stone's photography

25688-425: Was asked to work on New York stage productions for $ 150 a week. He left Chicago and rented a tiny Greenwich Village apartment. At Paramount, Minnelli worked exclusively in costumes, and restricted from designing sets because he wasn't in the set designers' union. He was eventually accepted into the union membership thanks to sponsorship from J. Woodman Thompson, a prominent stage designer. His first Broadway assignment

25857-497: Was born on February 28, 1903, to Marie Émilie Odile Lebeau and Vincent Charles Minnelli. He was baptized in Chicago, and was the youngest of four known sons, only two of whom survived to adulthood. His mother, whose stage name was Mina Gennell, was born in Chicago. She was of French-Canadian descent, and there is a likelihood of Anishinaabe lineage through her mother, who was born on Mackinac Island, Michigan . His father co-founded

26026-496: Was cast as the ballerina Gabrielle Gerard. Theatre director If the production is a new piece of writing or a (new) translation of a play, the director may also work with the playwright or a translator. In contemporary theatre, after the playwright , the director is generally the principle visionary, making decisions on the artistic conception and interpretation of the play and its staging. Different directors occupy different places of authority and responsibility, depending on

26195-426: Was common. In Baroque music , the group would typically be led by the harpsichordist or first violinist ( concertmaster ), an approach that in modern times has been revived by several music directors for music from this period. Conducting while playing a piano or synthesizer may also be done with musical theatre pit orchestras . Instrumentalists may perform challenging works while conducting - for instance, it

26364-576: Was designing a "Water Lily" ballet, a Cuban potpourri illustrated with a backdrop of fighting cocks , a Big Top interior for a circus number, and a Rue de la Paix dress shop to display the Roxettes . In December 1933, Minnelli art-directed a production of the Scheherazade suite by Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov . His efforts were applauded in the mainstream press, including The New York Times and New York Herald Tribune . Despite this, Rothafel

26533-612: Was designing the show curtain for Earl Carroll 's 1931 edition of the Vanities musical revue. Taking inspiration from Léon Bakst 's designs for the Ballets Russes , Minnelli fashioned a 300 feet (91 m)–tall green and silver curtain to accompany the Art Deco theatrical style. Impressed, Carroll rehired Minnelli as a costume and set designer for the 1932 Vanities . By this time, Grace Moore asked Minnelli to supervise

26702-470: Was discarded aside from exterior shots of New York. The Pennsylvania Station was recreated on the MGM soundstage while local New York sites were filmed using rear projection . On January 9, 1945, before Garland was to film The Harvey Girls (1946), Minnelli and Garland were engaged to be married. The two married on June 15, inside Garland's mother's house in Wilshire, Los Angeles . Minnelli's next film

26871-482: Was dropped and reworked into Torch Song (1953), starring Joan Crawford . Because of the success of An American in Paris (1951) and Singin' in the Rain (1952), Freed decided to produce another film adapting the musical catalogue of renowned composers. For The Band Wagon (1953), it was decided to adapt the music and lyrics by Arthur Schwartz and Howard Dietz . To write a suitable storyline, Minnelli turned to

27040-500: Was enlisted to film the fashion show finale for Mervyn LeRoy 's Lovely to Look At (1952). Adrian Greenburg (also known as "Adrian") and Tony Duquette had designed costumes for the sequence, costing over $ 100,000 (equivalent to $ 1,147,368 in 2023). Minnelli declined to be credited for the film. On September 21, production on Huckleberry Finn was postponed indefinitely due to Kelly and Kaye's withdrawal. Due to similarities with An American in Paris (1951), Minnelli turned down

27209-412: Was excised from the film. Minnelli was next approached to direct Undercurrent (1946) by Pandro Berman with Katharine Hepburn and Robert Taylor cast in the lead roles. Based on a story by Thelma Strabel , the film is about the daughter of a small-town college professor who marries an industrialist and moves into the city with him. She soon learns about her missing brother-in-law, whom her husband

27378-552: Was given only three months for preparation before its premiere on December 1, 1937. The musical was well-received, with Life magazine calling it "the funniest show of the year." Time magazine also applauded: "Sharing credit with Wynn for the show's success is able Vincente Minnelli, trained in the hard school of movie stage-shows, who directed it and designed the scenery." Inspired by the musicals Pins and Needles and Four Saints in Three Acts , Minnelli began developing

27547-611: Was hired as a costume and set designer . Assigned to give the stage productions "a custom touch", Minnelli was shocked the costume department operated on meager budgets. At the time, theatre productions ran one week at the Chicago Theatre where the sets and costumes were disassembled and reused at the Tivoli and Uptown Theatre . In 1931, Balaban and Katz merged with the Paramount-Publix theater chain, and Minnelli

27716-473: Was introduced by the famed director Sir Tyrone Guthrie who said "the only way to learn how to direct a play, is ... to get a group of actors simple enough to allow you to let you direct them, and direct." A number of seminal works on directing and directors include Toby Cole and Helen Krich's 1972 Directors on Directing: A Sourcebook of the Modern Theatre , Edward Braun's 1982 book The Director and

27885-597: Was later fired and was replaced by W. G. Van Schmus. In 1934, Schmus selected Minnelli to produce his first stage show titled Coast to Coast , which opened on October 25. Accompanied with music from E. Y. Harburg and Duke Ellington , the show displayed several sets, illustrating the French Riviera , the British Gold Coast , Ivory Coast and the Barbary Coast . Backstage, Minnelli was offered

28054-451: Was nominated for eight Oscars, winning six including Best Picture. On January 18, 1951, Minnelli was announced to direct a musical film adaptation of Mark Twain 's Huckleberry Finn . Dean Stockwell was cast in the title role. William Warfield was cast as Jim, along with Gene Kelly and Danny Kaye as the Duke and Dauphin respectively. Rehearsals began in August; simultaneously, Minnelli

28223-409: Was particularly gifted at revealing detail and getting orchestras to play in a singing manner. Furtwängler, whom many regard as the greatest interpreter of Wagner (although Toscanini was also admired in this composer) and Bruckner, conducted Beethoven and Brahms with a good deal of inflection of tempo—but generally in a manner that revealed the structure and direction of the music particularly clearly. He

28392-533: Was shot from mid-December 1948 to February 1949. During production, Minnelli notably filmed an elaborate waltz sequence, utilizing 360-degree pan camera movements accompanied to Miklós Rózsa 's pre-recorded instrumental score. Biographer Stephen Harvey called it "one of the audacious epiphanies in any Minnelli movie." Released in August 1949, critics deemed Madame Bovary as an unusually distinguished film, adapting its source material with considerable drama and atmosphere. Sneak preview audiences responded favorably to

28561-613: Was soft, but in sharp focus, so that it could reproduce on the printed page. This taught me a way of creating mood." Months later, Stone suffered a nervous breakdown , and Minnelli assumed his photography duties. Feeling photography was not his suited profession, Minnelli grew dissatisfied and began reading Elizabeth and Joseph Pennell 's 1911 biography of James McNeill Whistler , an American painter. Inspired by Whistler's art techniques, Minnelli immersed himself in impressionist and surrealist painters, such as Henri Matisse , Marcel Duchamp , Max Ernst and Salvador Dalí . He also admired

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