Misplaced Pages

#473526

142-661: Wetti is best known for the visions of heaven and hell he had shortly before his death in about November 4, 824, which were recorded in Latin ( Visio Wettini ) by Heito , former abbot of Reichenau, in 824 and by Wetti's disciple Walahfrid Strabo in 827. Walahfrid's version, in verse, reveals far more about Wetti's visions than Heito's does, leveling more detailed accusations of greed and sexual misconduct against monks, government and church officials – cautiously edited or omitted by Heito – even acrostically naming Charlemagne when he appears in purgatory . An example of dream literature ,

284-405: A Gentile religion, believed that the kingdom of God was coming to earth within their own lifetimes, and looked forward to a divine future on earth. The earliest Christian writings on the topic are those by Paul, such as 1 Thessalonians 4–5, in which the dead are described as having fallen asleep. Paul says that the second coming will arrive without warning, like a "thief in the night," and that

426-484: A bride for his son. Charlemagne refused the arrangement, and the marriage did not take place. Charlemagne and Offa entered into a formal peace in 796, protecting trade and securing the rights of English pilgrims to pass through Francia on their way to Rome. Charlemagne was also the host and protector of several deposed English rulers who were later restored: Eadbehrt of Kent , Ecgberht, King of Wessex , and Eardwulf of Northumbria . Nelson writes that Charlemagne treated

568-411: A copy of the agreement between Pepin and Stephen III outlining the papal lands and rights Pepin had agreed to protect and restore. It is unclear which lands and rights the agreement involved, which remained a point of dispute for centuries. Charlemagne placed a copy of the agreement in the chapel above St. Peter's tomb as a symbol of his commitment, and left Rome to continue the siege. Disease struck

710-482: A distinctly-Frankish context. Charlemagne's coronation led to a centuries-long ideological conflict between his successors and Constantinople known as the problem of two emperors , which could be seen as a rejection or usurpation of the Byzantine emperors' claim to be the universal, preeminent rulers of Christendom. Historian James Muldoon writes that Charlemagne may have had a more limited view of his role, seeing

852-493: A famine in Francia. Hildegard gave birth to another daughter, Bertha . Charlemagne returned to Saxony in 780, holding assemblies at which he received hostages from Saxon nobles and oversaw their baptism. He and Hildegard traveled with their four younger children to Rome in the spring of 781, leaving Pepin and Charles at Worms , to make a journey first requested by Adrian in 775. Adrian baptised Carloman and renamed him Pepin,

994-512: A few years earlier – in prayer, surrounded by monks, friends and students. Wetti's visions are inscribed in the genre of dream literature , which was largely practised during the 9th century. These accounts of alleged visions or dreams follow a typical structure in which visionaries, after falling asleep, are led by angelic guides through other worlds, where they are made to witness sinners' punishments. The similarity among these visions probably arises from common cultural experiences, such as Gregory

1136-483: A goad, to keep on writing.'" Sixty copies of Heito's Visio Wettini survive today; the number suggests that the work was well received and comparatively more popular than Walahfrid's version, of which only seven copies survive. In the commentary to his 1974 English translation of Walahfrid's poem David Traill writes that the seven extant manuscripts are well preserved, with very few places in which reading becomes unclear. The relationship between these manuscripts, however,

1278-547: A group of priests and virgins God informs Wetti that he could still be forgiven providing he corrects those he had led astray. Wetti is also enjoined to expose those guilty of adultery, sodomy, greed or neglect, to reform his own actions and to deliver a message of reform and austerity, such as drinking only water, wearing only functional clothing, pursuing humble study, holy poverty, and saintly self-sacrifice. Although Wetti initially refuses this task, pleading his humility and unworthiness, on waking he immediately relays his dream to

1420-592: A legitimate marriage, but he had a vested interest in preventing Charlemagne from marrying Desiderius's daughter. Carloman died suddenly on 4 December 771, leaving Charlemagne sole king of the Franks. He moved immediately to secure his hold on his brother's territory, forcing Carloman's widow Gerberga to flee to Desiderius's court in Lombardy with their children. Charlemagne ended his marriage to Desiderius's daughter and married Hildegard , daughter of count Gerold ,

1562-406: A marriage alliance before returning to Francia with his new bride. Desiderius's daughter is traditionally known as Desiderata , although she may have been named Gerperga. Anxious about the prospect of a Frankish–Lombard alliance, Pope Stephen sent a letter to both Frankish kings decrying the marriage and separately sought closer ties with Carloman. Charlemagne had already had a relationship with

SECTION 10

#1732775587474

1704-588: A monastery in Rome. He had at least two sons; the elder, Drogo , took his place. Charlemagne's year of birth is uncertain, although it was most likely in 748. An older tradition based on three sources, however, gives a birth year of 742. The ninth-century biographer Einhard reports Charlemagne as being 72 years old at the time of his death; the Royal Frankish Annals imprecisely gives his age at death as about 71, and his original epitaph called him

1846-648: A monastery, and Charlemagne absorbed Bavaria into his kingdom. Charlemagne spent the next few years based in Regensburg , largely focused on consolidating his rule of Bavaria and warring against the Avars. Successful campaigns against them were launched from Bavaria and Italy in 788, and Charlemagne led campaigns in 791 and 792. Charlemagne gave Charles the Younger rule of Maine in Neustria in 789, leaving Pepin

1988-857: A name he shared with his half-brother. Louis and the newly renamed Pepin were then anointed and crowned. Pepin was appointed king of the Lombards, and Louis king of Aquitaine. This act was not nominal, since the young kings were sent to live in their kingdoms under the care of regents and advisers. A delegation from the Byzantine Empire , the remnant of the Roman Empire in the East, met Charlemagne during his stay in Rome; Charlemagne agreed to betroth his daughter Rotrude to Empress Irene 's son, Emperor Constantine VI . Hildegard gave birth to her eighth child, Gisela , during this trip to Italy. After

2130-563: A number of crimes and physically attacked him in April 799, attempting to remove his eyes and tongue. Leo escaped and fled north to seek Charlemagne's help. Charlemagne continued his campaign against the Saxons before breaking off to meet Leo at Paderborn in September. Hearing evidence from the pope and his enemies, he sent Leo back to Rome with royal legates who were instructed to reinstate

2272-578: A period of expansion that led to the conquests of Bavaria , Saxony and northern Spain , as well as other campaigns that led Charlemagne to extend his rule over a large part of Europe. Charlemagne spread Christianity to his new conquests (often by force), as seen at the Massacre of Verden against the Saxons . He also sent envoys and initiated diplomatic contact with the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid in

2414-594: A philosopher with a Russian Orthodox background, wrote of "the Creator's theandric aim, that earth may be oned with Heaven". Heaven is too beatific, too holy, and too perfect to comprehend or describe fully, since it is the enjoyment of the beatific vision . Hence heaven is unknowable save for what God has revealed in the Deposit of Faith and through the Magisterium . Angels and saints inhabit heaven and enjoy

2556-594: A powerful magnate in Carloman's kingdom. This was a reaction to Desiderius's sheltering of Carloman's family and a move to secure Gerold's support. Charlemagne's first campaigning season as sole king of the Franks was spent on the eastern frontier in his first war against the Saxons , who had been engaging in border raids on the Frankish kingdom when Charlemagne responded by destroying the pagan Irminsul at Eresburg and seizing their gold and silver. The success of

2698-504: A septuagenarian. Einhard said that he did not know much about Charlemagne's early life; some modern scholars believe that, not knowing the emperor's true age, he still sought to present an exact date in keeping with the Roman imperial biographies of Suetonius , which he used as a model. All three sources may have been influenced by Psalm 90 : "The days of our years are threescore years and ten". Historian Karl Ferdinand Werner challenged

2840-476: A single Frankish kingdom. The Royal Frankish Annals report that Charlemagne ruled Austrasia and Carloman ruled Burgundy , Provence , Aquitaine, and Alamannia , with no mention made of which brother received Neustria. The immediate concern of the brothers was the ongoing uprising in Aquitaine. They marched into Aquitaine together, but Carloman returned to Francia for unknown reasons and Charlemagne completed

2982-548: A state of purification known as purgatory before entering heaven. God Schools Relations with: The church teaches that heaven "is the ultimate end and fulfillment of the deepest human longings, the state of supreme, definitive happiness" and "is the perfection of salvation." This is because in heaven one enjoys the beatific vision , the source and summit of heavenly happiness, peace, glory, honor, and all good things. The church holds that, by his death and Resurrection, Jesus Christ has 'opened' heaven to us. The life of

SECTION 20

#1732775587474

3124-730: A state where the faithful will spend eternal bliss with God: Everyone that has a saving knowledge of Jesus Christ our Lord on departing from this life, goes to be in felicity with Him, and will share the eternal glories of His everlasting Kingdom; the fuller rewards and the greater glories, being reserved until the final Judgment. Matt. 25:34, 46; John 14:2, 3; II Cor. 5:6, 8, 19; Phil. 1:23, 24 —Evangelical Methodist Church Discipline (¶24) The Seventh-day Adventist understanding of heaven is: Christadelphians do not believe that anyone will go to heaven upon death. Instead, they believe that only Jesus went to Heaven and resides there alongside Jehovah. Christadelphians instead believe that following death,

3266-472: Is "all the more impressive because [the eighth and ninth centuries were] Reichenau's golden age as a center of learning", a time in which Wetti, his reputation, authority, and opinions would have "had the power to lead (or mislead) not only his students but all of the monks." Wetti also produced several written works, the best known of those that survive being his biography of Saint Gall , the founder of Reichenau's sister monastery, St Gall . Life of Saint Gall

3408-429: Is Augustine's view that people in heaven will no longer be tempted to disobey God. Another issue is how happiness could be possible with the knowledge that some loved ones are suffering eternally in hell. This argument was published as early as the 1800s by the theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher , who said that the knowledge of anyone's suffering is incompatible with salvation. This can be framed as an argument against

3550-616: Is also clear that because of his monastic training in humility, he felt all but unable to speak out against them. There are differences between Heito's Visio Wettini and Walahfrid Strabo's 827 revision and transcription into verse. Whereas Heito deliberately dropped the names of the counts, priests and monks that the angel named as sinners, Walahfrid includes them, most importantly identifying Charlemagne as he suffers purgation. In so doing, Walahfrid obviously intended to answer Wetti's call which may otherwise have fallen on deaf ears, of identifying and condemning materialistic and sexual excesses in

3692-420: Is dated to the early 820s and was later redrafted by Walahfrid Strabo . It provides a more detailed account of the saint's work in establishing the monastery of St Gall, his later life, death, and the miracles around his grave until the end of the eighth century. While these biographies are the best known of Wetti's surviving work, he might have produced a larger body of work, although evidence to substantiate this

3834-450: Is debated, with little direct evidence from contemporary sources. He normally had texts read aloud to him and dictated responses and decrees, but this was not unusual even for a literate ruler at the time. Historian Johannes Fried considers it likely that Charlemagne would have been able to read, but the medievalist Paul Dutton writes that "the evidence for his ability to read is circumstantial and inferential at best" and concludes that it

3976-433: Is divided into two books. The first book, dated to the early ninth century, briefly describes him as a studious, pious child, who in all likelihood "had been 'commended' to Columbanus at his parents' instigation" – commended in this sense denotes that Gall would have been entrusted to Columbanus, and does not suggest that he underwent the oblation rituals which became more common in the early ninth century. The second book

4118-411: Is lacking. In late October 824 Wetti drank a potion – supposedly medicinal – and became violently ill, suffering "terrible pains, vomiting up undigested food, and balking at being fed ..." On the third day, still unwell, Wetti had his bed moved to a private chamber. Under vigil of some of his brothers, he soon drifted off and his first vision began. He dreamed that a demon dressed as a cleric entered

4260-426: Is likely that he never properly mastered the skill. Einhard makes no direct mention of Charlemagne reading, and recorded that he only attempted to learn to write later in life. There are only occasional references to Charlemagne in the Frankish annals during his father's lifetime. By 751 or 752, Pepin had deposed Childeric and replaced him as king. Early Carolingian-influenced sources claim that Pepin's seizure of

4402-443: Is revealed that Wetti will die the following day and that he will ultimately be doomed to punishment because he had apparently become "smothered with laziness ... [and] shunned his duty" as a responsible educator, and had also perhaps corrupted his students in lurid ways. Christ tells Wetti that by doing so he had not only implicated himself but also misled and corrupted others – thus being responsible for their punishment. Through

Wetti of Reichenau - Misplaced Pages Continue

4544-513: Is traditionally the location of the throne of God and the angels of God, and in most forms of Christianity it is the abode of the righteous dead in the afterlife . In some Christian denominations it is understood as a temporary stage before the resurrection of the dead and the saints ' return to the New Earth . In the Book of Acts , the resurrected Jesus ascends to heaven where, as

4686-506: Is uncertain, and has not yet been conclusively determined. In any case, none of them appear to be derived from any others, and generally fall into two main families : GD and ROM. Ernst Dümmler 's 1884 editions of Heito and Walahfrid's Visio Wettini have been digitally recorded, and are publicly accessible on the Monumenta Germaniae Historica website. Heaven (Christianity) In Christianity , heaven

4828-515: The Battle of Roncevaux Pass . The Franks, defeated in the battle, withdrew with most of their army intact. Charlemagne returned to Francia to greet his newborn twin sons, Louis and Lothair, who were born while he was in Spain; Lothair died in infancy. Again, Saxons had seized on the king's absence to raid. Charlemagne sent an army to Saxony in 779 while he held assemblies, legislated, and addressed

4970-471: The Battle of Tertry . Pepin was the grandson of two important figures of Austrasia: Arnulf of Metz and Pepin of Landen . The mayors of the palace had gained influence as the Merovingian kings' power waned due to divisions of the kingdom and several succession crises. Pepin was eventually succeeded by his son Charles, later known as Charles Martel. Charles did not support a Merovingian successor upon

5112-536: The Capitulatio "constituted a program for the forced conversion of the Saxons " and was "aimed ... at suppressing Saxon identity". Charlemagne's focus for the next several years would be on his attempt to complete the subjugation of the Saxons. Concentrating first in Westphalia in 783, he pushed into Thuringia in 784 as his son Charles the Younger continued operations in the west. At each stage of

5254-510: The Council of Trent , one does not sin when doing "good works with a view to an eternal recompense." Catholic authors have speculated about the nature of the "secondary joy of heaven", that is Church teaching reflected in the Councils of Florence and of Trent . For God " will repay according to each one's deeds" (Romans 2:6 ): ... " the one who sows sparingly will also reap sparingly, and

5396-689: The Franks had been Christianised ; this was due in considerable measure to the conversion of their king, Clovis I , to Catholicism. The Franks had established a kingdom in Gaul in the wake of the Fall of the Western Roman Empire . This kingdom, Francia , grew to encompass nearly all of present-day France and Switzerland, along with parts of modern Germany and the Low Countries under

5538-1049: The Litany of the Saints : the Patriarchs and Prophets of the Old Testament, King David and Solomon , the Virgin Mary and Saint Joseph , John the Baptist , the Holy Innocents , the Penitent Thief , the Apostles (sans Judas Iscariot ), Saint Paul , and the Doctors of the Church . Jesus as perfect man is not considered a saint, as he is not a human person but a Divine Person. Entry into heaven requires

5680-694: The Middle Ages . A member of the Frankish Carolingian dynasty , Charlemagne was the eldest son of Pepin the Short and Bertrada of Laon . With his brother, Carloman I , he became king of the Franks in 768 following Pepin's death and became the sole ruler three years later. Charlemagne continued his father's policy of protecting the papacy and became its chief defender, removing the Lombards from power in northern Italy in 774. His reign saw

5822-600: The Nicene Creed states, he now sits at the right hand of God and will return to earth in the Second Coming . According to Catholic , Eastern Orthodox , and Oriental Orthodox teaching, Mary, mother of Jesus , is said to have been assumed into heaven without the corruption of her earthly body; she is venerated as Queen of Heaven . In the Christian Bible , concepts about Christian eschatology ,

Wetti of Reichenau - Misplaced Pages Continue

5964-410: The Royal Frankish Annals , Leo prostrated himself before Charlemagne after crowning him (an act of submission standard in Roman coronation rituals from the time of Diocletian ). This account presents Leo not as Charlemagne's superior, but as the agent of the Roman people who acclaimed Charlemagne as emperor. Historian Henry Mayr-Harting claims that the assumption of the imperial title by Charlemagne

6106-569: The Saxon Wars . Charlemagne travelled to Italy in 786, arriving by Christmas. Aiming to extend his influence further into southern Italy, he marched into the Duchy of Benevento. Duke Arechis fled to a fortified position at Salerno before offering Charlemagne his fealty. Charlemagne accepted his submission and hostages, who included Arechis's son Grimoald . In Italy, Charlemagne also met with envoys from Constantinople. Empress Irene had called

6248-557: The Vision of Wetti reflects Carolingian afterlife conceptions of punishment and salvation; it was widely read throughout contemporary monastic communities and is generally considered one of the influences on Dante 's Divine Comedy . Wetti was born in the 780s to a noble family. He was educated in both the classical tradition of the seven liberal arts and Irish monasticism at the Benedictine abbey of Reichenau , founded in 724 by

6390-679: The ecclesia as the Pope conceived it, of the Roman Church, regarded as the universal Church". The Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire remained a significant contemporary power in European politics for Leo and Charlemagne, especially in Italy. The Byzantines continued to hold a substantial portion of Italy, with their borders not far south of Rome. Empress Irene had seized the throne from her son Constantine VI in 797, deposing and blinding him. Irene,

6532-488: The massacre of Verden . Fried writes, "Although this figure may be exaggerated, the basic truth of the event is not in doubt", and Alessandro Barbero calls it "perhaps the greatest stain on his reputation." Charlemagne issued the Capitulatio de partibus Saxoniae , probably in the immediate aftermath of (or as a precursor of) the massacre. With a harsh set of laws which included the death penalty for pagan practices,

6674-476: The " resurrection of the body " as contrasted with "the immortality of the soul ". In the first, the soul does not enter heaven until the Last Judgment or the " end of time " when it (along with the body) is resurrected and judged. In the second concept, the soul goes to a heaven on another plane immediately after death. These two concepts are generally combined in the doctrine of the double judgment where

6816-525: The "Father of Europe" by many historians. He is seen as a founding figure by multiple European states and a number of historical royal houses of Europe trace their lineage back to him. Charlemagne has been the subject of artworks, monuments and literature during and after the medieval period and is venerated by the Catholic Church . Several languages were spoken in Charlemagne's world, and he

6958-415: The 775 Saxon and Friulian campaigns, his daughter Rotrude was born in Francia. Returning north, Charlemagne waged another brief, destructive campaign against the Saxons in 776. This led to the submission of many Saxons, who turned over captives and lands and submitted to baptism . In 777, Charlemagne held an assembly at Paderborn with Frankish and Saxon men; many more Saxons came under his rule, but

7100-419: The 787 Second Council of Nicaea , but did not inform Charlemagne or invite any Frankish bishops. Charlemagne, probably in reaction to the perceived slight of the exclusion, broke the betrothal of his daughter Rotrude and Constantine VI. After Charlemagne left Italy, Arechis sent envoys to Irene to offer an alliance; he suggested that she send a Byzantine army with Adalgis, the exiled son of Desiderus, to remove

7242-668: The 790s, due to their mutual interest in Iberian affairs. In 800, Charlemagne was crowned emperor in Rome by Pope Leo III . Although historians debate the coronation's significance, the title represented the height of his prestige and authority. Charlemagne's position as the first emperor in the West in over 300 years brought him into conflict with the Eastern Roman Empire in Constantinople . Through his assumption of

SECTION 50

#1732775587474

7384-470: The Alamannian noblewoman Luitgard shortly afterwards. Charlemagne gathered an army after the council of Frankfurt as Saxon resistance continued, beginning a series of annual campaigns which lasted through 799. The campaigns of the 790s were even more destructive than those of earlier decades, with the annal writers frequently noting Charlemagne "burning", "ravaging", "devastating", and "laying waste"

7526-503: The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms "like satellite states," establishing direct relations with English bishops. Charlemagne also forged an alliance with Alfonso II of Asturias , although Einhard calls Alfonso his "dependent". Following his sack of Lisbon in 798, Alfonso sent Charlemagne trophies of his victory, including armour, mules and prisoners. After Leo III became pope in 795, he faced political opposition. His enemies accused him of

7668-417: The Avars in the south, which led to the collapse of their kingdom and the eastward expansion of Frankish rule. Charlemagne also worked to expand his influence through diplomatic means during the 790s wars, focusing on the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Britain. Charles the Younger proposed a marriage pact with the daughter of King Offa of Mercia , but Offa insisted that Charlemagne's daughter Bertha also be given as

7810-508: The Bavarian city of Bolzano . Charlemagne gathered his forces to prepare for an invasion of Bavaria in 787. Dividing the army, the Franks launched a three-pronged attack. Quickly realizing his poor position, Tassilo agreed to surrender and recognise Charlemagne as his overlord. The following year, Tassilo was accused of plotting with the Avars to attack Charlemagne. He was deposed and sent to

7952-633: The Bible heaven is described symbolically, using images from everyday Jewish life during biblical times. The Catechism of the Catholic Church indicates several images of heaven found in the Bible: This mystery of blessed communion with God and all who are in Christ is beyond all understanding and description. Scripture speaks of it in images: life, light, peace, wedding feast, wine of the kingdom,

8094-403: The Bible. These hierarchies and the names and descriptions of creatures therein are not part of the church's official teaching, even if some saints and popes (such as Thomas Aquinas and John Paul II) endorsed them. Some Catholic saints have claimed to receive private revelations of heaven. For example, Marian apparitions that depict Mary as the eschatological image of the church: shining like

8236-519: The Byzantines. This formulation (with the continuation of his earlier royal titles) may also represent a view of his role as emperor as being the ruler of the people of the city of Rome, as he was of the Franks and the Lombards. Charlemagne left Italy in the summer of 801 after adjudicating several ecclesiastical disputes in Rome and experiencing an earthquake in Spoleto . He never returned to

8378-736: The East Frankish count Radolf, by the end of the year. In summer 782, Widukind returned from Denmark to attack the Frankish positions in Saxony. He defeated a Frankish army, possibly due to rivalry among the Frankish counts leading it. Charlemagne came to Verden after learning of the defeat, but Widukind fled before his arrival. Charlemagne summoned the Saxon magnates to an assembly and compelled them to turn prisoners over to him, since he regarded their previous acts as treachery. The annals record that Charlemagne had 4,500 Saxon prisoners beheaded in

8520-620: The Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox , only God has the final say on who enters heaven. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, heaven is the parcel of deification ( theosis ), meaning to acquire a divine nature and complete one's hypostasis via christlike behavior, due to Jesus having made human entry into heaven possible by his incarnation, hence evidence of one's divine nature is usually miracles akin to those of Christ. Vladimir Solovyov (1853-1900),

8662-528: The Father's house, the New Jerusalem , paradise: 'no eye has seen, nor ear heard, nor the heart of man conceived, what God has prepared for those who love him'. The Catechism of the Catholic Church describes heaven as "God's own 'place' - 'our Father in heaven' and consequently the 'heaven' too which is eschatological glory. Finally, 'heaven' refers to the saints and the "place" of the spiritual creatures,

SECTION 60

#1732775587474

8804-461: The Frankish borderlands, leading to a Frankish counter-raid in the autumn of 774 and a reprisal campaign the following year. Charlemagne was soon drawn back to Italy as Duke Hrodgaud of Friuli rebelled against him. He quickly crushed the rebellion, distributing Hrodgaud's lands to the Franks to consolidate his rule in Lombardy. Charlemagne wintered in Italy, consolidating his power by issuing charters and legislation and taking Lombard hostages. Amid

8946-481: The Frankish kings. Both brothers sent troops to Rome, each hoping to exert his own influence. The Lombard king Desiderius also had interests in Roman affairs, and Charlemagne attempted to enlist him as an ally. Desiderius already had alliances with Bavaria and Benevento through the marriages of his daughters to their dukes, and an alliance with Charlemagne would add to his influence. Charlemagne's mother, Bertrada, went on his behalf to Lombardy in 770 and brokered

9088-455: The Frankish noblewoman Himiltrude , and they had a son in 769 named Pepin . Paul the Deacon wrote in his 784 Gesta Episcoporum Mettensium that Pepin was born "before legal marriage", but does not say whether Charles and Himiltrude ever married, were joined in a non-canonical marriage ( friedelehe ), or married after Pepin was born. Pope Stephen's letter described the relationship as

9230-458: The Frankish political and religious hierarchies, something Heito, through omission and editing, was apparently unprepared to do. Beyond popularity, Walahfrid's poem helped to greatly advance his career, helping secure his place as tutor to Charles the Bald . Carol Zaleski explains that Walahfrid insisted that, "far from seeking advancement, he was 'forced to break [the silence] and impelled, as if by

9372-432: The Franks from power in Lombardy. Before his plans could be finalised, Aldechis and his elder son Romuald died of illness within weeks of each other. Charlemagne sent Grimoald back to Benevento to serve as duke and return it to Frankish suzerainty. The Byzantine army invaded , but were repulsed by the Frankish and Lombard forces. As affairs were being settled in Italy, Charlemagne turned his attention to Bavaria. Bavaria

9514-551: The Great'). In modern German, he is known as Karl der Große . The Latin epithet magnus ('great') may have been associated with him during his lifetime, but this is not certain. The contemporary Royal Frankish Annals routinely call him Carolus magnus rex ("Charles the great king"). That epithet is attested in the works of the Poeta Saxo around 900, and it had become commonly applied to him by 1000. Charlemagne

9656-399: The Great's teaching that afterlife visions were for the benefit of the living, who should work to redeem their sins and eradicate the social structures in which sin was able to proliferate. The Visio Wettini gained wide acclaim and served as a foundation of Dante 's Divine Comedy . Wetti's visions provide detailed descriptions of Frankish perceptions of the afterlife, its appearance, and

9798-524: The Hunchback his only son without lands. His relationship with Himiltrude was now apparently seen as illegitimate at his court, and Pepin was sidelined from the succession. In 792, as his father and brothers were gathered in Regensburg, Pepin conspired with Bavarian nobles to assassinate them and install himself as king. The plot was discovered and revealed to Charlemagne before it could proceed; Pepin

9940-444: The Irish monk Pirmin . He was apparently an "innocent boy" and a rebellious teenager before he settled down to teach at Reichenau's convent school. Wetti officiated as master of the Reichenau monastery school for at least twenty years, training generations of monastic students; by all accounts, his students saw him as the ideal of monastic piety. Wetti's peers, furthermore, recognized him as Reichenau's "outstanding intellectual", which

10082-407: The Lombard king directly, Adrian sent emissaries to Charlemagne to gain his support for recovering papal territory. Charlemagne, in response to this appeal and the dynastic threat of Carloman's sons in the Lombard court, gathered his forces to intervene. He first sought a diplomatic solution, offering gold to Desiderius in exchange for the return of the papal territories and his nephews. This overture

10224-531: The Lombards shortly after his return to Pavia, and they surrendered the city by June 774. Charlemagne deposed Desiderius and took the title of King of the Lombards. The takeover of one kingdom by another was "extraordinary", and the authors of The Carolingian World call it "without parallel". Charlemagne secured the support of the Lombard nobles and Italian urban elites to seize power in a mainly-peaceful annexation. Historian Rosamond McKitterick suggests that

10366-480: The Lombards" instead of the earlier form "Charles, by the grace of God king of the Franks and Lombards and patrician of the Romans." Leo acclaimed Charlemagne as "emperor of the Romans" during the coronation, but Charlemagne never used this title. The avoidance of the specific claim of being a "Roman emperor", as opposed to the more-neutral "emperor governing the Roman empire", may have been to improve relations with

10508-570: The Saxon lands. Charlemagne forcibly removed a large number of Saxons to Francia, installing Frankish elites and soldiers in their place. His extended wars in Saxony led to his establishing his court in Aachen , which had easy access to the frontier. He built a large palace there, including a chapel which is now part of the Aachen Cathedral . Einhard joined the court at that time. Pepin of Italy (Carloman) engaged in further wars against

10650-468: The Saxon magnate Widukind fled to Denmark to prepare for a new rebellion. Also at the Paderborn assembly were representatives of dissident factions from al-Andalus (Muslim Spain). They included the son and son-in-law of Yusuf ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri , the former governor of Córdoba ousted by Caliph Abd al-Rahman in 756, who sought Charlemagne's support for al-Fihri's restoration. Also present

10792-512: The Sun, wearing a beautiful crown, etc. Another example is saints visiting heaven. Some visits describe heaven in material or physical terms, such as the vision of Anna Schäffer : Other visits to heaven emphasis heaven's immaterial or spiritual features, such as the happiness one enjoys. For example, Saint Faustina claims in her dairy: Saint Faustina also claims in her diary that she had a vision explaining one's freedom in heaven. She saw herself "on

10934-504: The abbey of Saint-Denis , although the extent of Charlemagne's formal education is unknown. He almost certainly was trained in military matters as a youth in Pepin's court, which was itinerant . Charlemagne also asserted his own education in the liberal arts in encouraging their study by his children and others, although it is unknown whether his study was as a child or at court during his later life. The question of Charlemagne's literacy

11076-473: The acceptance of 742 as the Frankish king's birth year, citing an addition to the Annales Petaviani which records Charlemagne's birth in 747. Lorsch Abbey commemorated Charlemagne's date of birth as 2 April from the mid-ninth century, and this date is likely to be genuine. Matthias Becher built on Werner's work and showed that 2 April in the year recorded would have actually been in 748, since

11218-557: The altar", with people all around praying to her for graces, and God said: Some denominations teach that one enters heaven at the moment of death, while others teach that this occurs at a later time (the Last Judgment ). Some Christians maintain that entry into Heaven awaits such time as "When the form of this world has passed away." Two related, and often blended, concepts of heaven in Christianity are better described as

11360-586: The angels, who surround God." The Roman Catechism and the Catechism of the Catholic Church both explain that, by enjoying the beatific vision, everyone enjoys happiness, glory, honor, and peace. As the CCC teaches: As the Roman Catechism teaches: The Roman Catechism adds that human concepts of heaven - living like a king, heaven being the most perfect paradise, one enjoying the ultimate union with God,

11502-529: The annalists recorded the start of the year from Easter rather than 1 January. Presently, most scholars accept April 748 for Charlemagne's birth. Charlemagne's place of birth is unknown. The Frankish palaces in Vaires-sur-Marne and Quierzy are among the places suggested by scholars. Pepin the Short held an assembly in Düren in 748, but it cannot be proved that it took place in April or if Bertrada

11644-470: The beatific vision. The Virgin Mary is "the most excellent fruit of the redemption" because of her Immaculate Conception , since she was redeemed at the moment of conception. Mary is also "the eschatological image of the church", meaning she represents the church in heaven and at the resurrection on Judgment Day , because of her assumption into heaven, whereby she enjoys heaven with her resurrected body. In

11786-656: The beatific vision. The angels and saints are Catholic - members of the Catholic Church - as members of the Church Triumphant , one of the three states of the church of heaven and earth. Known angels include: one's guardian angel , seraphim , cherubim , Michael the Archangel , Gabriel the Archangel , and Raphael the Archangel . It is not known if angels are the only non-human creatures in heaven or just one of many types of creatures in heaven. Known saints include canonized Catholics, such as those listed in

11928-573: The blessed consists in the full and perfect possession of the fruits of the redemption accomplished by Christ... Heaven is the blessed community of all who are perfectly incorporated into Christ. The "fruits of the redemption" is eternal life , i.e., freedom from and immunity to all evil (temptation, sin, error, inconvenience, boredom, ignorance, weakness, lack of something (basic needs, beauty, etc.), corruption, misfortune, unfulfillment, sorrow, condemnation, fear, dishonor, hostility, imperfection, suffering, and death), and possession of all good things, via

12070-428: The boys were forced into a monastery (a common solution of dynastic issues), or "an act of murder smooth[ed] Charlemagne's ascent to power." Adalgis was not captured by Charlemagne, and fled to Constantinople. Charlemagne left the siege in April 774 to celebrate Easter in Rome. Pope Adrian arranged a formal welcome for the Frankish king, and they swore oaths to each other over the relics of St. Peter. Adrian presented

12212-406: The brightness of heavenly bodies: the sun, moon, and stars. Before the Last Judgment, spirits separated from their bodies at death go either to paradise or to spirit prison dependent on if they had been baptised and confirmed by the laying on of hands. Paradise is a place of rest while its inhabitants continue learning in preparation for the Last Judgment. Spirit prison is a place of learning for

12354-430: The campaign on his own. Charlemagne's capture of Duke Hunald marked the end of ten years of war that had been waged in the attempt to bring Aquitaine into line. Carloman's refusal to participate in the war against Aquitaine led to a rift between the kings. It is uncertain why Carloman abandoned the campaign; the brothers may have disagreed about control of the territory, or Carloman was focused on securing his rule in

12496-414: The campaigns, the Frankish armies seized wealth and carried Saxon captives into slavery. Unusually, Charlemagne campaigned through the winter instead of resting his army. By 785, he had suppressed the Saxon resistance and completely commanded Westphalia. That summer, he met Widukind and persuaded him to end his resistance. Widukind agreed to be baptised with Charlemagne as his godfather, ending this phase of

12638-419: The chamber, bringing torture instruments to punish him for his sins. Before it began to torment him a swarm of demons pushed their way into the room, but they were turned away by the monks and an angel peculiarly dressed in purple robes. On awaking Wetti told his dream to the other monks and asked them to read aloud passages from Gregory 's Dialogues regarding the afterlife, something which may have influenced

12780-400: The church if he knew about the pope's plan; modern historians have regarded his report as truthful or rejected it as a literary device demonstrating Charlemagne's humility. Collins says that the actions surrounding the coronation indicate that it was planned by Charlemagne as early as his meeting with Leo in 799, and Fried writes that Charlemagne planned to adopt the title of emperor by 798 "at

12922-408: The city. Continuing trends and a ruling style established in the 790s, Charlemagne's reign from 801 onward is a "distinct phase" characterised by more sedentary rule from Aachen. Although conflict continued until the end of his reign, the relative peace of the imperial period allowed for attention on internal governance. The Franks continued to wage war, though these wars were defending and securing

13064-480: The death of King Theuderic IV in 737, leaving the throne vacant. He made plans to divide the kingdom between his sons, Carloman and Pepin the Short , who succeeded him after his death in 741. The brothers placed the Merovingian Childeric III on the throne in 743. Pepin married Bertrada , a member of an influential Austrasian noble family, in 744. In 747, Carloman abdicated and entered

13206-514: The delights of paradise, and others shall possess the splendour of the city; for everywhere the Saviour shall be seen according as they who see Him shall be worthy." Various saints have had visions of heaven ( 2 Corinthians 12:2–4 ). The Orthodox concept of life in heaven is described in one of the prayers for the dead : "…a place of light, a place of green pasture, a place of repose, from whence all sickness, sorrow and sighing are fled away". In

13348-540: The doctrine of eternal hell, but also against the concept of heaven. Traditionally, theologians said that knowing the suffering of the damned would actually glorify God and therefore increase the joy in heaven. More modern responses to this argument include that bliss in Heaven would overwhelm this knowledge, that people would be at peace with the idea of eternal suffering, or that they would have no knowledge of Hell. Philosophers such as Friedrich Nietzsche have criticized

13490-487: The elective nature of the Lombard monarchy eased Charlemagne's takeover, and Roger Collins attributes the easy conquest to the Lombard elite's "presupposition that rightful authority was in the hands of the one powerful enough to seize it". Charlemagne soon returned to Francia with the Lombard royal treasury and with Desiderius and his family, who would be confined to a monastery for the rest of their lives. The Saxons took advantage of Charlemagne's absence in Italy to raid

13632-606: The empire's frontiers, and Charlemagne rarely led armies personally. A significant expansion of the Spanish March was achieved with a series of campaigns by Louis against the Emirate of Cordoba, culminating in the 801 capture of Barcelona . The 802 Capitulare missorum generale was an expansive piece of legislation, with provisions governing the conduct of royal officials and requiring that all free men take an oath of loyalty to Charlemagne. The capitulary reformed

13774-479: The fact that at this moment a woman was reigning in Constantinople." Leo's main motivations may have been the desire to increase his standing after his political difficulties, placing himself as a power broker and securing Charlemagne as a powerful ally and protector. The Byzantine Empire's lack of ability to influence events in Italy and support the papacy were also important to Leo's position. According to

13916-458: The first Byzantine empress, faced opposition in Constantinople because of her gender and her means of accession. One of the earliest narrative sources for the coronation, the Annals of Lorsch , presented a female ruler in Constantinople as a vacancy in the imperial title which justified Leo's coronation of Charlemagne. Pirenne disagrees, saying that the coronation "was not in any sense explained by

14058-489: The future " kingdom of heaven ", and the resurrection of the dead are found, particularly in the book of Revelation and in 1 Corinthians 15 . The Bible does not provide much information on what Heaven is supposed to be like. As a result, Christian theologians are usually not very specific when describing heaven. The Book of Revelation states that the New Jerusalem will be transported from Heaven to Earth, rather than people from Earth going to Heaven. The description of

14200-570: The gates of New Jerusalem in Revelation 21:21 inspired the idea of the Pearly gates , which is the informal name for the gateway to heaven according to some Christian denominations . One argument about the nature of heaven is whether it is possible for someone in heaven to have free will, which would normally include the freedom to sin. The nature of the issue varies depending on the specific type of freedom being discussed. One claimed solution

14342-523: The grace of baptism , which can be obtained outside the sacrament of baptism, such as through baptism of blood or baptism by desire , for God is not bound by his sacraments. The unbaptized dead the church commends to the Divine Mercy , since the Penitent Thief was saved without baptism. Those Christians who die still imperfectly purified must, according to Catholic teaching, pass through

14484-404: The idea that Charlemagne was a pious, good-natured Christian king, but the angel revealed that all Charlemagne's good deeds had been negated by the lust and debauchery which dominated his later life. Yet he would eventually be forgiven because of his actions on behalf of Christianity. Wetti is then led to heaven , where the angel asks a group of priests to petition Christ for Wetti's salvation. It

14626-513: The imperial title, he is considered the forerunner to the line of Holy Roman Emperors , which persisted into the nineteenth century. As king and emperor, Charlemagne engaged in a number of reforms in administration, law, education, military organization, and religion, which shaped Europe for centuries. The stability of his reign began a period of cultural activity known as the Carolingian Renaissance . Charlemagne died in 814 and

14768-470: The institution of the missi dominici , officials who would now be assigned in pairs (a cleric and a lay aristocrat) to administer justice and oversee governance in defined territories. The emperor also ordered the revision of the Lombard and Frankish legal codes. In addition to the missi , Charlemagne also ruled parts of the empire with his sons as sub-kings. Although Pepin and Louis had some authority as kings in Italy and Aquitaine, Charlemagne had

14910-491: The joy of rejoicing in making others happy. Catholic theologians have speculated about whether heaven is a place or a state - or both. Pope John Paul II said that heaven "is neither an abstraction nor a physical place in the clouds, but a living, personal relationship with the Holy Trinity." In the middle ages, a hierarchy of angels (as well as a hierarchy of demons) was devised based on various interpretations of

15052-454: The latest." During the years before the coronation, Charlemagne's courtier Alcuin referred to his realm as an Imperium Christianum ("Christian Empire") in which "just as the inhabitants of the Roman Empire had been united by a common Roman citizenship", the new empire would be united by a common Christian faith. This is the view of Henri Pirenne , who says that "Charles was the Emperor of

15194-657: The majority of mankind who will live on Earth. The view of heaven according to the Latter Day Saint movement is based on section 76 of the Doctrine and Covenants as well as 1 Corinthians 15 in the King James Version of the Bible. The afterlife is divided first into two levels until the Last Judgment; afterwards it is divided into four levels, the upper three of which are referred to as "degrees of glory" that, for illustrative purposes, are compared to

15336-414: The monks. He also demands that his superiors Heito , Tatto, Theganmar and Erlebald be summoned, so that his vision could be recorded and remembered as a warning. After dictating his visions, which were recorded on wax tablets and later rewritten by Heito, Wetti spent his last day in prayer and study with Walahfrid Strabo. On November 4, 824 Wetti died, in much the same way as he described St Gall's death only

15478-443: The next vision. Shortly afterwards Wetti was again asleep. The same angel, this time in white, entered the room and led him through to purgatory , where Wetti was made to witness sinners suffering contrapasso punishments. He was first shown the fate of those guilty of sexual misconduct. He saw priests and their concubines bound to stakes, standing hip-deep in a river of fire, their genitals being flogged every third day. Next he

15620-447: The north of Francia. Regardless of the strife between the kings, they maintained a joint rule for practical reasons. Charlemagne and Carloman worked to obtain the support of the clergy and local elites to solidify their positions. Pope Stephen III was elected in 768, but was briefly deposed by Antipope Constantine II before being restored to Rome. Stephen's papacy experienced continuing factional struggles, so he sought support from

15762-408: The notion of heaven as a doctrine which was developed by people with suspicious motivations, who desired to prove that God favored their group at the expense of others, or who tried to enforce their conception of religion or morality using methods that often involved manipulation and intimidation. Secular scholars assert that 1st-century early Jewish-Christians , from whom Christianity developed as

15904-474: The one who sows bountifully will also reap bountifully" (2 Corinthians 9:6 ). Jesuit poet Gerard Manley Hopkins describes this joy as reflecting Christ to one another, each in our own personal way and to the extent that we have grown more Christlike in this life, for as Hopkins writes, "Christ plays in ten thousand places, lovely in limbs, and lovely in eyes not his, to the Father through the features of men's faces." God means to share even this divine joy with us,

16046-509: The pope and conduct a further investigation. In August of the following year, Charlemagne made plans to go to Rome after an extensive tour of his lands in Neustria. Charlemagne met Leo in November near Mentana at the twelfth milestone outside Rome, the traditional location where Roman emperors began their formal entry into the city. Charlemagne presided over an assembly to hear the charges, but believed that no one could sit in judgement of

16188-449: The pope. Leo swore an oath on 23 December, declaring his innocence of all charges. At mass in St. Peter's Basilica on Christmas Day 800, Leo proclaimed Charlemagne "emperor of the Romans" ( Imperator Romanorum ) and crowned him. Charlemagne was the first reigning emperor in the west since the deposition of Romulus Augustulus in 476. His son, Charles the Younger , was anointed king by Leo at

16330-574: The production of the Libri Carolini , a detailed argument against Nicea's canons. In 794, Charlemagne called another council in Frankfurt . The council confirmed Regensburg's positions on adoptionism and Nicea, recognised the deposition of Tassilo, set grain prices, reformed Frankish coinage, forbade abbesses from blessing men, and endorsed prayer in vernacular languages. Soon after the council, Fastrada fell ill and died; Charlemagne married

16472-503: The punishments reserved for sinners. Furthermore, what explicitly appears in Wetti's visions not only reveals a great deal about his perspectives on wealth, lust, gender relations and monastic responsibility, but also the degree to which these issues (excluding monasticism) pervaded all levels of lay and religious officialdom in 9th-century Carolingian France. Clearly, he saw these as something debasing and degrading Frankish society, however, it

16614-444: The realization of one's potential and ideals, the achievement of godhood, materialistic fulfillment (wealth, power, feast, pleasure, leisure, etc.), eternal rest, reunion with loved ones, etc. - are nothing compared to what heaven is really like: Nevertheless the Roman Catechism explains that, while everyone will enjoy the beatific vision, not everyone will enjoy the same rewards, since one is rewarded for one's own deeds: According to

16756-424: The royal family's return to Francia, she had her final pregnancy and died from its complications on 30 April 783. The child, named after her, died shortly thereafter. Charlemagne commissioned epitaphs for his wife and daughter, and arranged for a Mass to be said daily at Hildegard's tomb. Charlemagne's mother Bertrada died shortly after Hildegard, on 12 July 783. Charlemagne was remarried to Fastrada , daughter of

16898-531: The rule of the Merovingian dynasty . Francia was often divided under different Merovingian kings, due to the partible inheritance practised by the Franks. The late seventh century saw a period of war and instability following the murder of King Childeric II , which led to factional struggles among the Frankish aristocrats. Pepin of Herstal , mayor of the palace of Austrasia , ended the strife between various kings and their mayors with his 687 victory at

17040-620: The same time, sending him and his brother to a monastery. Charlemagne began issuing charters in his own name in 760. The following year, he joined his father's campaign against Aquitaine . Aquitaine, led by Dukes Hunald and Waiofar , was constantly in rebellion during Pepin's reign. Pepin fell ill on campaign there and died on 24 September 768, and Charlemagne and Carloman succeeded their father. They had separate coronations, Charlemagne at Noyon and Carloman at Soissons , on 9 October. The brothers maintained separate palaces and spheres of influence, although they were considered joint rulers of

17182-404: The same time. Historians differ about the intentions of the imperial coronation, the extent to which Charlemagne was aware of it or participated in its planning, and the significance of the events for those present and for Charlemagne's reign. Contemporary Frankish and papal sources differ in their emphasis on, and representation of, events. Einhard writes that Charlemagne would not have entered

17324-604: The sleeping faithful will be raised first, and then the living. Similarly, the earliest of the Apostolic Fathers , Pope Clement I , does not mention entry into heaven after death but instead expresses belief in the resurrection of the dead after a period of "slumber" at the Second Coming . In the 2nd century AD, Irenaeus (a Greek bishop) quoted presbyters as saying that not all who are saved would merit an abode in heaven itself: "[T]hose who are deemed worthy of an abode in heaven shall go there, others shall enjoy

17466-548: The soul enters a state of unconsciousness , and will stay that way until the Last Judgment, where those saved will be resurrected and the damned will be annihilated . The Kingdom of God will be established on Earth, starting in the land of Israel, and Jesus will rule over the kingdom for a millennium . Jehovah's Witnesses believe that heaven is the dwelling place of Jehovah and his spirit creatures. They believe that only 144,000 chosen faithful followers ( "The Anointed" ) will be resurrected to heaven to rule with Christ over

17608-400: The soul is judged once at death and goes to a temporary heaven, while awaiting a second and final judgment at the end of the world. Some teach that death itself is not a natural part of life, but was allowed to happen after Adam and Eve disobeyed God so that mankind would not live forever in a state of sin and thus a state of separation from God. Methodism teaches that heaven is

17750-525: The throne was sanctioned beforehand by Pope Stephen II , but modern historians dispute this. It is possible that papal approval came only when Stephen travelled to Francia in 754 (apparently to request Pepin's aid against the Lombards), and on this trip anointed Pepin as king; this legitimised his rule. Charlemagne was sent to greet and escort the Pope, and he and his younger brother Carloman were anointed with their father. Pepin sidelined Drogo around

17892-402: The title as representing dominion over lands he already ruled. However, the title of emperor gave Charlemagne enhanced prestige and ideological authority. He immediately incorporated his new title into documents he issued, adopting the formula "Charles, most serene augustus , crowned by God, great peaceful emperor governing the Roman empire, and who is by the mercy of God king of the Franks and

18034-583: The ultimate authority and directly intervened. Charles, their elder brother, had been given lands in Neustria in 789 or 790 and made a king in 800. The 806 charter Divisio Regnorum ( Division of the Realm ) set the terms of Charlemagne's succession. Charles, as his eldest son in good favour, was given the largest share of the inheritance: rule of Francia, Saxony, Nordgau , and parts of Alemannia. The two younger sons were confirmed in their kingdoms and gained additional territories; most of Bavaria and Alemmannia

18176-403: The war helped secure Charlemagne's reputation among his brother's former supporters and funded further military action. The campaign was the beginning of over thirty years of nearly-continuous warfare against the Saxons by Charlemagne. Pope Adrian I succeeded Stephen III in 772, and sought the return of papal control of cities that had been captured by Desiderius. Unsuccessful in dealing with

18318-625: The way. Charlemagne left Bernard to maintain the siege at Pavia while he took a force to capture Verona, where Desiderius's son Adalgis had taken Carloman's sons. Charlemagne captured the city; no further record exists of his nephews or of Carloman's wife, and their fate is unknown. Recent biographer, Janet Nelson compares them to the Princes in the Tower in the Wars of the Roses . Fried suggests that

18460-480: The whole of [Italy]", considering this a motivation for the coronation. He notes the "element of political and military risk" inherent in the affair due to the opposition of the Byzantine Empire and potential opposition from the Frankish elite, as the imperial title could draw him further into Mediterranean politics. Collins sees several of Charlemagne's actions as attempts to ensure that his new title had

18602-523: The wicked and unrepentant and those who were not baptised; however, missionary efforts done by spirits from paradise enable those in spirit prison to repent, accept the gospel and the atonement and receive baptism through the practice of baptism for the dead . After the resurrection and Last Judgment, people are sent to one of four levels: Charlemagne This is an accepted version of this page Charlemagne ( / ˈ ʃ ɑːr l ə m eɪ n / SHAR -lə-mayn ; 2 April 748 – 28 January 814)

18744-557: Was King of the Franks from 768, King of the Lombards from 774, and Emperor of what is now known as the Carolingian Empire from 800, holding these titles until his death in 814. He united most of Western and Central Europe , and was the first recognised emperor to rule from the west after the fall of the Western Roman Empire approximately three centuries earlier. Charlemagne's reign was marked by political and social changes that had lasting influence on Europe throughout

18886-494: Was Sulayman al-Arabi , governor of Barcelona and Girona, who wanted to become part of the Frankish kingdom and receive Charlemagne's protection rather than remain under the rule of Córdoba. Charlemagne, seeing an opportunity to strengthen the security of the kingdom's southern frontier and extend his influence, agreed to intervene. Crossing the Pyrenees, his army found little resistance until an ambush by Basque forces in 778 at

19028-727: Was an effort to incorporate the Saxons into the Frankish realm, since they did not have a native tradition of kingship. However, Costambeys et al. note in The Carolingian World that "since Saxony had not been in the Roman empire it is hard to see on what basis an emperor would have been any more welcomed." These authors write that the decision to take the title of emperor was aimed at furthering Charlemagne's influence in Italy, as an appeal to traditional authority recognised by Italian elites within and (especially) outside his control. Collins also writes that becoming emperor gave Charlemagne "the right to try to impose his rule over

19170-688: Was known to contemporaries as Karlus in the Old High German he spoke; as Karlo to Early Old French (or Proto-Romance ) speakers; and as Carolus (or Karolus ) in Medieval Latin , the formal language of writing and diplomacy. Charles is the modern English form of these names. The name Charlemagne , as the emperor is normally known in English, comes from the French Charles-le-magne ('Charles

19312-541: Was laid to rest at Aachen Cathedral in Aachen , his imperial capital city. He was succeeded by his only surviving legitimate son, Louis the Pious . After Louis, the Frankish kingdom was divided and eventually coalesced into West and East Francia , which later became France and Germany , respectively. Charlemagne's profound influence on the Middle Ages and influence on the territory he ruled has led him to be called

19454-422: Was made to observe the punishments for lay and ecclesiastical officials who lusted for wealth and prestige, officials who did not heed others' prayers, who neglected those in need, those who were indulgent, guilty of concealing wealth, adultery, concubinage and sodomy. Wetti was most terrified to see emperor Charlemagne , bound and completely unharmed, except for an animal tearing at his genitals. His shock came from

19596-473: Was named after his grandfather, Charles Martel . That name, and its derivatives, are unattested before their use by Charles Martel and Charlemagne. Karolus was adapted by Slavic languages as their word for "king" ( Russian : korol' , Polish : król and Slovak : král ) through Charlemagne's influence or that of his great-grandson, Charles the Fat . By the sixth century, the western Germanic tribe of

19738-462: Was rejected, and Charlemagne's army (commanded by himself and his uncle, Bernard ) crossed the Alps to besiege the Lombard capital of Pavia in late 773. Charlemagne's second son (also named Charles ) was born in 772, and Charlemagne brought the child and his wife to the camp at Pavia. Hildegard was pregnant, and gave birth to a daughter named Adelhaid. The baby was sent back to Francia, but died on

19880-522: Was ruled by Duke Tassilo , Charlemagne's first cousin, who had been installed by Pepin the Short in 748. Tassilo's sons were also grandsons of Desiderius, and a potential threat to Charlemagne's rule in Lombardy. The neighbouring rulers had a growing rivalry throughout their reigns, but had sworn oaths of peace to each other in 781. In 784, Rotpert (Charlemagne's viceroy in Italy) accused Tassilo of conspiring with Widukind in Saxony and unsuccessfully attacked

20022-520: Was sent to a monastery, and many of his co-conspirators were executed. The early 790s saw a marked focus on ecclesiastical affairs by Charlemagne. He summoned a council in Regensburg in 792 to address the theological controversy over the adoptionism doctrine in the Spanish church and formulate a response to the Second Council of Nicea. The council condemned adoptionism as heresy and led to

20164-555: Was with him. Einhard refers to Charlemagne's patrius sermo ("native tongue"). Most scholars have identified this as a form of Old High German , probably a Rhenish Franconian dialect . Due to the prevalence in Francia of " rustic Roman ", he was probably functionally bilingual in Germanic and Romance dialects at an early age. Charlemagne also spoke Latin and, according to Einhard, could understand and (perhaps) speak some Greek. Charlemagne's father Pepin had been educated at

#473526