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132-546: The language's name Vlax Romani was coined by British scholar Bernard Gilliat-Smith in his 1915 study on Bulgarian Romani, in which he first divided Romani dialects into Vlach and non-Vlach . The Vlax Roma, a subgroup of the Romani people that speak the Vlax Romani language, originate from the former Roma slaves in the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia (with the name "Vlax", which comes from "Vlach", coming from

264-513: A hunter-gatherer stage. Christine Reinhard, an early 19th-century intellectual and wife of French diplomat Charles-Frédéric Reinhard , recorded that, in 1806, a member of the Moldavian Sturdza family employed a group of vătraşi at his factory. The project was reputedly abandoned after Sturdza realised he was inflicting intense suffering on his employees. Roma artisans were occasionally allowed to practice their trade outside

396-513: A Mongol practice with a long history in the region, and that, initially, free and enslaved Roma coexisted on what became Romanian territory. There are some accounts according to which some of the Roma slaves had been captured during wars. For instance, in 1445, Vlad Dracul took by force from Bulgaria to Wallachia around 11,000–12,000 people "who looked like Egyptians ", presumably Roma. The Danubian Principalities were for most of their history

528-533: A Wallachian Roma slave who was able to rise to the rank of boyar, was sent on official duty to the Ottoman Empire, and, after allying himself with the Poles and Cossack groups, became Moldavian Prince (April–August 1595). The Roma were considered personal property of the boyar, who was allowed to put them to work, selling them or exchanging them for other goods and the possessions of the slaves were also at

660-613: A large Jochid delegation to participate in Hulagu 's expedition in the Middle East in 1256–1257. One of the Jochid princes who joined Hulagu's army was accused of witchcraft and sorcery against Hulagu. After receiving permission from Berke, Hulagu executed him. After that two more Jochid princes died suspiciously. According to some Muslim sources, Hulagu refused to share his war booty with Berke in accordance with Genghis Khan's wish. Berke

792-657: A large number of Roma slaves. The number of Roma living in Bukovina was estimated in 1775 at 800 families, or 4.6% of the population. Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor issued an order abolishing slavery on June 19, 1783, in Czernowitz , similar to other orders given throughout the Empire against slavery ( see Josephinism ). The order met the opposition of the large slaveholders: the Romanian Orthodox monasteries and

924-776: A large portion of Cumans were driven out of the Crimean peninsula , and it became one of the appanages of the Mongol Empire. The remnants of the Crimean Cumans survived in the Crimean mountains , and they would, in time, mix with other groups in the Crimea (including Greeks, Goths, and Mongols) to form the Crimean Tatar population. Moving north, Batu began the Mongol invasion of Rus' and spent three years subjugating

1056-464: A living. Initially, and down to the 15th century, Roma and Tatar slaves were all grouped into self-administrating sălaşe ( Old Church Slavonic : челѣдь, čelyad ' ) which were variously described by historians as being an extended family , a household or even a community. Their leaders, themselves slaves, were known as cneji , juzi or vătămani , and, in addition to sorting legal disputes, collected taxes and organised labour for

1188-457: A long period of time, the Roma were the only smiths and ironmongers in Wallachia and Moldavia. Among the fierari , the more valued were the specialized potcovari (" farriers "). Women owned by the boyars were often employed as housemaids in service to the boyaresses, and both them and some of the enslaved men could be assigned administrative tasks within the manor. From early on in

1320-483: A major slaveholder, did not contest the institution of slavery, although among the early advocates of the abolition was Eufrosin Poteca , a priest. Occasionally, members of the church hierarchy intervened to limit abuse against slaves it did not own: Wallachian Metropolitan Dositei demanded from Prince Constantine Ypsilantis to discourage his servants from harassing a young Roma girl named Domniţa. The young woman

1452-551: A number of contemporary sources, also notes that the slaves were exceptionally cheap by any standard: in 1832, a contract involving the dowry of a boyaress shows that thirty Roma slaves were exchanged for one carriage, while the British diplomat William Wilkinson noted that the slave trade was a semi-clandestine matter, and that vătrași slaves could fetch the modest sum of five or six hundred Turkish kuruş . According to Djuvara's estimate, lăieși could be worth only half

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1584-477: A partial calque of Turkic Altan Orda . Золотая ( Zolotáya ) was translated to 'Golden', while Орда ( Ordá ) was transliterated to 'Horde'. The Turkic word orda means 'palace', 'camp' or 'headquarters', in this case the headquarters of the khan, being the capital of the khanate, metonymically extended to the khanate itself. The English word horde , in the sense of a large (and often threatening) group, emerged later, metaphorically extended from

1716-507: A punitive expedition led by his brother, Dyuden , to punish those stubborn subjects, leading to the sacking of a number of cities in 1293, including Vladimir and Moscow, finally forcing Dmitry to abdicate. Only the city of Tver offered stiff resistance to the Mongol invaders, leading to another Mongol army being sent to attack the city. Nogai did not choose to intervene in Russian affairs but

1848-640: A severe punitive expedition. But after Alexander Nevsky begged Berke not to punish his people, and the cities of Vladimir-Suzdal agreed to pay a large indemnity, Berke relented. Alexander died on his trip back in Gorodets on the Volga. He was well loved by the people and called the "sun of Suzdal". When the former Seljuk Sultan Kaykaus II was arrested in the Byzantine Empire , his younger brother Kayqubad II appealed to Berke. An Egyptian envoy

1980-469: A slave master was often proportional to the number and kinds of skilled slaves in his possession, outstanding cooks and embroiderers being used to symbolically demonstrate the high status of the boyar families. Good musicians, embroiderers or cooks were prized and fetched higher prices: for instance, in the first half of the 18th century, a regular slave was valued at around 20–30 lei , a cook would be 40 lei. However, Djuvara, who bases his argument on

2112-437: A tax of two galbeni (standard gold coins) on each slave owned. It was not unusual for both boyars and monasteries to register their serfs as "Gypsies" so that they would not pay the taxes that were imposed on the serfs. The domnești slaves (some of whom were itinerant artisans), would have to pay a yearly tax named dajdie . Similarly, boyar-owned lăieși were required to gather at their master's household once

2244-468: A vassal of Nogai. Daniel , Alexander Nevsky's youngest son, failed to appear at the court of Toqta. The division of the authority of the Golden Horde led to the creation of two rival groups of Russian princes. Toqta attempted to reassert his authority over northern Russia ; he confirmed Andrey as the grand prince and authorized him to depose Dmitry, who refused to surrender his throne. Toqta sent

2376-574: A victory banquet during the Mongol occupation of Eastern Europe. He sent his brothers to the kurultai, and the new Khagan of the Mongols was elected in 1246. All the senior princes of Rus', including Yaroslav II of Vladimir , Daniel of Galicia , and Sviatoslav III of Vladimir , acknowledged Batu's supremacy. Originally Batu ordered Daniel to turn the administration of Galicia over to the Mongols, but Daniel personally visited Batu in 1245 and pledged allegiance to him. After returning from his trip, Daniel

2508-616: A year, usually on the autumn feast of Saint Demetrius (presently coinciding with the October 26 celebrations in the Orthodox calendar ). On the occasion, each individual over the age of 15 was required to pay a sum of between thirty and forty piastres. A slaveowner had the power to free his slaves for good service, either during his lifetime or in his will, but these cases were rather rare. The other way around also happened: free Roma sold themselves to monasteries or boyars in order to make

2640-583: Is from around 1400, when a boyar was recorded of owning 17 dwellings of Roma in Făgăraş , an area belong to Wallachia at the time. The social organization of Făgăraş was the same as in Wallachia, the Roma slaves being the slaves of boyars, the institution of slavery being kept in the Voivodate of Transylvania within the Kingdom of Hungary and in the autonomous Principality of Transylvania , being only abolished with

2772-593: Is now Xinjiang , at about the age of 42. Although some modern historians believe that he died of natural causes because of deteriorating health, he may have succumbed to the combined effects of alcoholism and gout , or he may have been poisoned. William of Rubruck and a Muslim chronicler state that Batu killed the imperial envoy, and one of his brothers murdered the Great Khan Güyük, but these claims are not completely corroborated by other major sources. Güyük's widow Oghul Qaimish took over as regent, but she

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2904-696: Is written using the Romani orthography , predominantly using the Latin alphabet with several additional characters. In the area of the former Soviet Union , however, it can also be written in the Cyrillic script . This Romani -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article about Indo-Aryan languages is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Slavery in Romania Chattel slavery existed on

3036-689: The Carpathian Mountains . Talabuga's soldiers were angered and sacked Galicia and Volhynia instead. In 1286, Talabuga and Nogai attacked Poland and ravaged the country. After returning, Talabuga overthrew Töde Möngke, who was left to live in peace. Talabuga's army made unsuccessful attempts to invade the Ilkhanate in 1288 and 1290. During a punitive expedition against the Circassians , Talabuga became resentful of Nogai, whom he believed did not provide him with adequate support during

3168-627: The Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe , taking the Roma from the Mongols as slaves and preserving their status. Other historians consider that they were enslaved while captured during the battles with the Tatars. The practice of enslaving prisoners may also have been taken from the Mongols. The ethnic identity of the "Tatar slaves" is unknown, they could have been captured Tatars of

3300-633: The Cuman language . The existence of Arabic-Mongol and Persian-Mongol dictionaries dating from the middle of the 14th century and prepared for the use of the Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate suggests that there was a practical need for such works in the chancelleries handling correspondence with the Golden Horde. It is thus reasonable to conclude that letters received by the Mamluks – if not also written by them – must have been in Mongol. When

3432-585: The Golden Horde , Cumans , or the slaves of Tatars and Cumans. While it is possible that some Romani people were slaves or auxiliary troops of the Mongols or Tatars, the bulk of them came from south of the Danube at the end of the 14th century, some time after the foundation of Wallachia . By then, the institution of slavery was already established in Moldavia, at the time enslaving the rumani , but

3564-545: The Kingdom of Hungary , Saracens ( Muslims ) and Jewish Khazars were held as slaves until they were forced to convert to Christianity in the 13th century; Russians enslaved the prisoners captured from the Tatars ( see Kholop ), but their status eventually merged with the one of the serfs . Christians from Eastern Europe were enslaved by the Crimean Tatar Khanate , the Ottoman Empire and

3696-611: The Nogai Horde . Toqta established the Byzantine-Mongol alliance by Maria, an illegitimate daughter of Andronikos II Palaiologos . A report reached Western Europe that Toqta was highly favourable to the Christians. According to Muslim observers, however, Toqta remained an idol-worshiper ( Buddhism and Tengerism ) and showed favour to religious men of all faiths, though he preferred Muslims. He demanded that

3828-544: The Nogai Horde . There is some debate over whether the Romani people came to Wallachia and Moldavia as slaves or not. In the Byzantine Empire , they were slaves of the state in Bulgaria and Serbia until their social organization was destroyed by the Ottoman conquest, which would suggest that they came as slaves who had a change of "ownership". The alternative explanation, proposed by Romanian scholar P. P. Panaitescu ,

3960-645: The United States and became the Romani Americans . After the abolition, there were attempts (both by the state and by private individuals) to settle the nomads and to integrate the Roma into Romanian society, but their success was limited. The exact origins of slavery in the Danubian Principalities are not known. Historian Nicolae Iorga associated the Roma people's arrival with the 1241 Mongol invasion of Europe and through

4092-779: The Urals to the Danube in the west, and from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea in the south, while bordering the Caucasus Mountains and the territories of the Mongol dynasty known as the Ilkhanate . The khanate experienced violent internal political disorder known as the Great Troubles (1359–1381), before it briefly reunited under Tokhtamysh (1381–1395). However, soon after the 1396 invasion of Timur ,

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4224-555: The Volga River . His brother Orda returned to take part in the succession. The Mongol armies would never again travel so far west. In 1242, after retreating through Hungary, destroying Pest in the process, and subjugating Bulgaria , Batu established his capital at Sarai, commanding the lower stretch of the Volga River , on the site of the Khazar capital of Atil . Shortly before that, the younger brother of Batu and Orda, Shiban ,

4356-507: The rape of Roma women by their owners, were widespread, and the illegitimate children were themselves kept as slaves on the estate. The slavery of the Roma in bordering Transylvania was found especially in the fiefs and areas under the influence of Wallachia and Moldavia, these areas keeping their practice of slavery even after they were no longer under Wallachian or Moldavian possession. The earliest record of Roma in Transylvania

4488-609: The "Tatar yoke" at the Great Stand on the Ugra River in 1480, which traditionally marks the end of Mongol rule over Russia. The Crimean Khanate and the Kazakh Khanate , the last remnants of the Golden Horde, survived until 1783 and 1847 respectively, when they were conquered by the expanding Russian state. The name Golden Horde is a partial calque of Russian Золотая Орда ( Zolotáya Ordá ), itself supposedly

4620-410: The 19th century, led to boyar intervention and the foot whipping of those deemed guilty of insubordination. The disputes with non-slaves and the manslaughter cases were dealt by the state judiciary system. Slaves were not allowed to defend themselves or bear witness in front of a court, but they were also not responsible to damage done to free men, the owner being accountable for any such damages,

4752-534: The Byzantine Empire and Egypt in an attempt to curb the authority of Nogai. Following the death of Constantine of Bulgaria in 1277, Michael VIII and Nogai supported different candidates to the throne, leading to relations to deteriorate. This led to an intervention by Mengu-Timur in Balkan affairs, in which Mengu-Timur and Metropolitan Kirill sent Bishop Theognost as their joint envoy to Michael VIII and

4884-697: The Danube. Moreover, slavery in our country is older than the arrival of gypsies. It is known about Tatar slaves, for example, who are older than Gypsy slaves, and for a time there were two well-defined categories even from a legal point of view: Tatar slaves, Gypsy slaves. But there were also Romanians who had the status of slaves." Slavery was a common practice in Eastern Europe at the time ( see Slavery in medieval Europe ). Non-Christians in particular were taken as slaves in Christian Europe: in

5016-523: The Empire remained united under the supreme khan. Jochi was the eldest, but he died six months before Genghis. The westernmost lands occupied by the Mongols , which included what is today southern Russia and Kazakhstan , were given to Jochi's eldest sons, Batu Khan , who eventually became ruler of the Blue Horde , and Orda Khan , who became the leader of the White Horde . In 1235, Batu with

5148-612: The Golden Horde as some of Toqta's coins carried 'Phags-pa script in addition to Mongolian script and Persian characters. Toqta arrested the Italian residents of Sarai and besieged Caffa in 1307. The cause was apparently Toqta's displeasure at the Genoese slave trade of his subjects, who were mostly sold as soldiers to Egypt. In 1308, Caffa was plundered by the Mongols. During the late reign of Toqta, tensions between princes of Tver and Moscow became violent. Daniel of Moscow seized

5280-547: The Golden Horde. Backed by him, some princes, such as Dmitry of Pereslavl , refused to visit the court of Töde Möngke in Sarai, while Dmitry's brother Andrey of Gorodets sought assistance from Töde Möngke. Nogai vowed to support Dmitry in his struggle for the grand princely throne. On hearing about this, Andrey renounced his claims to Vladimir and Novgorod and returned to Gorodets. He returned with Mongol troops sent by Töde Möngke and seized Vladimir from Dmitry. Dmitry retaliated with

5412-596: The Good , who granted in a 1417 charter "land and air to live, and fire and iron to work", but the earliest reference to it is found in Mihail Kogălniceanu's writings and no charter was ever found. Historian Djuvara argues forward hypotheses concerning the origin of the Romanians , such as advancing the theory that the vast majority of the nobility in the medieval states that made up the territory of modern-day Romania

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5544-479: The Great Khatun Töregene invited Batu to elect the next Emperor of the Mongol Empire in 1242, he declined to attend the kurultai and instead stayed at the Volga River . Although Batu excused himself by saying he was suffering from old age and illness, it seems that he did not support the election of Güyük Khan. Güyük and Büri , a grandson of Chagatai Khan , had quarreled violently with Batu at

5676-590: The Ilkhan Ghazan and his successor Oljeitu give Azerbaijan back but was refused. Then he sought assistance from Egypt against the Ilkhanate. Toqta made his man ruler in Ghazna , but he was expelled by its people. Toqta dispatched a peace mission to the Ilkhan Gaykhatu in 1294, and peace was maintained mostly uninterrupted until 1318. In 1304, ambassadors from the Mongol rulers of Central Asia and

5808-674: The Kagamlik, near the Dnieper . Toqta had his son stationed troops in Saqchi and along the Danube as far as the Iron Gate. Nogai's son Chaka of Bulgaria , first escaped to the Alans, and then Bulgaria where he briefly ruled as emperor before he was murdered by Theodore Svetoslav on the orders of Toqta. After Mengu-Timur died, rulers of the Golden Horde withdrew their support from Kaidu ,

5940-526: The Lord created them and it is indecent to separate them like cattle". Nevertheless, splitting married spouses was still common in the 19th century. Marriage between a free person and a slave was initially possible only by the free person becoming a slave, although later on, it was possible for a free person to keep one's social status and that the children resulting from the marriage to be free people. During several periods in history, this kind of intercourse

6072-437: The Mongols and ousted their troops in northern Podolia . In 1257, he repelled Mongol assaults led by the prince Kuremsa on Ponyzia and Volhynia and dispatched an expedition with the aim of taking Kiev. Despite initial successes, in 1259 a Mongol force under Boroldai entered Galicia and Volhynia and offered an ultimatum: Daniel was to destroy his fortifications or Boroldai would assault the towns. Daniel complied and pulled down

6204-603: The Mongols. In 1261, Berke approved the establishment of a church in Sarai. After Möngke Khan died in 1259, the Toluid Civil War broke out between Kublai Khan and Ariq Böke . While Hulagu Khan of the Ilkhanate supported Kublai, Berke sided with Ariq Böke. There is evidence that Berke minted coins in Ariq Böke's name, but he remained militarily neutral. After the defeat of Ariq Böke in 1264, he freely acceded to Kublai's enthronement. However, some elites of

6336-415: The Ottoman Empire, Serbia, or from Moldavia to Wallachia and the other way around. The administrations of the two states supported the search and return of fugitive slaves to their masters. Occasionally, the hospodars organized expeditions abroad in order to find runaways, or through diplomacy, they appealed to the rulers of the lands where the runaways settled. For instance, in 1570, logofăt Drăgan

6468-687: The Ottomans, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire ). Traditionally, Roma slaves were divided into three categories. The smallest was owned by the hospodars , and went by the Romanian-language name of țigani domnești ("Gypsies belonging to the lord"). The two other categories comprised țigani mănăstirești ("Gypsies belonging to the monasteries"), who were the property of Romanian Orthodox and Greek Orthodox monasteries, and țigani boierești ("Gypsies belonging to

6600-404: The Qaghan (Great Khan), they sent them to Mengu-Timur. One of them, Nomoghan, favorite of Kublai, was located in the Crimea. Mengu-Timur might have briefly struggled with Hulagu's successor Abagha , but the Great Khan Kublai forced them to sign a peace treaty. He was allowed to take his share in Persia. Independently from the Khan, Nogai expressed his desire to ally with Baibars in 1271. Despite

6732-405: The Roma slaves and soon boyars and even townfolks began to use them for various tasks. The sălașe of Roma slaves were settled in the outskirts, and soon, almost all cities had such a district, with the largest being in the largest cities, including Târgoviște , Râmnic or Bucharest . Medieval society allowed a certain degree of social mobility, as attested by the career of Ștefan Răzvan ,

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6864-540: The Roma was kept. Slavery was legislated in the "Establishment of the organisation of the province of Bessarabia" act of 1818, by which the Roma were a social category divided into state slaves and private slaves, which belonged to boyars, clergy or traders. The Empire's authorities tried the sedentize the nomadic state slaves by turning them into serfs of the state . Two villages were created in Southern Bessarabia , Cair and Faraonovca (now both in Ukraine ) by settling 752 Roma families. However, things did not go as expected,

6996-408: The Timurid sources' nomenclature and call the left wing the White Horde. But Ötemish Hajji ( fl.  1550 ), a historian of Khwarazm , called the left wing the Blue Horde, and since he was familiar with the oral traditions of the khanate empire, it seems likely that the Russian chroniclers were correct, and that the khanate itself called its left wing the Blue Horde. The khanate apparently used

7128-494: The White Horde and son of Orda Khan, also made peace with the Yuan dynasty and the Ilkhanate . According to Mamluk historians, Töde Möngke sent the Mamluks a letter proposing to fight against their common enemy, the unbelieving Ilkhanate. This indicates that he might have had an interest in Azerbaijan and Georgia , which were both ruled by the Ilkhans. In the 1270s, Nogai had raided Bulgaria, as well as Lithuania. He blockaded Michael Asen II inside Drăstăr in 1279, executed

7260-410: The White Horde joined Ariq Böke's resistance. Möngke ordered the Jochid and Chagatayid families to join Hulagu's expedition to Iran. Berke 's persuasion might have forced his brother Batu to postpone Hulagu's operation, little suspecting that it would result in eliminating the Jochid predominance there for several years. During the reign of Batu or his first two successors, the Golden Horde dispatched

7392-419: The Yuan court was unable to send quick military support. From 1300 to 1302, a severe drought occurred in the areas surrounding the Black Sea . However, the troubles were soon overcome and conditions in the Golden Horde rapidly improved under Toqta's reign. After the defeat of Nogai Khan , his followers either fled to Podolia or remained under the service of Toqta, to become what would eventually be known as

7524-418: The Yuan dynasty announced to Toqta their general peace proposal. Toqta immediately accepted the supremacy of Yuan emperor Temür Öljeytü , and all yams (postal relays) and commercial networks across the Mongol khanates reopened. Toqta introduced the general peace among the Mongol khanates to the Russian princes at the assembly in Pereyaslavl (Pereslavl-Zalessky). The Yuan influence seemed to have increased in

7656-423: The arrival of the Roma made slavery a widespread practice. The Tatar slaves, smaller in numbers, were eventually merged into the Roma population. Roma historian Viorel Achim also explained that "slavery was not a phenomenon characteristic only of Wallachia and Moldavia. In the Middle Ages there were slaves in neighboring countries: the Byzantine Empire, and in the Ottoman Empire, and in the Slavic countries south of

7788-399: The beginning of the Habsburg domination in the 18th century. For instance, in 1556, Hungarian Queen Isabella Jagiełło confirmed the possessions of some Recea boyars, which included Roma slaves. The deed was also confirmed in 1689 by Prince Michael I Apafi . The estates belonging to the Bran Castle also held a large number of slaves, around 1500 at the beginning of the 16th century,

7920-483: The boyar household, in exchange for their own revenue. This was the case of Lăutari , who were routinely present at fairs and in public houses as independent tarafs . Slaves could own a number of bovines, but part of their other forms of revenue was collected by the master. In parallel, the lăieşi are believed to have often resorted to stealing the property of peasants. According to Djuvara, Roma housemaids were often spared hard work, especially in cases where

8052-426: The boyars"), who were enslaved by landowners. The status of the țigani domneşti was better than the one of the slaves held by boyars or the monasteries and many slaves given by the Prince to private owners or to monasteries ran away and joined the communities of the Prince's slaves. Each of the slave categories was divided into two groups: vătrași and lăieși ; the former was a sedentary category, while

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8184-417: The boyars. The boyars loudly pleaded their case to the authorities of Bukovina and Galicia , arguing that the banning of slavery was a transgression against the autonomy and traditions of the province, that bondage is the appropriate state for the Roma and that it was for their own good. It took a few more years until the order was fully implemented, but toward the end of the 1780s, the slaves officially joined

8316-422: The census took place in all cities, including Smolensk and Vitebsk . In 1277, Mengu-Timur launched a campaign against the Alans north of the Caucasus . Along with the Mongol army were also some of the princes who were ordered to join him in his expedition, where they took the fortified stronghold of the Alans, Dadakov , in 1278. After his Ossetian expedition, Mengu-Timur turned his attention to affairs with

8448-401: The city walls. In 1259 Berke launched savage attacks on Lithuania and Poland, and demanded the submission of Béla IV , the Hungarian monarch, and the French King Louis IX in 1259 and 1260. His assault on Prussia in 1259–1260 inflicted heavy losses on the Teutonic Order . The Lithuanians were probably tributary in the 1260s, when reports reached the Curia that they were in league with

8580-405: The common law then in use. However, customary law ( obiceiul pământului ) was almost always used in practice. If a slave owned property, one would have to pay the same taxes as the free men. Usually, there was no tax on privately owned slaves, excepting for a short period in Moldavia: between 1711 and 1714, Phanariote Prince Nicholas Mavrocordatos introduced the țigănit ("Gypsy tax"),

8712-522: The compensation being sometimes the renunciation of the ownership of the slave to the other party. A slave who killed another slave was sentenced to death, but they could also be given to the owner of the dead slave. A freeman killing a slave was also liable for death penalty and a boyar was not allowed to kill his own slaves, but no such sentencing is attested. It is, however, believed that such killings did occur in significant numbers. The Orthodox Church ( Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople ), itself

8844-426: The death of Batu Khan (the founder of the Golden Horde) in 1255, his dynasty flourished for a full century, until 1359, though the intrigues of Nogai instigated a partial civil war in the late 1290s. The Horde's military power peaked during the reign of Uzbeg Khan (1312–1341), who adopted Islam. The territory of the Golden Horde at its peak extended from Siberia and Central Asia to parts of Eastern Europe from

8976-400: The direct authority of the King, being only required to pay certain taxes and perform some services for the state, some groups of Roma being given the permission to travel freely throughout the country. In 1775, Bukovina , the scene of the 1821 incidents, was annexed from Moldavia by the Habsburgs, and inherited the practice of slavery, especially since the many monasteries in the region held

9108-410: The discretion of the master, this form of slavery distinguishing itself from the rumâni , who could only be sold together with the land. The boyar was allowed to punish his slaves physically, through beatings or imprisonment, but he or she did not have power of life and death over them, the only obligation of the master being to clothe and feed the slaves who worked at his manor. The social prestige of

9240-421: The fact that he was proposing a joint attack on the Ilkhanate with the Mamluks of Egypt , Mengu-Timur congratulated Abagha when Baraq was defeated by the Ilkhan in 1270. In 1267, Mengu-Timur issued a diploma ( jarliq ) to exempt Russian clergy from any taxation, and gave to the Genoese and Venice exclusive trading rights in Caffa and Azov . Some of Mengu-Timur's relatives converted to Christianity at

9372-539: The far northwest was not counted until winter of 1258–1259. There was an uprising in Novgorod against the Mongol census, but Alexander Nevsky forced the city to submit to the census and taxation. With the new powers afforded to Batu by Möngke, he now had direct control over the princes of Rus'. However, Andrey II refused to submit to Batu. Batu sent a punitive expedition under Nevruy, who defeated Andrey and forced him to flee to Novgorod, then Pskov , and finally to Sweden . The Mongols overran Vladimir and harshly punished

9504-465: The first of such grants to be recorded. In Moldavia, the institution of slavery was attested to for the first time in a 1470 Moldavian document, through which Moldavian Prince Stephan the Great frees Oană, a Tatar slave who had fled to Jagiellon Poland . Anthropologist Sam Beck argues that the origins of Roma slavery can be most easily explained in the practice of taking prisoners of war as slaves,

9636-434: The forceful divorce of one such couple, and issued an order to have priests sealing this type of unions to be punished by their superiors. Marital relations between Roma people and the majority ethnic Romanian population were rare, due to the difference in status and, as Djuvara notes, to an emerging form of racial prejudice . Nevertheless, extra-marital relationships between male slave owners and female slaves, as well as

9768-515: The founder of the Timurid Empire , the Golden Horde broke into smaller Tatar khanates which declined steadily in power. At the start of the 15th century, the Horde began to fall apart. By 1466, it was being referred to simply as the " Great Horde ". Within its territories there emerged numerous predominantly Turkic khanates. These internal struggles allowed Moscow to formally rid itself of

9900-526: The grand prince of Vladimir to allow German merchants free travel through his lands. The gramota says: Mengu-Timur's word to Prince Yaroslav: give the German merchants way into your lands. From Prince Yaroslav to the people of Riga , to the great and the young, and to all: your way is clear through my lands; and who comes to fight, with them I do as I know; but for the merchant the way is clear. This decree also allowed Novgorod's merchants to travel throughout

10032-608: The great general Subutai began an invasion westwards, first conquering the Bashkirs and then moving on to Volga Bulgaria in 1236. From there he conquered some of the southern steppes of present-day Ukraine in 1237, forcing many of the local Cumans to retreat westward. The Mongol campaign against the Kypchaks and Cumans had already started under Jochi and Subutai in 1216–1218 when the Merkits took shelter among them. By 1239

10164-655: The head of the House of Ögedei . Kaidu tried to restore his influence in the Golden Horde by sponsoring his own candidate Kobeleg against Bayan ( r.  1299–1304 ), Khan of the White Horde. After taking military support from Toqta, Bayan asked help from the Yuan dynasty and the Ilkhanate to organize a unified attack on the Chagatai Khanate under the leadership of Kaidu and his second-in-command Duwa . However,

10296-649: The history of slavery in Romania, many other slaves were made to work in the salt mines . Another category was the Aurari or Rudari ( gold miners ), who were slaves of the Prince who panned for gold during the warm season in the mountain rivers of the Carpathians, while staying in the plains during the winter, carving wooden utensils . The gold miners, through their yield of gold, brought much more income to

10428-488: The invasions of Hungary and Poland . Talabuga challenged Nogai, but was defeated in a coup and replaced with Toqta in 1291. Andrey, accompanied by a number of Rostov princes and the bishop of Rostov, went to Toqta to renew his patent and complain about Dmitry. Mikhail Yaroslavich was summoned to appear before Nogai in Sarai, where he chose to side with Nogai and went to him instead for confirmation of his throne, while Dmitry refused to appear, considering himself to be

10560-760: The lands of Suzdal without restraint. Mengu Timur honored his vow: when the Danes and the Livonian Knights attacked the Novgorod Republic in 1269, the Khan's great basqaq (darughachi) , Amraghan, and many Mongols assisted the army assembled by the grand prince Yaroslav. The Germans and the Danes were so cowed that they sent gifts to the Mongols and abandoned the region of Narva . The Mongol Khan's authority extended to all principalities, and in 1274–1275

10692-473: The latter was allowed to preserve its nomadism . The lăieși category comprised several occupational subgroups: alongside the Kalderash căldărari or "copper workers"), Lăutari ("string instrument players"), Boyash ( lingurari or "spoon makers") and Ursari ("bear handlers"), all of which developed as distinct ethic subgroups, they comprised the fierari ("smiths"). For

10824-482: The latter), now Romania . The words Romani and Romania are false cognates , the former deriving from Romani rom – ultimately from Sanskrit word ḍoma/डोम, and the latter deriving from Romanian român – ultimately from Latin. Vlax Romani is classified in two groups: Vlax I, or Northern Vlax (including Kalderash and Lovari ), and Vlax II, or Southern Vlax. Elšík uses this classification and dialect examples (geographical information from Matras): Vlax Romani

10956-457: The native Roma population managed to evade the system (either by not having been originally enslaved as a group, or by regrouping runaway slaves). They lived in isolation on the margin of society, and tended to settle in places where access was a problem. They were known to locals as netoţi (lit. "incomplete ones", a dismissive term generally used to designate people with mental disorders or who display poor judgment). Around 1830, they became

11088-721: The next year while on campaign in Tiflis , causing his troops to retreat. Ariq Böke had earlier placed Chagatai's grandson Alghu as Chagatayid Khan , ruling Central Asia. He took control of Samarkand and Bukhara . When the Muslim elites and the Jochid retainers in Bukhara declared their loyalty to Berke, Alghu smashed the Golden Horde appanages in Khorazm. Alghu insisted Hulagu attack the Golden Horde; he accused Berke of purging his family in 1252. In Bukhara, he and Hulagu slaughtered all

11220-417: The nomadic Roma craftsmen and musicians. The Roma slaves were not included in the tax censuses and as such, there are no reliable statistics about them, the exception being the slaves owned by the state. Nevertheless, there were several 19th century estimates. According to Djuvara, the estimates for the slave population tended to gravitate around 150,000–200,000 persons, which he notes was equivalent to 10% of

11352-401: The number of slaves per household ensured a fairer division of labour . Marriage between two slaves was only allowed with the approval of the two owners, usually through a financial agreement which resulted in the selling of one slave to the other owner or through an exchange. When no agreement was reached, the couple was split and the children resulting from the marriage were divided between

11484-457: The only territory in Eastern and Central Europe where Roma slavery was legislated, and the place where this was most extended. As a consequence of this, British sociologist Will Guy describes Romania as a "unique case", and one of the fort main "patterns of development" in what concerns the Roma groups of the region (alongside those present in countries that have in the recent past belonged to

11616-472: The owners. With time, disputes between two Roma slaves were usually dealt by the community leaders, who became known as bulibaşi . Occasionally, the larger slave communities elected themselves a başbulibaşa , who was superior to the bulibaşi and charged with solving the more divisive or complicated conflicts within the respective group. The system went unregulated, often leading to violent conflicts between slaves, which, in one such case attested for

11748-419: The patriarch of Constantinople with their respective gifts and letters. Mengu-Timur was succeeded in 1281 by his brother Töde Möngke , who was a Muslim. However, Nogai Khan was now strong enough to establish himself as an independent ruler. The Golden Horde was thus ruled by two khans. Töde Möngke made peace with Kublai, returned his sons to him, and acknowledged his supremacy. Nogai and Köchü , Khan of

11880-468: The place and went further east instead. In 1248, Güyük demanded Batu come east to meet him, a move that some contemporaries regarded as a pretext for Batu's arrest. In compliance with the order, Batu approached, bringing a large army. When Güyük moved westwards, Tolui 's widow and a sister of Batu's stepmother Sorghaghtani warned Batu that the Jochids might be his target. Güyük died on the way, in what

12012-572: The principalities, whilst his cousins Möngke , Kadan , and Güyük moved southwards into Alania . Using the migration of the Cumans as their casus belli , the Mongols continued west, raiding Poland and Hungary, which culminated in Mongol victories at the battles of Legnica and Mohi . In 1241, however, Ögedei Khan died in the Mongolian homeland. Batu turned back from his siege of Vienna but did not return to Mongolia, rather opting to stay at

12144-559: The principality. The Livonian Knights stopped their advance to Novgorod and Pskov. Thanks to his friendship with Sartaq Khan , Batu's son, who was a Christian , Alexander was installed as the grand prince of Vladimir by Batu in 1252. After Batu died in 1256, his son Sartaq Khan was appointed by Möngke Khan . As soon as he returned from the court of the Great Khan in Mongolia, Sartaq died. The infant Ulaghchi succeeded him under

12276-402: The ranks of the landless peasantry. Many of the "new peasants" (as they were called in some documents) remained to work for the estates for which they were slaves, the liberation bringing little immediate change in their life. After the eastern half of Moldavia, known as Bessarabia , was annexed by the Russian Empire in 1812 and later set up as a Bessarabia Governorate , the slave status for

12408-463: The rebel emperor Ivailo in 1280, and forced George Terter I to seek refuge in the Byzantine Empire in 1292. In 1284, Saqchi came under the Mongol rule during the major invasion of Bulgaria, and coins were struck in the Khan's name. Smilets was installed by Nogai as emperor of Bulgaria. Accordingly, the reign of Smilets has been considered the height of Mongol overlordship in Bulgaria. When he

12540-480: The regency of Boragchin Khatun . The khatun summoned all the princes of Rus' to Sarai to renew their patents. In 1256, Andrey traveled to Sarai to ask for pardon. He was once again reappointed as the grand prince of Vladimir . Ulaghchi died soon after and Batu Khan's younger brother Berke , who had been converted to Islam , was enthroned as khan of the Golden Horde in 1258. In 1256, Daniel of Galicia openly defied

12672-460: The reputation of the Mongol hordes. The appellation Golden is said to have been inspired by the golden color of the tents the Mongols lived in during wartime, or an actual golden tent used by Batu Khan or by Özbeg Khan , or to have been bestowed by the Slavic tributaries to describe the great wealth of the khan. It was not until the 16th century that Russian chroniclers begin explicitly using

12804-546: The retainers of the Golden Horde and reduced their families into slavery, sparing only the Great Khan Kublai's men. After Berke gave his allegiance to Kublai, Alghu declared war on Berke, seizing Otrar and Khorazm . While the left bank of Khorazm would eventually be retaken, Berke had lost control over Transoxiana. In 1264 Berke marched past Tiflis to fight against Hulagu's successor Abaqa , but he died en route. Berke left no sons, so Batu's grandson Mengu-Timur

12936-517: The right of being a slaveholder being probably inherited from the time that the castle was owned by Wallachia. Areas under the influence of Moldavia also held slaves: for instance, it is known that Moldavian Prince Petru Rareş bought a family of Roma from the mayor of Bistriţa and that other boyars also bought slaves from Transylvania. However, only a minority of the Transylvanian Roma were slaves, most of them being "royal serfs", under

13068-627: The same time and settled in Russia; one of them was a prince who settled in Rostov and became known as Tsarevich Peter of the Horde (Peter Ordynsky). Even though Nogai invaded the Orthodox Christian Byzantine Empire in 1271, the Khan sent his envoys to maintain friendly relationship with Michael VIII Palaiologos, who sued for peace and married one of his daughters, Euphrosyne Palaiologina , to Nogai. Mengu-Timur ordered

13200-497: The slaves were of Romani ethnicity . Particularly in Moldavia there were also slaves of Tatar ethnicity, probably prisoners captured from the wars with the Nogai and Crimean Tatars . Romani slaves belonged to boyars (aristocrats), Orthodox monasteries, or the state. They were used as blacksmiths, goldsmiths and agricultural workers, but when the principalities were urbanized, they also served as servants. The abolition of slavery

13332-487: The state of the villages "sank to deplorable levels" and their inhabitants refused to pay any taxes. According to the 1858 census, in Bessarabia, there were 11,074 Roma slaves, of which 5,615 belonged to the state and 5,459 to the boyars. Slavery, together with serfdom, was only abolished by the emancipation laws of 1861 . As a consequence, the slaves became peasants, continuing to work for their former masters or joining

13464-628: The sum attested by Wilkinson. In the Principalities, the slaves were governed by common law . By the 17th century, the earliest written laws to mention slavery appeared. The Wallachian Pravila de la Govora (1640) and Pravila lui Matei Basarab (1652) and the Moldavian Carte Românească de Învățătură (1646), which, among other things, regulated slavery, were based on the Byzantine law on slavery and on

13596-452: The support of Mongol troops from Nogai and retook his holdings. In 1285, Andrey again led a Mongol army under a Borjigin prince to Vladimir, but Dmitry expelled them. In 1283, Mengu-Timur converted to Islam and abandoned state affairs. Rumors spread that the khan was mentally ill and only cared for clerics and sheikhs. In 1285, Talabuga and Nogai invaded Hungary . While Nogai was successful in subduing Slovakia , Talabuga stalled north of

13728-417: The target of regular manhunts, those captured being turned into ţigani domneşti . A particular problem regarded the vătraşi , whose lifestyle was heavily disrupted by forced settlement and the requirement that they perform menial labour. Traditionally, this category made efforts to avoid agricultural work in service of their masters. Djuvara argues that this was because their economic patterns were at

13860-577: The term White Horde to refer to its right wing, which was situated in Batu's home base in Sarai and controlled the ulus. The designations Golden Horde, Blue Horde, and White Horde have not been encountered in the sources of the Mongol period. 2nd invasion (1259–60) 3rd invasion (1287–88) At his death in 1227, Genghis Khan divided the Mongol Empire amongst his four sons as appanages , but

13992-556: The term to refer to this particular successor khanate of the Mongol Empire. The first known use of the term, in 1565, in a Russian chronicle called History of Kazan , applied it to the Ulus of Batu, centered on Sarai . In contemporary Persian, Armenian and Muslim writings, and in the records of the 13th and early 14th centuries such as the Yuanshi and the Jami' al-tawarikh , the khanate

14124-668: The territory of present-day Romania from the founding of the principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia in 13th–14th century, until it was abolished in stages during the 1840s and 1850s before the Romanian War of Independence and the formation of the United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859, and also until 1783 in Transylvania and Bukovina (parts of the Habsburg monarchy ). Most of

14256-487: The town of Kolomna from Ryazan , which turned to the local basqaq for protection. However, this did not deter Daniel, who defeated the Ryazan and Mongol troops in 1301, and then seized Mozhaysk in 1303 and then Pereslavl-Zalessky, which threw off the already weak balance of interprincely relations. Daniel may have been motivated to round out his appanage, which in terms of the modern administrative divisions of Russia,

14388-405: The treasury than the other types of slaves and initially they were in large numbers, but as the deposits became exhausted, their number dropped. By 1810, there were only 400 Aurari panning for gold in Wallachia. During the 14th and 15th centuries very few slaves were found in the cities. Only since the beginning of the 16th century, monasteries began opening in the cities and they brought with them

14520-610: The two countries' population. At the time of the abolition of slavery, in the two principalities there were between 200,000 and 250,000 Roma, representing 7% of the total population. The moral and social problems posed by Roma slavery were first acknowledged during the Age of Enlightenment , firstly by Western European visitors to the two countries. Golden Horde The Golden Horde , self-designated as Ulug Ulus ( lit.   ' Great State ' in Kipchak Turkic ),

14652-540: The two slaveholders. Slave owners kept strict records of their lăieşi slaves, and, according to Djuvara, were particularly anxious because the parents of slave children could sell their offspring to other masters. The slaveowners separated Roma couples when selling one of the spouses. This practice was banned by Constantine Mavrocordatos in 1763 and discouraged by the Orthodox Church, which decreed in 1766 that "although they are called gypsies [i.e. slaves],

14784-405: The unity of the realm. Batu, Möngke, and other princely lines shared rule over the area from Afghanistan to Turkey . Batu allowed Möngke's census-takers to operate freely in his realm. Local censuses took place in the 1240s, including the areas of Russia and Turkey. In 1251–1259, Möngke conducted the first empire-wide census of the Mongol Empire; while North China was completed in 1252, Novgorod in

14916-526: The young prince Nogai to invade the Ilkhanate but Hulagu forced him back in 1262. The Ilkhanid army then crossed the Terek River , capturing an empty Jochid encampment, only to be routed in a surprise attack by Nogai's forces. Many of them were drowned as the ice broke on the frozen Terek River. The outbreak of conflict was made more annoying to Berke by the rebellion of Suzdal at the same time, killing Mongol darughachis and tax-collectors. Berke planned

15048-538: Was a devoted Muslim who had had a close relationship with the Abbasid Caliph Al-Musta'sim , who had been killed by Hulagu in 1258. The Jochids believed that Hulagu's state eliminated their presence in the Transcaucasus . Those events increased the anger of Berke and the war between the Golden Horde and the Ilkhanate soon broke out in 1262. The increasing tension between Berke and Hulagu

15180-674: Was a warning to the Golden Horde contingents in Hulagu's army to flee. One contingent reached the Kipchak Steppe, another traversed Khorasan , and a third body took refuge in Mamluk ruled Syria where they were well received by Sultan Baybars (1260–1277). Hulagu harshly punished the rest of the Golden Horde army in Iran. Berke sought a joint attack with Baybars and forged an alliance with the Mamluks against Hulagu. The Golden Horde dispatched

15312-601: Was achieved at the end of a campaign by young revolutionaries influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment. Mihail Kogălniceanu , who drafted the legislation on the abolition of slavery in Moldova, remains the name associated with the abolition. In 1843, the Wallachian state freed its slaves, and in 1856, in both principalities, slaves of all classes were freed. Many formerly enslaved Romani people in Romania went to

15444-546: Was also detained there. With the assistance of the Kingdom of Bulgaria (Berke's vassal), Nogai invaded the Empire in 1265. By the next year, the Mongol-Bulgarian army was within reach of Constantinople . Nogai forced Michael VIII Palaiologos to release Kaykaus and pay tribute to the Horde. Berke gave Kaykaus Crimea as an appanage and had him marry a Mongol woman. Hulagu died in February 1265 and Berke followed

15576-609: Was called the Ulus of Jochi ('realm of Jochi' in Mongolian ), Dasht-i-Qipchaq ( Persian : دشت قپچاق , 'Qipchaq Steppe') or Khanate of the Qipchaq and Comania or Cumania . The eastern or left wing (or "left hand" in official Mongolian-sponsored Persian sources) was referred to as the Blue Horde in Russian chronicles and as the White Horde in Timurid sources (e.g. Zafar-Nameh). Western scholars have tended to follow

15708-406: Was concerned by Toqta's actions; he found it necessary to remind Toqta that he still held supreme power in the affairs of the Golden Horde and consequently sent his senior wife to Toqta in 1293, where she was received with due honor. In the same year, Nogai sent an army to Serbia and forced the king to acknowledge himself as a vassal. Nogai's daughter married a son of Kublai's niece, Kelmish, who

15840-465: Was expelled by a local boyars c.  1295 , the Mongols launched another invasion to protect their protege. Nogai compelled Serbian king Stefan Milutin to accept Mongol supremacy and received his son, Stefan Dečanski , as hostage in 1287. Under his rule, the Vlachs , Slavs, Alans , and Turco-Mongols lived in modern-day Moldavia . At the same time, the influence of Nogai greatly increased in

15972-490: Was explicitly forbidden: In Moldavia, in 1774, prince Alexander Mourousis banned marriages between free people and slaves. A similar chrysobull was decreed by Alexandru Mavrocordat Firaris in 1785, which not only banned such marriages, but invalidated any such existing marriage. In Wallachia, Alexander Ypsilantis (1774–1782) banned mixed marriages in his law code, but the children resulting from such marriages were to be born free. In 1804, Constantine Ypsilantis ordered

16104-585: Was given his own enormous ulus east of the Ural Mountains along the Ob and Irtysh Rivers . While the Mongolian language was undoubtedly in general use at the court of Batu, few Mongol texts written in the territory of the Golden Horde have survived, perhaps because of the prevalent general illiteracy. According to Grigor'ev, yarliq , or decrees of the Khans, were written in Mongol, then translated into

16236-526: Was nominated by Kublai and succeeded his uncle Berke. However, Mengu-Timur secretly supported the Ögedeid prince Kaidu against Kublai and the Ilkhanate. After the defeat of Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq , a peace treaty was concluded in 1267 granting one-third of Transoxiana to Kaidu and Mengu-Timur. In 1268, when a group of princes operating in Central Asia on Kublai's behalf mutinied and arrested two sons of

16368-554: Was of Cuman origin and not Romanian: "Romanians were called the black cumans". The very first document attesting the presence of Roma people in Wallachia dates back to 1385, and refers to the group as aţigani (from athinganoi , a Greek-language word for " heretics ", and the origin of the Romanian term ţigani , which is synonymous with "Gypsy"). The document, signed by Prince Dan I , assigned 40 sălaşe (hamlets or dwellings) of aţigani to Tismana Monastery,

16500-516: Was originally a Mongol and later Turkicized khanate established in the 13th century and originating as the northwestern sector of the Mongol Empire . With the division of the Mongol Empire after 1259, it became a functionally separate khanate. It is also known as the Kipchak Khanate or the Ulus of Jochi , and replaced the earlier, less organized Cuman–Kipchak confederation . After

16632-447: Was probably poisoned by Töregene Khatun , who probably did it to spite Batu and even her own son Güyük, because he did not approve of her regency. Güyük appointed Andrey as the grand prince of Vladimir and Alexander was given the princely title of Kiev . However, when they returned, Andrey went to Vladimir while Alexander went to Novgorod instead. A bishop by the name of Cyril went to Kiev and found it so devastated that he abandoned

16764-517: Was referred to as one of the domneşti slaves, although she had been freed by that moment. Like many of the serfs in the two principalities, slaves were prone to escape from the estates and seek a better life on other domains or abroad, which made boyars organize search parties and make efforts to have them return. Fugitive slaves would settle abroad in Hungary, Poland, lands of the Cossacks,

16896-634: Was sent by Bogdan IV of Moldavia to the King of Poland to ask for the return of 13 sălaşe of slaves. In the 16th century, the duties of collecting wartime tithes and of retrieving runaways were performed by a category called globnici , many of whom were also slaves. Beginning in the 17th century, much of the Kalderash population left the region to settle south into the Balkans , and later also moved into other regions of Europe. A small section of

17028-557: Was that following the Crusades , an important east–west trade route passed through the Romanian states and the local feudal lords enslaved the Roma for economic gain for lack of other craftsmen. However, this theory is undermined by the fact that slavery was present before the trade route gained importance. A legend tells that the Roma came to the Romanian Principalities at the invitation of Moldavian ruler Alexander

17160-452: Was unable to keep the succession within her branch of the family. With the assistance of Batu, Möngke succeeded as Great Khan in 1251. Utilizing the discovery of a plot designed to remove him, Möngke as the new Great Khan began a purge of his opponents. Estimates of the deaths of aristocrats, officials, and Mongol commanders range from 77 to 300. Batu became the most influential person in the Mongol Empire as his friendship with Möngke ensured

17292-584: Was visibly influenced by the Mongols, and equipped his army in the Mongol fashion, his horsemen with Mongol-style cuirasses, and their mounts armoured with shoulder, chest, and head pieces. Michael of Chernigov , who had killed a Mongol envoy in 1240, refused to show obeisance and was executed in 1246. When Güyük called Batu to pay him homage several times, Batu sent Yaroslav II , Andrey II of Vladimir and Alexander Nevsky to Karakorum in Mongolia in 1247. Yaroslav II never returned and died in Mongolia. He

17424-553: Was wife of a Qongirat general of the Golden Horde. Nogai was angry with Kelmish's family because her Buddhist son despised his Muslim daughter. For this reason, he demanded Toqta send Kelmish's husband to him. Nogai's independent actions relating to Russian affairs and foreign merchants had already irritated Toqta. Toqta thus refused and declared war on Nogai. Toqta was defeated in their first battle. Nogai's army turned their attention to Caffa and Soldaia , looting both cities. Within two years, Toqta returned and killed Nogai in 1299 at

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