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53-640: Modern Bolsena , Italy , in the region of Lazio , descends from the Roman city. The location of the Etruscan city is debated. Umbrian Orvieto , about 14 km (8.7 mi) from Bolsena, is a strong candidate. The Byzantine historian Joannes Zonaras states that the Etruscan Volsinii (Velzna or Velusna) lay on a steep height; while Bolsena , the representative of the Roman Volsinii,

106-483: A Roman army arrived to lay siege to the town. The subsequent conflict was intense; the consul and commanding general, Quintus Fabius Gurges , was a casualty. A year later his successor, Marcus Fulvius Flaccus , receiving the surrender of the town through its starvation, razed it and executed the leaders of the plebeian party. The first display of gladiators at Rome in 264 is believed to have featured now captive freedmen from Volsinii. The Romans rescued and restored to power

159-533: A famed fresco by Raphael and his school in the Vatican Stanze , depicts the event. The United States Navy established a naval air station on 21 February 1918 to operate seaplanes during World War I . The base closed shortly after the First Armistice at Compiègne . Metrodorus of Scepsis Metrodorus of Scepsis ( Greek : Μητρόδωρος ὁ Σκήψιος ) (c. 145 BCE – 70 BCE), from

212-513: A guest and prisoner. Metrodorus was apparently with Tigranes at this time. Plutarch offers one relevant account of these circumstances in The Life of Lucullus : Up to this time Tigranes had not deigned to see Mithridates, nor speak to him, though the man was allied to him by marriage, and had been expelled from such a great kingdom. Instead, he had kept him at the farthest remove possible, in disgrace and contumely, and had suffered him to be held

265-677: A high degree that he was called the king's father. This man, as it seems, had once been sent as an ambassador from Mithridates to Tigranes, with a request for aid against the Romans. On this occasion Tigranes asked him: "But what is your own advice to me, Metrodorus, in this matter?" Whereupon Metrodorus, either with an eye to the interests of Tigranes, or because he did not wish Mithridates to be saved, said that as an ambassador he urged consent, but as an adviser he forbade it. Tigranes disclosed this to Mithridates, not supposing, when he told him, that he would punish Metrodorus past all healing. But Metrodorus

318-474: A poor man, in marrying brilliantly in Chalcedon; and he passed for a Chalcedonian. And having paid court to Mithridates Eupator, he with his wife sailed away with him to Pontus; and he was treated with exceptional honor, being appointed to the judgeship from which there was no appeal to the king. However, his good fortune did not continue, but he incurred the enmity of men less just than himself and revolted from

371-471: A series of loci numbered 1 to 360, which he could use in his operations. With a little calculation he could find any background (locus) by its number, and he was insured against missing a background, since all were arranged in numerical order. His system was therefore well designed for the performance of striking feats of memory. A number of fragments attributed to a man by this name are to be found in classical works. The following fragments most likely refer to

424-402: A sort of prisoner in marshy and sickly regions. Now, however, he summoned him to his palace with marks of esteem and friendship. There, in secret conference, they strove to allay their mutual suspicions at the expense of their friends, by laying the blame upon them. One of these was Metrodorus of Scepsis, a man of agreeable speech and wide learning, who enjoyed the friendship of Mithridates in such

477-464: A woman strips herself naked while she is menstruating, and walks round a field of wheat, the caterpillars, worms, beetles, and other vermin, will fall from off the ears of corn. Metrodorus of Scepsis tells us that this discovery was first made in Cappadocia; and that, in consequence of such multitudes of cantharides being found to breed there, it is the practice for women to walk through the middle of

530-458: Is 10 km (6 mi) north-north west of Montefiascone and 36 km (22 mi) north-west of Viterbo . The ancient Via Cassia , today's highway SR143, follows the lake shore for some distance, passing through Bolsena. Bolsena is named "the city of the Eucharistic miracle " from which the solemnity of Corpus Domini had been extended to the whole Roman Catholic Church. While it

583-543: Is fairly certain that the city is the successor to the ancient Roman town of Volsinii (sometimes termed Volsinii Novi – New Volsinii – to distinguish it from the Etruscan city), scholarly opinion is sharply divided as to whether Volsinii was the same as the ancient Etruscan city of Velzna or Velsuna (sometimes termed Volsinii Veteres – Old Volsinii), the other candidate being Orvieto , 20 km (12 mi) NE. George Dennis pointed out that

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636-603: Is frequently mentioned alongside one Charmadas , a member of the Academy , who taught for a time at the Athenian Ptolemaeum, and a pupil of Carneades . They are together mentioned in five different passages as both being notable for their powers of memory. A few other valuable details are available in Cicero's De oratore (3.75): Although I was thirsting for them, I barely tasted the arts I am speaking of when I

689-548: Is known for a miracle said to have occurred in the Basilica of Santa Cristina in 1263, when a Bohemian priest, in doubt about the doctrine of Transubstantiation , reported bleeding from the host he had consecrated at Mass. The Orvieto Cathedral was eventually built to commemorate the miracle and house the Corporal of Bolsena in a reliquary made by Sienese goldsmith Ugolino di Vieri in 1337–1338. The Mass at Bolsena ,

742-674: Is preferable to the stone of Arabia; but can there be any doubt that his statement is incorrect? With the waters of these streams the Padus unites, and with them discharges itself into the sea, forming, according to most writers, between the Alps and the sea-shore a triangular figure, 2000 stadia in circumference, not unlike the Delta formed by the Nile in Egypt. I feel somewhat ashamed to have to borrow from

795-463: Is situated in the plain. Scholars of the 19th century debated the location of this elevated site. Wilhelm Ludwig Abeken looked for it at Montefiascone , at the southern extremity of the lake; while Karl Otfried Müller believed it was at Orvieto , and adduced the name of that place in Latin, Urbs Vetus , the old city, as an argument in favour of his view; but British explorer and writer George Dennis

848-595: Is to be found in Strabo : From Scepsis came also Demetrius, whom I often mention, the grammarian who wrote a commentary on The Marshalling of the Trojan Forces , and was born at about the same time as Crates and Aristarchus; and later, Metrodorus, a man who changed from his pursuit of philosophy to political life, and taught rhetoric, for the most part, in his written works; and he used a brand-new style and dazzled many. On account of his reputation he succeeded, though

901-473: The Empire . It was the birthplace of Sejanus , the minister and favorite of Tiberius . Juvenal (x. 74) alludes to this circumstance when he considers the fortunes of Sejanus as dependent on the favor of Nursia , or Norsia, an Etruscan goddess much worshipped at Volsinii, into whose temple there, as in that of Jupiter Capitolinus at Rome, a nail was annually driven to mark the years. According to Pliny, Volsinii

954-573: The Academy some time during the period roughly 130–110 BCE, before his return to Asia. Brittain notes, "This does not prove that Charmadas taught Metrodorus, of course, but someone did, at a time when Charmadas, who was clearly interested in rhetoric, was in Athens." Brittain also suggests, "This makes Metrodorus the earliest (certain) Academic rhetorician..." Metrodorus is frequently mentioned by Classical authors such as Cicero , Quintilian , and Pliny

1007-735: The Amazons and the Albanians, and that the Mermadalis River flows there, midway between these people and the Amazons. But others, among whom are Metrodorus of Scepsis and Hypsicrates, who themselves, likewise, were not unacquainted with the region in question, say that the Amazons live on the borders of the Gargarians , in the northerly foothills of those parts of the Caucasian Mountains which are called Ceraunian; that

1060-441: The Amazons spend the rest of their time off to themselves, performing their several individual tasks, such as ploughing, planting, pasturing cattle, and particularly in training horses, though the bravest engage mostly in hunting on horseback and practise warlike exercises; that the right breasts of all are seared when they are infants, so that they can easily use their right arm for every needed purpose, and especially that of throwing

1113-489: The Elder as one famous for the power of his memory. He was thought to have been a key figure in the development of the art of memory , a loosely associated group of mnemonic principles and techniques which are used to organize memory impressions, improve recall, and assist in the combination and 'invention' of ideas. The memory of Metrodorus is mentioned in Cicero's De oratore (Book 2, 88) where Crassus states, "I have seen

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1166-635: The Etruscan cities, except Arretium (modern Arezzo ), they took part in the siege of Sutrium (modern Sutri ), a city in alliance with Rome. This war was terminated by the defeat of the Etruscans at the First Battle of Lake Vadimo (310 BC), a major blow to their power. Three years afterwards the consul Publius Decius Mus captured several of the Volsinian fortresses. In 295 BC, Lucius Postumius Megellus ravaged their territory and defeated them under

1219-527: The Greek writer Metrodorus of Scepsis , that the object of the Romans in capturing Volsinii was to make themselves masters of 2,000 statues which it contained. The story, however, suffices to show that the Volsinians had attained great wealth, luxury, and art. This is confirmed by Valerius Maximus, who also adds that this luxury was the cause of their ruin, by making them so indolent that they at length allowed

1272-593: The Metrodorus of Scepsis who was in the service of Mithridates Eupator and who was famous for his memory, however, the possibility exists that there was more than one man identified by this name. The Amazons , also, are said to live in the mountains above Albania . Now Theophanes, who made the expedition with Pompey and was in the country of the Albanians, says that the Gelae and the Legae, Scythian people, live between

1325-546: The Roman city, some remains are still extant at Bolsena. The most remarkable are those of a temple near the Florence gate, commonly called the Tempio di Norsia . But the remains are of Roman work; and the real temple of that goddess most probably stood in the Etruscan city. The amphitheater is small and a complete ruin. Besides these there are the remains of some baths, sepulchral tablets, and a sarcophagus with reliefs representing

1378-467: The Salpinates, taking advantage of a famine and pestilence which had desolated Rome, made incursions into the Roman territory in 391 BC. They were defeated, and 8,000 of them were taken prisoner. However, they purchased a twenty-year truce in exchange for returning the booty they had taken, and furnishing the pay of the Roman army for a year. They appear next in 310 BC, when, in common with the rest of

1431-527: The Scepsian relates, in his book 'On Custom,' is like fable, and is to be disregarded. There are also Etruscan statues dispersed in various parts of the world, which beyond a doubt were originally made in Etruria . I should have supposed that these had been the statues only of divinities, had not Metrodorus of Scepsis, who had his surname from his hatred to the Roman name, reproached us with having pillaged

1484-489: The administration of their commonwealth to be usurped by slaves. The attempted revolution apparently began with the admission of freedmen into the army, which must have been in 280 BC. They became a powerful plebeian class, who were subsequently allowed to become members of the Senate and to hold public office. They seem to have acquired majorities, using them to shape the law. Other slaves were set free; they gave themselves all

1537-510: The art of memory which was itself thought to have been created by Simonides of Ceos . Mithridates , who was king of twenty-two nations, administered their laws in as many languages, and could harangue each of them, without employing an interpreter. There was in Greece a man named Charmidas , who, when a person asked him for any book in a library, could repeat it by heart, just as though he were reading. Memory, in fine, has been made an art; which

1590-411: The body of Metrodorus a splendid burial, sparing no expense upon the man when dead, although he had betrayed him when alive. Ovid also mentions (possibly the same) Metrodorus briefly: Scepsian Metrodorus attacked Italian ways, not the land, in bitter writing: and Rome itself was accused of guilt: yet Rome accepted the lying invective equably, and the author’s wild speech did him no harm. Metrodorus

1643-505: The city of Volsinii for the sake of the two thousand statues which it contained. Megasthenes informs us, that in India, serpents grow to such an immense size, as to swallow stags and bulls; while Metrodorus says, that about the river Rhyndacus , in Pontus, they seize and swallow the birds that are flying above them, however high and however rapid their flight. At any other time, also, if

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1696-480: The fields with their garments tucked up above the thighs. Adamas, too, overcomes and neutralizes poisons, dispels delirium, and banishes groundless perturbations of the mind; hence it is that some have given it the name of 'ananchites.' Metrodorus of Scepsis is the only author, that I know of, who says that this stone is found also in Germany, and in the island of Basilia, where amber is found. He says, too, that this

1749-455: The greatest men, men endowed with an almost divine memory; at Athens Carneades; and Metrodorus of Scepsis in Asia, whom I hear is still living; and both these said, that they used ideas upon those places, which they wanted to retain in their memories, in the same manner as one does characters upon wax." The Elder Pliny's reference to Metrodorus' powers of memory explicitly states that he perfected

1802-479: The information available on Metrodorus' memory techniques at some length. She cites the following passage from an older article on ancient memory systems: I suspect that Metrodorus was versed in astrology, for astrologers divided the zodiac not only into 12 signs, but also into 36 decans, each covering ten degrees; for each decan there was an associated decan-figure. Metrodorus probably grouped ten artificial backgrounds (loci) under each decan figure. He would thus have

1855-497: The javelin; that they also use bow and sagaris and light shield, and make the skins of wild animals serve as helmets, clothing, and girdles; but that they have two special months in the spring in which they go up into the neighboring mountain which separates them and the Gargarians. The Gargarians also, in accordance with an ancient custom, go up thither to offer sacrifice with the Amazons and also to have intercourse with them for

1908-587: The king when he was on the embassy to Tigranes the Armenian . And Tigranes sent him back against his will to Eupator, who was already in flight from his ancestral realm; but Metrodorus died on the way, whether by order of the king or from disease; for both accounts are given of his death. So much for the Scepsians. For a time Mithridates had avoided capture by the Romans by staying within the territory of Tigranes, with an ambiguous status somewhere between that of

1961-434: The most powerful cities of Etruria, the cult centre of the god Voltumna , and was doubtless one of the 12 which formed the Etruscan confederation, as Volsinii is designated by Livy and Valerius Maximus as one of the capita Etruriae ("heads of Etruria"). It is described by Juvenal as seated among well-wooded hills. Volsinii first appears in history after the fall of Veii (396 BC). The Volsinienses, in conjunction with

2014-481: The privileges formerly reserved for the Etruscans, such as rights of intermarriage and inheritance, and aggressively insisted on them against the will of the Etruscan patrician class. There were complaints of rape and robbery. In 265 BC, when the revolutionary party began to pass laws limiting patrician political activity, the lucumones sent a clandestine embassy to Rome asking for military assistance. On their return they were executed for treason, but shortly afterwards

2067-547: The remaining Etruscans of Volsinii, but decided it was necessary to remove them from that location to a new city on the shores of Lake Bolsena. The new city had none of the natural defenses of the old one and was not in any way sovereign. The portable wealth from the old city was carried off to Rome. The Romans, when they took Volsinii, razed the town, and compelled the inhabitants to migrate to another spot. (Zonaras, l. c. ) This second, or Roman, Volsinii (sometimes called Volsinii Novi – New Volsinii) continued to exist under

2120-443: The sake of begetting children, doing this in secrecy and darkness, any Gargarian at random with any Amazon; and after making them pregnant they send them away; and the females that are born are retained by the Amazons themselves, but the males are taken to the Gargarians to be brought up; and each Gargarian to whom a child is brought adopts the child as his own, regarding the child as his son because of his uncertainty. What Metrodorus

2173-418: The things we have to learn, so that as Cicero says, 'we use places as wax and images as letters'. ... which makes me wonder all the more how Metrodorus can have found three hundred and sixty places in the twelve signs through which the sun moves. It was doubtless the vanity and boastfulness of a man glorying in a memory stronger by art than by nature. Frances A. Yates, in her work on the art of memory, examines

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2226-464: The town of Scepsis in ancient Mysia , was a friend of Mithridates VI of Pontus and celebrated in antiquity for the excellence of his memory. He may be the same Metrodorus who, according to the Elder Pliny , in consequence of his hostility to the Romans, was surnamed the "Rome-hater" ("Misoromæus"). Information on Metrodorus is very scarce. The fullest ancient account of the life of Metrodorus

2279-476: The town of Bolsena has no Etruscan characteristics; for example, Etruscan cities were built on defensible crags, which the hill on which the castle is situated is not. The Roman historian Pliny the Elder said that a bolt from Mars fell on Bolsena, "the richest town in Tuscany" and that the city was entirely burned up by this bolt. The population moved to another site, which Dennis thought was Bolsena. The new city

2332-479: The triumph of Bacchus . The Monti Volsini mountain range in northern Lazio takes its name from the ancient city. Volsinii minted coins in antiquity. A full discussion of the coins of Volsinii may be found in Müller, Etrusker , vol. i. pp. 324, 333. Bolsena Bolsena is a town and comune of Italy , in the province of Viterbo in northern Lazio on the eastern shore of Lake Bolsena . It

2385-475: The walls of their own city, slaying 2,800 of them. Consequently they, together with Perusia (modern Perugia ) and Arretium , purchased a forty-year peace by paying a heavy fine. Not more than fourteen years, however, had elapsed, when, with their allies the Vulcientes , they again took up arms against Rome. But this attempt ended in their final subjugation in 280 BC. Pliny tells an absurd story, taken from

2438-455: Was a quaestor in Asia, where I obtained a near contemporary of mine, a rhetor from the Academy – the Metrodorus whose memory Antoninus was recalling... According to Charles Francis Brittain , this would allow us to guess a rough birth date for Metrodorus around 145 BCE and clearly indicates an affiliation with the Academy. It also demonstrates that Metrodorus was a rhetorician . Brittain goes on to speculate that Metrodorus most likely studied at

2491-456: Was at once put out of the way. Then Tigranes repented of what he had done, although he was not entirely to blame for the death of Metrodorus. He merely gave an impulse, as it were, to the hatred which Mithridates already had for the man. For he had long been secretly hostile to him, as was seen from his private papers when they were captured, in which there were directions that Metrodorus, as well as others, be put to death. Accordingly, Tigranes gave

2544-400: Was first invented by the lyric poet, Simonides, and perfected by Metrodorus of Scepsis , so as to enable persons to repeat word for word exactly what they have heard. From Quintilian we learn that the techniques employed in the art of memory, as developed by Metrodorus, included the use of a memorized scheme based upon 360 places in twelve zodiacal signs: Images are as words by which we note

2597-546: Was located at this site. An Etruscan substructure, datable to the 6th-4th centuries BC, has been uncovered. "Most impressive was the excavation of a round fountain area, on a slight rise above and overlooking the temples, whose decorations included the head of a lion. According to Stopponi, ‘This would have been the sacred spring.’" Etruscan Volsinii (Velzna or Velusna; or sometimes in Latin Volsinii Veteres – Old Volsinii) appears to have been one of

2650-525: Was named after the old, hence Roman Bolsena has an Etruscan name. Dennis suggests a number of crags in the area including Orvieto but does not favor Orvieto on the grounds that it is too far away. A number of Etruscan tombs have been found in the vicinity of Bolsena. Funerary objects from these tombs are now located in Italy and abroad, including a fine collection in the British Museum . Bolsena

2703-457: Was of the opinion that there was no reason to believe that it was so far from the Roman city, and that it lay on the summit of the hill, above the amphitheater at Bolsena, at a spot called Il Piazzano . He adduced in support of this hypothesis the existence of a good deal of broken pottery there, and of a few caves in the cliffs below. Bolsena is 6 km (3.7 mi) from Montefiascone, and 14 km (8.7 mi) from Orvieto. Fanum Voltumnae

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2756-602: Was the chief sanctuary of the Etruscans. Numerous sources refer to a league of the "Twelve Peoples" of Etruria, which met annually at the Fanum, possibly for the purpose of electing priests. The exact location of this shrine is still unknown, though it may have been in an area near modern Orvieto , believed by many to be the ancient Volsinii. Professor Simonetta Stopponi of the University of Macerata, an Etruscologist, has been excavating at Orvieto since 2000. She believes that Fanum

2809-410: Was the scene of some supernatural occurrences. He records that lightning was drawn down from heaven by king Porsenna to destroy a monster called Volta that was ravaging its territory. Even the commonplace invention of hand-mills, ascribed to this city, is embellished with the traditional prodigy that some of them turned by themselves. No definite traces of the Etruscan Volsinii have been identified. Of

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