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84-551: In 1935, Vultee produced a light bomber derivative of their single-engined passenger transport, the Vultee V-1 , which, while demonstrating good performance, was only sold in small numbers owing to restrictions placed on the use of single-engined aircraft for scheduled passenger transport operations. The resulting aircraft, the Vultee V-11, retained the single-engined, low wing format and all-metal stressed skin structure of

168-707: A commissary , housewares, and so forth. In 1952, the Panama Canal Company was required to go on a break-even basis in an announcement made in the form of the president's budget submission to the United States Congress. Though company officials had been involved in previewing the requirement, there was no disclosure in advance, even though the Bureau of the Budget directed that the new régime become effective on March 1. The company organization

252-473: A "gold" roll (short for payroll) classification, and a "silver" roll classification. The origins of this system are unclear, but it was the practice on the 19th-century Panama Railroad to pay Americans in US gold and local workers in silver coin. Although some Canal Zone officials compared the gold roll to military officers and the silver roll to enlisted men, the characteristic that determined on which roll an employee

336-691: A 6 miles (9.7 km) wide zone in which it could deploy troops with Colombian consent. On August 12, 1903, the Colombian Senate voted down the treaty 24–0. Roosevelt was angered by the Colombians' actions, especially when the Colombian Senate made a counteroffer that was more financially advantageous to Colombia. A Frenchman who had worked on his nation's canal efforts, Philippe Bunau-Varilla , represented Panamanian insurgents; he met with Roosevelt and with Secretary of State John Hay , who saw to it that his principals received covert support. When

420-524: A U.S. citizen parent without that parent needing to have been previously resident in the United States. The law is now codified under title 8, section 1403. It not only grants statutory and declaratory born citizenship to those born in the Canal Zone after February 26, 1904, of at least one U.S. citizen parent, but also does so retroactively for all children born of at least one U.S. citizen in

504-478: A canal would make it easier for European vessels to reach Asia. Although King Charles I was enthusiastic and ordered preliminary works started, his officials in Panama soon realized that such an undertaking was beyond the capabilities of 16th-century technology. One official wrote to Charles, "I pledge to Your Majesty that there is not a prince in the world with the power to accomplish this". The Spanish instead built

588-478: A colony. Through the remainder of the 19th century, the United States landed troops several times to preserve the railway connection. At the same time, it pursued a canal treaty with Colombia (as New Granada was renamed). One treaty, signed in 1868, was rejected by the Colombian Senate , which hoped for better terms from the incoming Grant administration . Under this treaty, the canal would have been in

672-486: A few years, accredited Canal Zone stamps were issued. After a transition period during which Panama took over the administration of postal service, Canal Zone stamps became invalid. The two-letter state abbreviation for mail sent to the Zone was CZ. Damp Proof "Canal Zone Matches" were manufactured by Jönköpings Westra Tändsticksfabrik, Sweden, expressly for the Panama Canal Company. Amateur radio licenses were issued by

756-504: A million dollars in orders for V-1s, V-1As, and V-11s. On January 29, 1938, before Vultee became independent again, Jerry Vultee and his wife Sylvia Parker, daughter of Twentieth Century Fox film director Max Parker , died when the plane he was piloting crashed in a snowstorm near Sedona, Arizona . A bronze plaque memorializing the Vultees is located near the crash site at the end of Coconino Forestry and Vultee Arch Trails , where

840-586: A natural rock arch named for them, the Vultee Arch, is located. Donald P. Smith, Vultee's close friend and vice president of Vultee Aircraft, wrote a letter to TIME magazine about Vultee's death: Sirs: AVCO hired Dick Palmer away from Howard Hughes to take Jerry Vultee's place, and Vultee Aircraft Division began to develop military designs. Dick Palmer created the BT-13, BT-15, and SNV Valiant trainers and oversaw other major production program such as

924-694: A number of canals built. The success of the Erie Canal in the United States and the collapse of the Spanish Empire in Latin America led to a surge of American interest in building an interoceanic canal. Beginning in 1826, US officials began negotiations with Gran Colombia (present-day Colombia , Venezuela , Ecuador and Panama ), hoping to gain a concession for the building of a canal. Jealous of their newly obtained independence and fearing that they would be dominated by an American presence,

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1008-541: A road across the isthmus. The road came to be crucial to Spain's economy, as treasure obtained along the Pacific coast of South America was offloaded at Panama City and hauled through the jungle to the Atlantic port of Nombre de Dios, close to present-day Colón . Although additional canal building proposals were made throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, they came to naught. The late 18th and early 19th centuries saw

1092-512: A serious threat to the Jim Crow system which resulted, however, only in minimal gains. American segregationist policies persisted as it related to housing and schooling. In the end, ties to communism destroyed the UPWA and as a result Local 713 collapsed. Nevertheless, Frank Gurridy describes this as diasporization, "diaspora in action, or the ways Afro-diasporic linkages were made in practice". In

1176-458: A steamship service would allow passengers and freight to continue to Colón. His agreement was repudiated by the Jackson administration, which wanted rights to build a canal. In 1841, with Panama in rebellion again, British interests secured a right of way over the isthmus from the insurgent regime and occupied Nicaraguan ports that might have served as the Atlantic terminus of a canal. In 1846,

1260-470: A zone of land and land underwater for the construction, maintenance, operation, sanitation, and protection of the canal. From 1903 to 1979, the territory was controlled by the United States, which had purchased the land from its private and public owners, built the canal and financed its construction. The Canal Zone was abolished in 1979, as a term of the Torrijos–Carter Treaties two years earlier;

1344-603: Is the retractable bombardier's hatch; he lay prone, facing forward for the bomb run or rearward to use the ventral gun." An initial order for 30 two-seat V-11Gs was placed by China before the end of 1935. This was followed in 1939 by orders for two versions (the V-12-C and V-12D) of the more powerful V-12 variant. The majority of these were planned to be assembled from kits at the Central Aircraft Manufacturing Company factory at Loiwing near

1428-629: The Brazilian Army Air Corps acquired the first 10 Vultee V-11–GB2s for long range bombing. 26 aircraft were eventually used by the Brazilian Air Force. A 3,250 km (2,020 mi) non-stop flight was made across the Brazilian hinterland in 11 hours and 45 min on 8 November 1939 using a V-11. On 26 August 1942, a U-boat was attacked 50 miles off the town of Ararangua off the southern coast of Brazil. Despite

1512-643: The Canal Zone , was a concession of the United States located in the Isthmus of Panama that existed from 1903 to 1979. It consisted of the Panama Canal and an area generally extending five miles (8 km) on each side of the centerline, but excluding Panama City and Colón . Its capital was Balboa . The Panama Canal Zone was created on November 18, 1903 from the territory of Panama ; it

1596-724: The V-72 Vengeance , serving in the USAAC as the A-31 and A-35. Vultee Aircraft was created in November 1939, when Vultee Aircraft Division of AVCO was reorganized as an independent company. The P-66 Vanguard was a 1941 fighter program that was intended for Sweden that was inherited by the USAAC, Great Britain and finally, China. The P-66 had a mediocre combat record in China and was out of service by 1943. The XP-54 fighter project

1680-728: The governor of the Panama Canal Zone was not usually a stepping stone to higher political office but a position given to US Army active duty general officers of the United States Army Corps of Engineers . The governor was also president of the Panama Canal Company. The Canal Zone had its own police force (the Canal Zone Police ), courts, and judges (the United States District Court for the Canal Zone ). Everyone worked for

1764-680: The 17th Attack Group at March Field in California for a brief period before being transferred to the Panama Canal Zone for utility transport and liaison duties. The A-19 never saw combat and was quickly withdrawn in the early 1940s. Data from U.S. Experimental & Prototype Aircraft Projects General characteristics Performance Armament Related development Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Related lists Model numbering continued by Convair Vultee Vultee Aircraft, Inc. ,

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1848-644: The Air Corps took seven A-19s. An improved version known as the AB-2 (Attack bomber, 2nd type) and later as the V-12, was tested in 1938 and provided the basis for further sales to China, bringing the total V-11 models and derivatives, including those built under license, to an estimated 225." Duplicate emergency flying controls were provided for the observer/dorsal gunner in the V-11GB. According to Thompson, "Below his seat

1932-768: The Airplane Development Corporation, enabling Gerard "Jerry" Vultee to proceed with implementing his design for the Vultee V-1 . Construction began in Burbank, California , and was completed in February 1933 in the company's factory located at Grand Central Airport (California) . Due to the Air Mail Act of 1934, AVCO established the Aviation Manufacturing Corporation (AMC) on November 30, 1934, through

2016-441: The Canal Zone before the law's enactment. When John McCain , born in the Zone in 1936 to U.S. parents, became the 2008 Republican Party presidential nominee , there was minor debate over whether he met the presidency's "natural-born Citizen" requirement. The U.S. Senate passed a non-binding resolution that he did. Frederick Wiseman made the film Canal Zone , which was released and aired on PBS in 1977. The Canal Zone

2100-622: The Canal Zone was through the Canal Zone Government with the canal operated by the Panama Canal Company until 1979 when the Panama Canal Commission took over its governance. The entire structure was under the control of the United States government with the secretary of the Army appointing the Panama Canal Company board of directors and the Canal Zone Government was entirely financed by the company. The office of

2184-603: The China- Burma border, and while the first batch of 25 V-12-Cs were completed successfully, the factory was heavily bombed just after assembly of the first V-12-Ds commenced. This resulted in the part built airframes being evacuated to India , where it was planned that the aircraft be completed at the Hindustan Aircraft Limited factory in Bangalore . However, after a few were assembled, production

2268-488: The French assets on the condition that an agreement was reached with Colombia. In March 1902, Colombia set its terms for such a treaty: Colombia was to be sovereign over the canal, which would be policed by Colombians paid for by the United States. The host nation would receive a larger percentage of the tolls than provided for in earlier draft treaties. The draft terms were quickly rejected by American officials. Roosevelt

2352-574: The French company assets, the Canal Zone was formally turned over by Panama on May 4, 1904, when American officials reopened the Panama City offices of the canal company and raised the American flag. This marked the beginning point for U.S. excavation and construction which concluded in August 1914 with the opening of the canal to commercial traffic. By order of President Theodore Roosevelt under

2436-763: The PCWIEA summoned the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) for representation and the establishment of a local union. In July of that year, the West Indian and Panamanian workers received a charter for Local 713 of the United Public Workers of America (UPWA)-CIO. Together, with the assistance of U.S. representatives for the Local, these black workers came together to secure material benefits for their livelihoods. They organized together in order to pose

2520-542: The Panama Canal Acts of 1902 and 1904 the secretary of War was made supervisor of canal construction and the second Isthmian Canal Commission made the governing body for the Canal Zone. Under the Panama Canal Act of May 24, 1912, President Woodrow Wilson issued Executive Order 1885, January 27, 1914, effective April 1, 1914, abolishing the previous governance and placing it under the direction of

2604-585: The Panama Canal Company/Government were not allowed to use the commissaries, exchanges, package stores, theaters, gas stations, and other facilities on the U.S. military installations. The treaty with Panama made no mention of the nationality status of the native inhabitants of the Zone. Pursuant to the principles of international law, they became non-citizen U.S. nationals unless they elected to retain their previous nationality. Children of non-citizen U.S. nationals generally acquired

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2688-606: The Post Office. After the strike of 1920, the black workers were banned from unionizing by the U.S. Canal officials. As a result, the Panama Canal West Indian Employees Association (PCWIEA) was created in 1924 to fill this vacuum of representation. The PCWIEA did not garner much support on the Canal Zone because of its restrictive membership policies and the haunting of the 1920 strike and its damaging consequences. However, in 1946,

2772-650: The President and under the supervision of the Secretary of War. Defense of the canal was the responsibility of the Secretary of War who retained control of troops with provisions for presidential appointment of an Army officer in wartime who would have "exclusive authority over the operation of the Panama Canal and the Government of the Canal Zone". The executive order noted in closing "that the supervision of

2856-480: The Secretary of War, with the entity designated as The Panama Canal. This Executive Order charged the Governor of the Panama Canal with "completion, maintenance, operation, government and sanitation of the Panama Canal and its adjuncts and the government of the Canal Zone". A number of departments were specified in the order, with others to be established as needed by the Governor of the Panama Canal with approval of

2940-455: The United States invaded Panama with virtually all of the military operations taking place within the Canal Zone including Operation Acid Gambit , the Raid at Renacer Prison among many others including operations at the entrance, exit and all of the locks. During its construction and into the 1940s, the labor force in the Canal Zone (which was almost entirely publicly employed) was divided into

3024-412: The United States to add to the zone any additional lands needed to carry on canal operations. The Panamanians were minded to disavow the treaty, but Bunau-Varilla told the new government that if Panama did not agree, the United States would withdraw its protection and make the best terms it could with Colombia. The Panamanians agreed, even adding a provision to the new constitution , at US request, allowing

3108-713: The V-1. It combined a new fuselage with accommodation for the three crew members under a long greenhouse canopy with the wings and tail surfaces of the Vultee V-1. According to Jonathan Thompson, "Based on the V-1A, the V-11 was a modern, fast and effective military airplane when it appeared in 1935; during the next three years 102 V-11s in six variations were sold to four countries - the Soviet Union, China, Turkey and Brazil - before

3192-525: The V-1A, which received sizable international orders. Turkey received 40 in 1937-38, China received 30 in 1937-38, Brazil acquired 25 in 1938-39; the Soviet Union bought 4 and the manufacturing license to build 31 more. After Jerry Vultee's death in January 1938, the Air Corps ordered 7 YA-19s to establish a production relationship. By 1937, Vultee headed his own factory in Downey, California , with more than

3276-585: The Zone rather than in Panama. Merchants could not compete with the commissary's prices or quality; for example, it boasted that the meat it sold had been refrigerated every moment from the Chicago slaughterhouse to the moment it was passed to the consumer. By 1913, it consisted of 22 general stores, 7 cigar stores, 22 hostels, 2 hotels, and a mail-order division. It served high-quality meals at small expense to workers and more expensive meals to upper-echelon canal employees and others able to afford it. The commissary

3360-448: The absolute jurisdiction of Panama and partly by an "Area of Civil Coordination" (housing), which under the treaty was subject to elements of both U.S. and Panamanian public law. In addition, the 1977 treaty designated numerous areas and individual facilities as "Canal Operating Areas" for joint U.S.–Panama ongoing operations by a commission. On the effective date of the treaty, many of these, including Madden Dam , became newly surrounded by

3444-429: The acquisition of Cord's holdings, including Vultee's Airplane Development Corporation. AMC was liquidated on January 1, 1936, and Vultee Aircraft Division was formed as an autonomous subsidiary of AVCO . Jerry Vultee was named vice president and chief engineer. Vultee acquired the assets of the defunct AMC, including Lycoming Engines and Stinson Aircraft Company . A redesigned V-1 meet American Airlines ' needs in

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3528-646: The armour fitted for the ground attack role unacceptably reduced performance and production was stopped after 31 aircraft. They were transferred to Aeroflot and redesignated PS-43 for use as high speed transports until the German invasion in 1941, when they were returned to the Air Force for liaison purposes. In the late 1930s, the United States Army Air Corps favored twin-engine light attack aircraft but seven YA-19 aircraft were ordered in

3612-500: The canal debate. During the war, American warships in the Atlantic seeking to reach battle zones in the Pacific had been forced to round Cape Horn . Influential naval pundits, such as Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan , urged the construction of a Central American canal. In 1902, with the French efforts moribund, US president Theodore Roosevelt backed the Panama route, and Congress passed legislation authorizing him to purchase

3696-468: The canal itself was later under joint U.S.–Panamanian control until it was fully turned over to Panama in 1999. Proposals for a canal across the Isthmus of Panama date back to 1529, soon after the Spanish conquest. Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón , a lieutenant of conquistador Vasco Núñez de Balboa , suggested four possible routes, one of which closely tracks the present-day canal. Saavedra believed that such

3780-807: The case of the Panama Canal Zone, these linkages were made not only by the West Indian and Panamanian communities, but also between the Afro descended workers on the Zone and African Americans, on the mainland of the U.S., through the transnational struggle to dismantle the system of Jim Crow. Canal Zone housing was constructed in the early days of construction, as part of Stevens' plans. Housing constructed for couples and families consisted of structures containing four two-story apartments. The units had corrugated-iron roofs, and were uniformly painted gray with white trim. Constructed of pine clapboard , they had long windows and high ceilings, allowing for air movement. Better-paid employees were entitled to more square feet of housing,

3864-415: The child's birth, U.S. citizens who had previously resided in the United States. In 1934, the law was amended to allow for citizenship to be acquired at birth through either parent if the parent was a U.S. citizen who had previously resided in the United States. In 1937, a new law (Act of August 4, 1937, 50 Stat. 558) was enacted to provide for U.S. citizenship to persons born in the Canal Zone (since 1904) to

3948-417: The company or the government in one form or another. Residents did not own their homes; instead, they rented houses assigned primarily based on seniority in the zone. When an employee moved away, the house would be listed and employees could apply for it. The utility companies were also managed by the company. There were no independent stores; goods were brought in and sold at stores run by the company , such as

4032-399: The early days of the system, bosses could promote exceptional workers from silver to gold, but this practice soon ceased as race came to be the determining factor. As a result of the initial policy, there were several hundred skilled black and Southern European workers on the gold roll. In November 1906, Chief Engineer John Stevens ordered that most black people on the gold roll be placed on

4116-473: The eight-passenger V-1A. American purchased 11 V-1As, but additional sales of the aircraft failed to materialize because of government concerns for single engine safety. The last two in the series, a V-1AD and a V-1AS, were built in Downey, California after the company's manufacturing moved there. In 1935, Vultee developed the Vultee V-11 military aircraft using the wing structure and landing gear from

4200-560: The exclusive control of the Commanding General, Panama Canal Department for the duration. The US Secretary of War stated that the air forces and anti-aircraft artillery covering the Canal Zone must be greatly augmented. Prior to 1939, the equipment of the Air Corps was generally outdated and of questionable value. Thereafter, air defense of the Zone underwent major expansions. Effective July 1, 1951, under an act of Congress dated September 26, 1950 (64 Stat. 1038), governance of

4284-701: The first days of the Canal Zone, the ICC provided no food, and workers had to fend for themselves, obtaining poor-quality food at inflated prices from Panamanian merchants. When Stevens arrived in 1905, he ordered food to be provided at cost, leading to the establishment of the Canal Zone Commissary. The functions of the Commissary quickly grew, generally against the will of the Panamanian government, which saw more and more goods and services provided in

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4368-651: The following 20 years. The treaty specifically categorized areas and facilities by name as "Military Areas of Coordination", "Defense Sites" and "Areas Subject to Separate Bilateral Agreement". These were to be transferred by the U.S. to Panama during certain time windows or simply by the end of the 243-month treaty period. On 1 October 1979, among the many such parcels so designated in the treaty, 35 emerged as enclaves (surrounded entirely by land solely under Panamanian jurisdiction). In later years, as other areas were turned over to Panama, nine more enclaves emerged. At least 13 other parcels each were enclosed partly by land under

4452-409: The larger nation to intervene to preserve public order. The treaty was approved by the provisional Panamanian government on December 2, 1903, and by the US Senate on February 23, 1904. Under the treaty, Panama received US$ 10 million , much of which the United States required to be invested in that country, plus annual payments of US$ 250,000 ; with those payments made, as well as for the purchase of

4536-417: The loss of trade. Panama had laws restricting imports from the Canal Zone. Goods from the commissary would sometimes show up in Panamanian stores and in vendor displays, where Comisariato goods were deemed of high quality. Additionally, there were separate commissaries on the U.S. military installations that were available only to the U.S. military personnel and their dependents. Employees and dependents of

4620-478: The middle of a 20-mile zone, under American management but Colombian sovereignty, and the canal would revert to Colombia in 99 years. The Grant administration did little to pursue a treaty and, in 1878, the concession to build the canal fell to a French firm. The French efforts eventually failed, but with Panama apparently unavailable, the United States considered possible canal sites in Mexico and Nicaragua . The Spanish–American War of 1898 added new life to

4704-471: The new US envoy to Bogotá , Benjamin Bidlack , was surprised when, soon after his arrival, the New Granadans proposed that the United States be the guarantor of the neutrality of the isthmus. The resulting Mallarino–Bidlack Treaty allowed the United States to intervene militarily to ensure that the interoceanic road (and when it was built, the Panama Railroad as well) would not be disrupted. New Granada hoped that other nations would sign similar treaties, but

4788-453: The new nation of Panama ceded to the Americans the rights they wanted in the Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty . Over time, though, the existence of the Canal Zone, a political exclave of the United States that cut Panama geographically in half and had its own courts, police, and civil government, became a cause of conflict between the two countries. Major rioting and clashes occurred on May 21, 1958, and on November 3, 1959 . Demonstrations occurred at

4872-608: The one with the United States, which was ratified by the US Senate in June 1848 after considerable lobbying by New Granada, was the only one. The treaty led the U.S. government to contract for steamship service to Panama from ports on both coasts. When the California Gold Rush began in 1848, traffic through Panama greatly increased, and New Granada agreed to allow the Panama Railroad to be constructed by American interests. This first "transcontinental railroad" opened in 1850. There were riots in Panama City in 1856; several Americans were killed. US warships landed Marines , who occupied

4956-440: The opening of the Thatcher Ferry Bridge, now known as the Bridge of the Americas , in 1962 and serious rioting occurred in January 1964. This led to the United States easing its controls in the Zone. For example, Panamanian flags were allowed to be flown alongside American ones. After extensive negotiations, the Canal Zone ceased to exist on October 1, 1979, in compliance with provisions of the Torrijos–Carter Treaties . In 1989,

5040-409: The operations of the Panama Canal under the permanent organization should be under the Secretary of War", thus establishing the essentially military arrangement and atmosphere for the canal and Canal Zone. On September 5, 1939, with the outbreak of war in Europe Executive Order 8232 placed governance of the Canal and "all its adjuncts and appurtenances, including the government of the Canal Zone" under

5124-418: The president Simón Bolívar and New Granadan officials declined American offers. The new nation was politically unstable, and Panama rebelled several times during the 19th century. In 1836, U.S. statesman Charles Biddle reached an agreement with the New Granadan government to replace the old road with an improved one or a railroad, running from Panama City on the Pacific coast to the Chagres River , where

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5208-422: The railroad station and kept the railroad service from being interrupted by the unrest. The United States demanded compensation from New Granada, including a zone 20 miles (32 km) wide, to be governed by US officials and in which the United States might build any "railway or passageway" it desired. The demand was dropped in the face of resistance by New Granadan officials, who accused the United States of seeking

5292-598: The revolution came in November 1903, the United States intervened to protect the rebels, who succeeded in taking over the province, declaring it independent as the Republic of Panama . Bunau-Varilla was initially the Panamanian representative in the United States, though he was about to be displaced by actual Panamanians, and hastily negotiated a treaty , giving the United States a zone 20 miles (32 km) wide and full authority to pass laws to govern that zone. The Panama Canal Zone (Canal Zone, or Zone) excluded Panama City and Colón, but included four offshore islands, and permitted

5376-410: The silver roll instead (a few remained in such roles as teachers and postmasters); the following month, the Canal Commission reported that the 3,700 gold roll employees were "almost all White Americans" and the 13,000 silver roll workers were "mostly aliens". On February 8, 1908, President Roosevelt ordered that no further non-Americans be placed on the gold roll. After Panamanians objected, the gold roll

5460-399: The status of their parents. For most nationality purposes under U.S. federal law, the Canal Zone was by considered to be foreign territory and the status persons acquired at birth was governed by Sec. 1993 of the Revised Statutes of the United States (Act of February 10, 1855, 10 Stat. 604), which granted them statutory U.S. citizenship at birth but only if their fathers were, at the time of

5544-418: The summer of 1938 for comparison purposes. The YA-19s were armed with six .30 in (7.62 mm) machine guns and 1,080 lb (490 kg) bombs in an internal bomb bay, powered by a 1,200 hp (890 kW) Twin Wasp radial engine and was manned by a crew of three including a pilot, observer/gunner, and bombardier/photographer. An unusual feature of the YA-19 design was its horizontal stabiliser which

5628-454: The territory of Panama. Just after noon local time on 31 December 1999, all former Canal Zone parcels of all types had come under the exclusive jurisdiction of Panama. The 44 enclaves of U.S. territory that existed under the treaty are shown in the table below. The Panama Canal Zone issued its own postage stamps from 1904 until October 25, 1978. During the early years, United States postage stamps overprinted "Canal Zone" were used. After

5712-620: The unit in which allowances were expressed. Initially, employees received one square foot per dollar of monthly salary. Stevens from the first encouraged gold roll employees to send for their wives and children; to encourage them to do so, wives were granted a housing allowance equal to their husband's, even if they were not employees. Bachelors mostly resided in hotel-like structures. The structures all had screened verandas and up-to-date plumbing. The government furnished power, water, coal for cooking, ice for iceboxes, lawn care, groundskeeping, garbage disposal, and, for bachelors only, maid service. In

5796-432: The unsuitability for anti submarine operations, the aircraft flew low and dropped its load of three 250 lb (110 kg) bombs, some of which exploded around the submarine, however the blast damaged the low flying aircraft. In 1936, the Soviet Union purchased four three-seat V-11-GB aircraft, together with a production license. The aircraft entered Soviet production in 1937 as the BSh-1 ( Bronirovanny Shturmovik ), but

5880-415: The zone. Its border spanned two of the provinces of Panama : Colón and Panamá . The total area of the territory was 553 square miles (1,430 km ). Although it was under the control of the United States, the zone did not have formal boundary restrictions on Panamanians transiting to either half of their country, or for any other visitors. A Panama Canal fence did exist along the main highway, although it

5964-401: Was a source of friction between the Canal Zone and Panama for several other reasons. It dominated sales of supplies to passing ships. The commissary was off limits to individuals who were not in the U.S. Military, employees of the Panama Canal Company, the Canal Zone Government and/or their dependents. This restriction was requested by Panama for the benefit of Panamanian storekeepers, who feared

6048-750: Was an aircraft manufacturer founded in 1939 in Los Angeles County, California , when the Vultee Aircraft Division of the aviation holding company AVCO was reorganized as an independent company. It had limited success before merging with the Consolidated Aircraft Corporation on March 17–18, 1943, to form the Consolidated Vultee Aircraft Corporation − or Convair . In 1932, Errett Lobban Cord formed

6132-616: Was established with the signing of the Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty , which allowed for the construction of the Panama Canal within the territory by the United States. The zone existed until October 1, 1979, when it was incorporated back into Panama. In 1904, the Isthmian Canal Convention was proclaimed. In it, the Republic of Panama granted to the United States in perpetuity the use, occupation, and control of

6216-481: Was generally divided into two sections, the Pacific side and the Atlantic side, separated by Gatun Lake. A partial list of Canal Zone townships and military installations: On 1 October 1979, the day the Panama Canal Treaty of 1977 took effect, most of the land within the former Canal Zone was transferred to Panama. However, the treaty set aside many Canal Zone areas and facilities for transfer during

6300-439: Was imported from the United States because of local shortages. Even after 1918, both the designations and the disparity in privileges lingered. Until the end of World War II in 1945, the Panama Canal Zone operated under a Jim Crow society, where the category of "gold" represented White, U.S. workers and the title "silver" represented the non-White, non-U.S. workers on the Zone. There were even separate entrances for each group at

6384-464: Was in a hurry to secure the treaty; the Colombians, to whom the French property would revert in 1904, were not. Negotiations dragged on into 1903, during which time there was unrest in Panama City and Colón; the United States sent in Marines to guard the trains. Nevertheless, in early 1903, the United States and Colombia signed a treaty which, despite Colombia's previous objections, gave the United States

6468-416: Was located forward of the vertical tail. The small size of the vertical stabilizer caused yaw instability so the last YA-19 (S/N 38-555) was equipped with enlarged vertical stabilizer. Service tests showed that twin-engine attack aircraft were faster, could be better armed and carried a larger bomb load so no further YA-19s were ordered. After comparison tests five YA-19s were redesignated A-19 and assigned to

6552-402: Was located within the territory of Panama , consisting of the Panama Canal and an area generally extending 5 miles (8.0 km) on each side of the centerline, but excluding Panama City and Colón , which would have otherwise fallen in part within the limits of the Canal Zone. When artificial lakes were created to assure a steady supply of water for the locks, those lakes were included within

6636-487: Was only a safety measure to separate pedestrians from traffic, and some of the Canal Zone territory was beyond it. In Panama City, if there were no protests interfering with movement, one could enter the Zone simply by crossing a street. In 1903, the United States, having failed to obtain from Colombia the right to build a canal across the Isthmus of Panama , which was part of that country, sent warships in support of Panamanian independence from Colombia. This being achieved,

6720-488: Was placed was race. With very few exceptions, American and Northern European (White) workers were placed on the gold roll, and Black and southern European workers on the silver roll. Black Americans were generally not hired; Black employees were from the Caribbean, often from Barbados and Jamaica . White Americans seeking work as laborers, which were almost entirely silver roll positions, were discouraged from applying. In

6804-497: Was realigned into three main divisions; Canal Activity and Commercial Activity with the Service Activity providing services to both operating activities at rates sufficient to recover costs. Rate adjustments in housing and other employee services would be required and a form of valuation, compared to a property tax, would be used to determine each division's contribution to the Canal Zone Government. The Panama Canal Zone

6888-520: Was reopened to them in December 1908; however, efforts to remove non-American workers from the gold roll continued. Until 1918, when all employees began to be paid in U.S. dollars, gold roll employees were paid in gold, in American currency, while their silver roll counterparts were paid in silver coin, initially Colombian pesos . Through the years of canal construction, silver roll workers were paid with coins from various nations; in several years, coin

6972-476: Was stopped as the factory was diverted to more urgent overhaul work. The V-11s and V-12s served as light bombers and achieved some success, including a mission by 4 aircraft to bomb the Japanese held airfield at Yuncheng on February 5, 1939, by the 10th Squadron of the Republic of China Air Force, before the aircraft were withdrawn from bombing missions to training and liaison duties in 1940. In February 1939,

7056-779: Was the last Vultee Aircraft design, but only two examples were built. In 1939, according to Thompson, "The Vultee model 54A, number 141 registered NX21754, flew on July 28. In August the USAAC selected it for volume production as the BT-13 , which became the standard type for the category throughout World War II ." During the war, Vultee pioneered the use of women assemblers. On March 17–18, 1943, Consolidated and Vultee merged, creating Consolidated Vultee Aircraft Corporation , popularly known as Convair . The Vultee management resigned. Model numbering continued by Convair Panama Canal Zone The Panama Canal Zone ( Spanish : Zona del Canal de Panamá ), also simply known as

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