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98-612: In the wake of the 1905 Revolution, Russia's first modern parliament, the State Duma, was convoked. It rapidly became a voice of radicalism and liberalism, and was subsequently dissolved by the Tsarist government 72 days after convocation. Outraged, several of the members of the first Duma travelled to Vyborg in the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland , where they signed a 'manifesto' calling for 'passive resistance' which included evading taxes and defying conscription orders. The manifesto

196-516: A Constituent Assembly that would determine the country's form of government. The Kadets were one of the parties invited by the reform-minded Prime Minister Sergei Witte to join his cabinet in October and November 1905, but the negotiations broke down over the Kadets' radical demands and Witte's refusal to drop notorious reactionaries like Petr Nikolayevich Durnovo from the cabinet. In the wake of

294-519: A Finnish Diet, the Diet was not called to meet until 1863 and many new laws going through the legislature were laws that would have required the approval of the Diet while under Swedish rule. Alexander went a step further to demand a Finnish House of Nobles , which organised in 1818. The house was designed to register all noble families in Finland so that the highest Finnish estate would be representative of

392-617: A boat full of representatives sailed down the Neva and passed by the Kresty prison , and a tearful and emotional waving encounter between the prisoners and the representatives happened. As the representatives found their seats Ivan Petrunkevich , the leader of the Constitutional Democratic Party (Kadets), asked upon the assembly to devote their first free thoughts and words to "those who sacrificed their own freedom for

490-624: A humiliating defeat in the Russo-Japanese War and amidst the turmoil in St. Petersburg , Finns remade their constitution and formed a new parliament whose representation was based on universal suffrage , giving women full suffrage before any other European nation after the short-lived Republic of Corsica . However, the parliament was quickly destroyed by Pyotr Stolypin , Nicholas II's prime minister. Stolypin proved to be even more vigorous than Bobrikov, as he believed every subject should be

588-680: A mandate and allied with the left-leaning peasant Trudovik faction, forming a majority in the Duma. When their declaration of legislative intent was rejected by the government at the start of the parliamentary session in April, they adopted a radical oppositionist line, denouncing the government at every opportunity. On 9 July, the government announced that the Duma was dysfunctional and dissolved it. In response, 120 Kadet and 80 Trudovik and Social Democrat deputies went to in Vyborg , Finland (and thus beyond

686-501: A mandatory five-year military service, in which Finns had the possibility of being drafted into Russian units. Furthermore, he instituted that Russians be given the opportunity to serve in public office and that Russian be made the administrative language of Finland. In 1899, the February Manifesto under Nicholas II declared that Russian law was the law of the land, and Finland was to pledge allegiance to Russian law. The Diet

784-489: A novel administrative system was established in Finland, drafted in part by the liberal Mikhail Speransky . The new grand duchy would be governed by a Government Council, later the Senate of Finland , a body made up of Finnish citizens. The governor-general would accordingly have a relatively diminished role. Further, the emperor would deal with matters relating to Finland directly through a dedicated Secretary of State , without

882-471: A prince had been the duke of Finland (1556–1561/63), extended the list of subsidiary titles of the kings of Sweden considerably. The new title of grand duke of Finland did not result in any Finnish autonomy, as Finland was an integrated part of the Kingdom of Sweden with full parliamentary representation for its counties. During the next two centuries, the title was used by some of Johan's successors on

980-662: A significant number of each group were active party members. The Constitutional Democratic Party was formed in Moscow on 12–18 October 1905 at the height of the Russian Revolution of 1905 when Tsar Nicholas II was forced to sign the October Manifesto granting basic civil liberties . The Kadets were to the immediate left of the Octobrists , another new formed party organized at the same time. Unlike

1078-445: A stoic patriot to the crown and uphold undying loyalty to Russia. Stolypin wished to destroy Finland's autonomy and disregarded native tongues and cultures of non-Russian subjects, believing them to be traditional and ritualistic at best. The Finnish parliament once again formed to combat Stolypin, but Stolypin was bent on quashing Finnish insurrection and permanently disbanded the parliament in 1909. As with Bobrikov before him, Stolypin

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1176-538: A target for the Pan-Slavist movement, which called for Slavic unity in eastern Europe. Finland was viewed as conquered territory, and that as subjects, Finland was to respect the tsar. Finland was also viewed as a land of settlement and that the "alien race" of the Finns were to be assimilated and protected from Western interference, thereby "blessing" the Finns with their presence. Moreover, Finnish representatives to

1274-652: The Decembrist revolt against him in December 1825. Nicholas assured Finland's secretary of state, Robert Henrik Rehbinder , that he (Nicholas) would continue to uphold Alexander's liberal policies regarding Finland. In 1830, Europe became a hotbed of revolution and reform as a result of the July Revolution in France. Poland , another Russian client state, saw a massive uprising against Saint Petersburg during

1372-786: The King of Sweden , the country became autonomous after its annexation by Russia in the Finnish War of 1808–1809. The Grand Duke of Finland was the Romanov Emperor of Russia , represented by the Governor-General . Due to the governmental structure of the Russian Empire and Finnish initiative, the Grand Duchy's autonomy expanded until the end of the 19th century. The Senate of Finland , founded in 1809, became

1470-469: The November Uprising of 1830–1831. Finland made no such move, as Russia had already won over Finnish loyalty. Thus, Russia continued its policies respecting Finnish autonomy and the quiet assimilation of the Finns into the empire. Zakrevsky died in 1831; Knyaz Alexander Sergeyevich Menshikov succeeded him as Governor-General of Finland and continued Finnish appeasement. The appeasement of

1568-597: The Party of People's Freedom (Russian: Па́ртия Наро́дной Свобо́ды ), was a political party in the Russian Empire that promoted Western constitutional monarchy —among other policies—and attracted a base ranging from moderate conservatives to mild socialists . Party members were called Kadets (or Cadets) from the abbreviation K-D of the party name. Konstantin Kavelin 's and Boris Chicherin 's writings formed

1666-548: The Russian Empire ; but the usual balance of power between monarch and diet resting on taxation was not in place, since the emperor could rely on the rest of his vast empire. The title "Grand Duke of Finland" was added to the long list of titles of the Russian tsar. After his return to Finland in 1812, the Finnish-born Gustaf Mauritz Armfelt became counsellor to the Russian emperor. Armfelt

1764-472: The Russo-Swedish War (1741–1743) . This surprising action by the tsar was met with anger from certain parts of the Russian government and aristocracy, who wished to either return to the previous border or annex the communities west of St. Petersburg . Despite the outcry, the borders remained set until 1940. The gesture can be seen as Alexander's concern for Finland and his attempts of appeasement of

1862-540: The Second Duma was convened on 20 February 1907, the Kadets found themselves in a difficult position. Their leadership was not represented in the Duma after the Vyborg Manifesto fiasco and their numbers were reduced to about 100. Although still the largest faction in the Duma, they no longer dominated the parliament and their attempts to concentrate on lawmaking were frustrated by radicals on the left and on

1960-798: The Swedish Party combined to collectively fight Bobrikov. The Social Democratic Party of Finland , a Marxist party popular among peasants was also extremely hostile and advocated class warfare and took arms, in contrast to the Social Democrats elsewhere in Europe. Finally, the Party of Active Resistance, a nationalist party that advocated an armed struggle and guerilla tactics, received fame when member Eugen Schauman assassinated Bobrikov in Helsinki on 16 June 1904. In 1905, Russia faced

2058-580: The four Estates of occupied Finland were assembled at the Diet of Porvoo on 29 March 1809 to pledge allegiance to Tsar Alexander I of Russia , who in return guaranteed that the area's laws and liberties, as well as religion, would be left unchanged. Following the Swedish defeat in the war and the signing of the Treaty of Fredrikshamn on 17 September 1809, Finland became a true autonomous grand duchy within

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2156-513: The Åland War . As newspapers were printed in Swedish and Russian due to censorship, many Finns could not read about the events of the Battle of Bomarsund and the Battle of Suomenlinna . Moreover, Nicholas I died in 1855, and the new emperor, Alexander II , had already planned educational reforms in outlying territories in Russia, including Finland. Alexander II also planned to call on the Diet of

2254-561: The "Vyborg complex"". The entire Kadet leadership was one of the groups that were targeted by being banned from participation in future Dumas. As a result of the events surrounding the Manifesto, the Kadet Party lost all trust in the people's support and no longer claimed to represent them either. Instead, they consciously became what they de facto had been all along, the "natural party" of the bourgeois. The liberals' failure to rally

2352-472: The 1905 Revolution, Russia's first modern parliament, the first Duma, was convoked. It rapidly turned into a revolutionary tribune, "a rhetorical battering ram against the fortress of autocracy". On the first day of the Duma, the parliamentarians condemned the government's political repression, and demands of amnesty of political prisoners became voiced from the Tauride Palace . The calls commenced after

2450-928: The Bolshevik victory in the Russian Civil War , most of the Kadet leadership was forced to emigrate and continued publishing newspapers abroad (" Vozrojdénie ") until World War II . However, Oldenburg negotiated a working relationship between the Russian Academy of Science and the Bolsheviks, signing an agreement that the Academy supported the Soviet State in February 1918. A party called Constitutional Democratic Party – Party of Popular Freedom

2548-464: The Diet, to which Alexander agreed with, and promised the Diet would shortly be summoned. By 1809, all of Finland had been conquered and the Diet was summoned in March. Finland was then united through Russia via the crown, and Finland was able to keep the majority of its own laws, giving it autonomy. Instead of the newly acquired territory being subjected to direct rule by an imperial governor-general ,

2646-518: The Duma "dysfunctional". Lvov became one of the Kadets who travelled to Vyborg ( Finnish : Viipuri ), Finland 's second city, to protest the government. There, the Kadet members and liberals signed a manifesto, calling on the Russian people to rebel against the government by refusing to pay taxes or to provide recruits for the army. According to the historian Orlando Figes , the Vyborg Manifesto

2744-559: The Duma in October 1916 when he all but accused government ministers of treason. During the February Revolution of 1917, Kadet deputies in the Duma and other prominent Kadets formed the core of the newly formed Russian Provisional Government with five portfolios. Although exercising limited power in a situation known as dual power , the Provisional Government immediately attempted to deal with issues of

2842-411: The Duma. It was clear by then that it was only a matter of time before the Duma became dissolved, and after further radical speeches in the Duma, it was dissolved 72 days after it was convoked, on the 21 July (8 July O.S. ) New elections for a second Duma was called for the following February, and Prime Minister Ivan Goremykin was replaced by Stolypin, who was a well-known advocate for the abolition of

2940-481: The Estates once more. Under Alexander's rule, Finland experienced a period of liberalization in education, the arts, and the economy. In 1858, Finnish was made the official language of local self-government, such as provinces, where Finnish was the majority of the language spoken. However, the Finns feared that St. Petersburg would prevent the Diet from meeting on the basis that Polish and Russian citizens did not receive

3038-627: The Finnish economy in 1885. Finland had managed to create a thriving modern industry based around textiles and timber that managed to rival the Russian economy at the time. Russian bureaucrats, out of both shock and jealousy, called for the revision of the Russo-Finnish Tariff . Russification had taken an economic turn as well, as the basis of the reformed tariff was economic uniformity, which only furthered economic difficulties of Finland. The tariff's revision in 1885, and subsequently 1897,

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3136-461: The Finnish team marched behind the Russian team with a Finland-sign. In the medal ceremonies, the Russian flag above a white-blue pennant reading "Finland" was raised for the Finnish athletes. Constitutional Democratic Party The Constitutional Democratic Party ( Russian : Конституцио́нно-демократи́ческая па́ртия , romanized :  Konstitutsionno-demokraticheskaya partiya , K-D ), also called Constitutional Democrats and formally

3234-574: The Finns could be seen as a prototype of the later Russification , as educated Finns moved to Russia in mass, seeking jobs within the imperial government to rise within Russian imperial society. The Russian language was studied increasingly as well, with more Finns seeking to learn Russian language, politics, culture, and to assimilate into Russian society. Even though Nicholas had no intentions on doing this , his inner office, specifically Nicholas's Interior Minister, Lev Perovski (in office: 1841–1852), advocated for Count Zakrevsky's ideas and further pushed

3332-475: The Finns, in attempts to gain their loyalty which would come from passive appeasement, compared to the vigorous Russification later in the nineteenth-century. Moreover, Alexander moved the capital from Turku to Helsinki , a small fortified town protected by Suomenlinna . Finland's main university also transferred to Helsinki after a fire broke out in Turku, destroying most of the building. Despite promises of

3430-407: The Grand Duchy followed the Russian imperial model with provinces ( Russian : губерния governorate , Swedish : län , Finnish : lääni ) headed by governors. Few changes were made however, and as the language of the administrators was still Swedish the old terminology from the Swedish time continued in local use. The Viipuri Province was not initially part of the Grand Duchy, but in 1812 it

3528-456: The Grand Duchy to be a constitutional monarchy but the governmental institutions born during the Swedish rule offered him a more efficient form of government than the absolute monarchy in Russia . This evolved into a high level of autonomy by the end of the 19th century. There were a total of twenty Governors-General from the Finnish War until independence : The administrative division of

3626-652: The Grand Duke of Finland and was represented in Finland by the Governor-General . The Senate of Finland was the highest governing body of the Grand Duchy and was composed of native Finns. In St. Petersburg Finnish matters were represented by the Minister–Secretary of State for Finland . The Senate had a primarily advisory role until it got the right to representation in 1886. On top of having its own central, regional and local administration, Finland had its own stamps, currency and army. Alexander I did not want

3724-572: The Kadet Party were brought to trial and then suspended from the Duma for their participation in the manifesto. They were replaced in the Second and the Third Dumas by less radical and less talented politicians than those who had been suspended. The new politicians also went along a more conservative line and stayed within the Tsar's laws to defend the parliament, as the party now lived in the "shadow of

3822-759: The Kadets, together with the Progressive faction, the Octobrist faction and a part of the Nationalist faction in the Duma, formed the Progressive Bloc in August 1915 which was critical of the government's prosecution of the war and demanded a government of "popular confidence". As Russia's defeats in the war multiplied, the Kadets' opposition became more pronounced, culminating in Miliukov's speech in

3920-601: The Octobrists, who were committed to constitutional monarchy from the start, the Kadets were at first ambiguous on the subject, demanding universal suffrage (including women's suffrage) and a Constituent Assembly that would determine the country's form of government. This radicalism was despite the fact 60% of Kadets were nobles. The Kadets were one of the parties invited by the reform-minded Prime Minister Sergei Witte to join his cabinet in October–November 1905, but

4018-527: The Provisional Government was compromised when Miliukov's promise to the Entente allies to continue the war (18 April) was made public on 26 April. The resulting government crisis led to Miliukov's resignation and a power-sharing agreement with moderate socialist parties on 4–5 May. The Kadets' position was further eroded during the July crisis when they resigned from the government in protest against concessions to

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4116-544: The Russian crown, and the negative experience with the Polish Sejm . Despite this, Alexander I ceased to give in to Finnish affairs and returned to governing Russia. In 1823, Count Arseny Zakrevsky was made Governor-General of Finland and quickly became unpopular among both Finns and Swedes alike. Zakrevsky abolished the Committee for Finnish Affairs and managed to obtain the right to submit Finnish affairs to

4214-543: The Russian emperor, bypassing the Finnish Secretary of State. Two years later, Alexander I died ( 1 December  [ O.S. 19 November]  1825). Zakrevsky seized the opportunity to require Finland to swear an oath of fealty which would refer to the emperor as the absolute ruler of Finland – expecting that emperor would be Constantine , Alexander's next-eldest brother. However, Nicholas , younger brother of Constantine and Alexander, became emperor despite

4312-529: The Russians, forcing Russia to use various tactics to quash armed Finnish rebellion. Thus, in the beginning of the war, General roda Voysk Friedrich Wilhelm von Buxhoeveden , with permission of the tsar, imposed an oath of fealty on Finland, in which Russia would honour Finland's Lutheran faith, the Diet of Finland , and the Finnish estates as long as the Finns would remain loyal to the Russian imperial crown. The oath also dubbed anyone person who gave aid to

4410-516: The Swedish elite, due to Swedish propaganda during the Crimean War urging revolt against the Russians. Alexander also passed a law regarding language ordinance in August 1863, requiring that the Finnish language must be introduced to all public businesses within twenty years. The law was expanded in 1865 to require that state offices must serve the public in Finnish if requested. Despite this, the language laws took time to be fully implemented due to

4508-571: The Swedish or Finnish armies a rebel. The Finns complied, bitter over Sweden abandoning the country for their war against Denmark and France , and begrudgingly embraced Russian conquest. The Diet of Finland was now to only meet whenever requested, and was never mentioned in the manifesto published by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs . Further on, Alexander I requested a deputation of the four Finnish estates, as he expressed concern over continued Finnish resistance. The deputation refused to act without

4606-533: The Swedish-speaking Östra Nylands Segelförening adopted the Flag of Sweden . At the end of the 19th century, flags with the coat of arms were used in unofficial contexts such as private estates and protests. In official contexts, the Russian white-blue-red tricolour was primarily used. The Grand Duchy of Finland participated in the 1912 Summer Olympics with their own team. In the opening ceremony,

4704-469: The Ukrainian independence movement. The coalition was reformed later in July under Alexander Kerensky and survived yet another government crisis in early September. Sergei Fedorovich Oldenburg was Minister of Education and served briefly as chair of the short-lived Commission on Nationality Affairs. The Kadets had become a liability for their socialist coalition partners and an evidence of the treason of

4802-477: The capital. It is however clear that he sympathised with it. Grand Duchy of Finland The Grand Duchy of Finland , officially and also translated as the Grand Principality of Finland , was the predecessor state of modern Finland . It existed between 1809 and 1917 as an autonomous state within the Russian Empire . Originating in the 16th century as a titular grand duchy held by

4900-637: The censorship only fueled Finland's language strife and the Fennomanian movement. The works of Johan Snellman and other Fennoman authors combined literature and nationalism and increased the calls for language recognition and education reforms in Finland. This heightened during the Crimean War in which Finnish ports and fortresses on the Baltic Sea became subject for Allied attacks, specifically Suomenlinna and Bomarsund in Åland during

4998-542: The changes in the electoral law, the Kadets were reduced to a relatively small (54 seats) opposition group in the Third Duma (1907–1912). Although excluded from the more important Duma committees, the Kadets were not entirely powerless and could determine the outcome of certain votes when allied with the centrist Octobrist faction against right-wing nationalist deputies. With the revolution crushed by 1908, they moderated their position even further as they voted to denounce revolutionary violence, no longer sought confrontation with

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5096-417: The church and works appearing socialist or communist. The reactionary policies of the Lutheran Church convinced the also reactionary Nicholas I ( r.  1825–1855 ) to prohibit (1850) the publishing of all Finnish works that were not religious or economic in nature, as such works would have been considered revolutionary and might encourage the Finnish majority to revolt against the church and crown. However,

5194-399: The colors of the Russian flag twice or thrice saw some use. A blue cross flag similar to that of the modern flag of Finland was first used by the yacht club Nyländska Jaktklubben in 1861, equipped with the coat of arms of Uusimaa in the upper corner. It was inspired by the similar flag used by the Neva Yacht Club . The flag of the yacht club was made official by the Senate in 1890 when

5292-401: The communal system and was known for repressive measures to restore order in the provinces. The liberals of the first Duma were subsequently outraged. Prince Georgy Lvov was one of those outraged by the "blatant attack on the parliamentary principle" even though he had opposed the land reform. He became radicalised after he had been a "moderate liberal". The government, on the other hand, deemed

5390-412: The current state of Finland. Bobrikov found little support in Finland, mainly from the Russian minority and members of the Old Finnish Party . Bobrikov brought in Russian officials to take government and state spots and, in an extreme act of anger, suspended the Finnish Constitution in 1903. His actions were met with extreme anger from Finns and Swedes, in which the moderate parties, the Young Finns and

5488-533: The epic being poetry or stories about Finnish folklore. The quest for literature expanded into the 1840s and 1850s and caught the eye of the Finnish church and the Russian crown. Finnish newspapers, such as Maamiehen Ystävä (The Farmer's Friend), began publication in both urban and rural areas of Finland. However, the Swedish academic elite, the church, and the Russian government opposed Finland's literature movement. Edvard Bergenheim , Archbishop of Turku from 1850 to 1884, called for double censorship on works opposing

5586-428: The government and concentrated on influencing legislation whenever possible. By 1909, Miliukov could claim that the Kadets were now "the opposition of His Majesty, not the opposition to His Majesty", which caused only moderate dissent among the left-leaning faction of the party. Although the Kadets, allied with the Progressive faction and the Octobrists, were able to push some liberal bills (religious freedoms, freedom of

5684-451: The height of the Russian Revolution of 1905 when Tsar Nicholas II was forced to sign the October Manifesto , granting basic civil liberties . The Kadets were to the immediate left of the Octobrists , another liberal party organized at the same time. Unlike the Octobrists, who were committed to constitutional monarchy from the start, the Kadets were at first ambiguous on the subject but demanded universal suffrage (even for women) and

5782-422: The ideas of subtle Russification during the 1840s. However, Finland did experience a nationalistic revolution in the 1830s – one based around literature. This marked the beginning of the Fennoman movement , a nationalistic movement that would operate in Finland until its independence. In 1831, the Finnish Literature Society was founded, which formed on the basis of appreciation of the Finnish language . Finnish

5880-446: The interference of the Swedish elite, who owned most of these offices and businesses. Despite this, the education laws pushed through and the first secondary schools instructed in Finnish began in the 1870s. The power of the Diet was also expanded in 1869, as it allowed the Diet more power and the ability to initiate various legislation; the act also called the tsar to call upon the Diet every five years. An act passed regarding religion

5978-421: The involvement of his Russian cabinet or administration. This laid the foundation for the considerable autonomy enjoyed by Finland for most of the period of Russian rule. The earlier years of the grand duchy can be seen as uneventful. In 1812, the area of Old Finland (known as Viipuri Province from 1812 to 1945) was gifted to Finland. Russia had annexed this territory from Sweden in the Great Northern War and

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6076-442: The left like Central Committee member Nikolai Vissarionovich Nekrasov argued that the Duma experience had been a failure and that "constructive work" was pointless under an autocratic government. Kadet leaders on the right like Central Committee members Vasily Maklakov , Mikhail Chelnokov , Nikolai Gredeskul and Ariadna Tyrkova-Williams argued for a shift to the right. The disagreements were temporarily put aside in July 1914 at

6174-441: The left-wing of the Octobrists tried to blunt them as much as possible, but they were unsuccessful. However, a minority of Kadets headed by Pyotr Struve supported a moderate version of Russification, which threatened to split the party. With the increase in popular discontent after the Lena massacre on 4 April 1912 and a continuous decline in party membership after 1906, the rift in the party became more pronounced. Kadet leaders on

6272-417: The liberation of our dear Russia". The hall burst into shouting "Amnesty, Amnesty" towards the ministers attending, and amnesty for the political prisoners , a prerogative exclusively held by the Tsar , were included in an address to the Emperor that also included demands for increased liberties such as universal suffrage, radical land reforms, further executive powers to the Duma, a government responsible to

6370-410: The many nationalities in the Russian Empire. They introduced legislation abolishing all limitations based on religion and nationality and introduced an element of self-determination by transferring power from governors-general to local representatives. They issued a decree recognising Polish autonomy, more as a symbolic gesture in light of the German occupation of this territory. However, this tendency

6468-422: The masses in defence of the Duma in practice left them "high and dry" and only clinging on in the hope of persuading the Tsarist regime to liberalise itself and with an even larger fear of 'the masses'. Despite their change towards conservatism, the government remained suspicious of the Kadets until the fall of the monarchy in 1917. Note : Georgy Lvov became ill whilst travelling to Vyborg and had to return to

6566-613: The merger of several liberal groupings, namely the Union of Liberation , the Union of Zemstvo Constitutionalists and the Union of Unions as well as the organization of bourgeois professionals and intellectuals, including teachers, lawyers, writers, physicians and engineers. The Kadets' liberal economic program favored the workers' right to an eight-hour day and the right to take strike action. The Kadets "were unwaveringly committed to full citizenship for all of Russia's minorities" and supported Jewish emancipation . The party drew significant support from Jews and Volga Germans and

6664-454: The moderated socialists, exposed by Bolshevik propaganda. By the summer of 1917, many prominent Kadets were supporters of Lavr Kornilov during the Kornilov affair . With the Bolshevik seizure of power on 25–26 October and subsequent transfer of political power to the Soviets , Kadet and other anti-Bolshevik newspapers were closed down and the party was suppressed by the new regime because of its support for Kornilov and Kaledin . After

6762-599: The most important governmental organ and the precursor to the modern Government of Finland , the Supreme Court of Finland , and the Supreme Administrative Court of Finland . Economic, social and political changes in the Grand Duchy of Finland paralleled those in the Russian Empire and the rest of Europe . The economy grew slowly during the first half of the 19th century. The reign of Alexander II (1855–1881) saw significant cultural, social and intellectual progress, and an industrializing economy. Tensions increased after Saint Petersburg adopted Russification policies in 1898;

6860-400: The negotiations broke down over the Kadets' radical demands and Witte's refusal to drop notorious reactionaries like Petr Nikolayevich Durnovo from the cabinet . With some socialist and revolutionary parties boycotting the election to the First Duma in February 1906, the Kadets received 37% of the urban vote and won over 30% of the seats in the Duma. They interpreted their electoral win as

6958-417: The new circumstances saw the reduction of Finnish autonomy and cultural expression. Unrest in Russia and Finland during the First World War (1914–1918) and the subsequent collapse of the Russian Empire in 1917 resulted in the Finnish Declaration of Independence and the end of the Grand Duchy. An extended Southwest Finland was made a titular grand duchy in 1581, when King Johan III of Sweden , who as

7056-470: The next Finnish Diet. As for Sweden, the majority did not think too much about Finland's conquest, as Sweden itself annexed Norway from Denmark in 1814 and entered a personal union with the nation. Whether or not Alexander purposely ignored the existence of the Diet is debatable, with notable factors such as the fall of Napoleon and the creation of the Holy Alliance , newfound religious mysticism of

7154-467: The outbreak of World War I when the Kadets unconditionally supported the government and found an outlet for their energies in various kinds of relief work under the umbrella of the All-Russian Union of Zemstvos and the All-Russian Union of Cities. Once the initial outburst of national unity feelings died down in mid-1915 as Russian retreat from Galicia showed the government's incompetence,

7252-468: The parliament and the abolition of the reactionary consultative State Council . After two weeks of silence, the government passed its two first bills for the approval of the Duma, one for the construction of a greenhouse at the University of Dorpat and one for the a new laundry. That was in effect a declaration of a "legislative war", as the government would not even recognise the demands of reform from

7350-503: The press and of the labor unions) through the Duma, the bills were either diluted by the upper house of the parliament or vetoed by the tsar. The failure of their legislative program further discredited the Kadets' strategy of peaceful change through gradual reform. In 1910, the government rekindled its pre-revolutionary Russification campaign in an attempt to restrict minority rights, notably drastically curtailing Finland's autonomy. Most Kadets were opposed to these policies and allied with

7448-506: The reach of Russian police) and responded with the Vyborg Manifesto (or the "Vyborg Appeal"), written by Miliukov. In the manifesto, they called for passive resistance, non-payment of taxes and draft avoidance. The appeal failed to have an effect on the population at large and proved both ineffective and counterproductive, leading to a ban on its authors, including the entire Kadet leadership, from participation in future Dumas. This

7546-519: The right who saw the Duma as a propaganda tool. Although the Kadets had moderated their position in the Second Duma, they refused to vote in May 1907 for a resolution denouncing revolutionary violence which gave the government of Pyotr Stolypin a pretext to dissolve the Second Duma on 3 June 1907 and change the electoral law to drastically limit the representation of leftist and liberal parties. Due to

7644-425: The same liberties and that the Diet would be eradicated. It was misinterpreted, as it only added a few extra steps to the lawmaking process; the Diet was allowed to stay. In 1863, Alexander called the Diet and issued that the Finnish language was to be on par with Swedish and Russian in the Grand Duchy, while also passing laws regarding infrastructure and currency. Alexander came to favor the Finnish working class over

7742-407: The theoretical basis of the party's platform. Historian Pavel Miliukov was the party's leader throughout its existence. The Kadets' base of support were primarily intellectuals and professionals ; university professors and lawyers were particularly prominent within the party. Many Kadet party members were veterans of the zemstvo , local councils. The Constitutional Democratic Party formed from

7840-662: The throne after the death of his father and began a rule of staunch conservative, yet peaceful, rule of Russia. Finland, as well as many other outlying Russian territories, faced the burden of Russification, the cultural, social, economical, and political absorption into Russia. Compared to the early Russification of the 1830s and 1840s, the Russification of the late 19th-early 20th century was much more vigorous in its policies. Moreover, Finland faced political turmoil within its nation between various factions such as liberals, Social Democrats, Young Finns, and communists. Finland became

7938-503: The throne, but not all. Usually, it was just a subsidiary title of the King, used only on very formal occasions. However, in 1802, as an indication of his resolve to keep Finland within Sweden in the face of increased Russian pressure, King Gustav IV Adolf gave the title to his new-born son, Prince Carl Gustaf, who died three years later. During the Finnish War between Sweden and Russia,

8036-469: The tsar were replaced with Pan-Slavist advocates. Russification only increased from there, but from the 1880s on, the conflict between the Swedish minority halted. Compared to the Baltic States , the Finnish majority was far better educated and more keen in Russian politics. The reactionary policies of Russification, which aimed to combine secular nationalism and a divine right monarchy, infiltrated

8134-477: The two countries against Napoleon's remaining threats: the United Kingdom and Sweden . Russia invaded Finland in February 1808, claimed as an effort to impose military sanctions against Sweden, but not a war of conquest, and that Russia decided to only temporarily control Finland. Collectively, the Finns were predominately anti-Russian, and Finnish guerrillas and peasant uprisings were a large obstacles for

8232-495: Was "a typical example of the Kadets' militant posturing" since Duma's opening. The Manifesto was written by Pavel Milyukov and signed by 120 Kadet and 80 Trudovik and Social Democrat deputies, alongside some other political representatives like Social Revolutionaries and Muslims. The Manifesto was met with nearly-universal indifference from the people. That allowed the government to use repressive methods to silence its most outspoken liberal critics. Over 100 leading members of

8330-409: Was Finland's official flag until independence. An official maritime flag was chosen in 1812 for governmental use. It was a white flag, with the Russian flag in the upper corner and a compass rose in the middle. In 1883 it was replaced with a blue cross flag with the compass rose in the upper corner. A post flag (a white flag with the Russian flag in the upper corner and a post horn in the middle)

8428-482: Was also passed in 1869 which prevented the power of the state over the church. Moreover, Finland also received its own monetary system, the Finnish markka , and its own army . Finland's first railway line was opened between Helsinki and Hämeenlinna on March 17, 1862. The policies of Russification under Alexander III and Nicholas II easily sum up the time period from 1881 to 1917. In 1881, Alexander III took

8526-456: Was also used in the Grand Duchy, along with a customs flag (a blue flag, with the Russian flag on the upper corner and the logo of the customs agency in the middle). Originally, there were no regulations regarding merchant flags until 3 October 1821, when Finnish ships were given the right to fly the Russian flag without permission. White, blue and red flags with the Russian flag in the corner were also used. Later on six and nine-striped flags with

8624-446: Was appointed governor-general. Under Bobrikov, the Finns had a near collective hatred of him, whose reactionary policies gave rise to socialism and communism among the Finnish working class. The Party of Active Resistance and Kagal , in particular, became very popular in Finland for the former's tactics of violence and the latter's tactic of propaganda and persuasion. At the beginning of this reign, Bobrikov almost immediately introduced

8722-407: Was essentially downgraded to a state assembly and that Finland was a province of Russia, ignoring its autonomy. The Finnish Army as a whole was dissolved in 1901. Bobrikov unintentionally united both Finns and Swedes against Russia, which only angered him more. With churches refusing to proclaim the law, judges refusing to carry it out, and conscripts refusing service, Bobrikov went on a frenzy with

8820-452: Was expelled 1903–1904 when the Kadets were preparing to form a party. Mechelin cooperated with them and wrote them a liberal constitution for Russia to be enforced when they would get into power. At the time of Vyborg Manifesto, Mechelin was already the leader of the Finnish government, or "Mechelin's senate" (1905–1908), which implemented the universal right to vote and freedoms of expression , press , congregation and association . When

8918-511: Was formed out of spite of Finland's commercial success and working-class unity. Russification policies continued into 1890, with the addition of the Imperial Post System in Finland, replacing the Finnish post. It was not until the mid-1890s, that the Finnish people realized the true intentions of the Russian crown. Nicholas II ascended to the throne in 1894 after Alexander's death, and with him came General Nikolay Bobrikov , who

9016-475: Was further accentuated by the force of the tsar trying to control and deteriorate the power of the Duma. It was not until later in 1906, with the revolution in retreat, that the Kadets abandoned revolutionary and republican aspirations and declared their support for a constitutional monarchy. The government remained suspicious of the Kadets until the fall of the monarchy in 1917. Finnish liberal politician and professor of jurisdiction and politology Leo Mechelin

9114-508: Was instrumental in securing the grand duchy as state with greater autonomy within the Russian Empire, and acquiring so-called Old Finland that Russia had annexed from Sweden in the Treaty of Nystad (1721) and the Treaty of Åbo (1743). The formation of the grand duchy stems from the Treaty of Tilsit between Tsar Alexander I of Russia and Emperor Napoleon I of the French. The treaty mediated peace between Russia and France and allied

9212-536: Was limited as most of the ministers feared a break up of the empire. One of the Kadet leaders, Prince Lvov , became Prime Minister and Miliukov became Russia's Foreign Minister. A radical party just 11 years earlier, after the February Revolution the Kadets occupied the rightmost end of the political spectrum since all monarchist parties had been dissolved and the Kadets were the only openly functioning non-socialist party remaining. The Kadets' position in

9310-409: Was met with 'universal indifference', which allowed the Tsarist authorities to silence the manifesto's contributors, and they were all banned from participating in future Dumas. The result was that the Kadet party turned towards conservatism and no longer consciously identifying themselves as a party for 'the people'. The Constitutional Democratic Party was formed in Moscow from 12 to 18 October 1905 at

9408-514: Was not represented as language of the scholarly elite, as most printed academic works, novels, and poetry was written in either Swedish or Russian. Copying the German reading rage, Lesewut , and subsequent Swedish mania, Finland entered the reading craze by the 1830s. This fad peaked in 1835 with the publication of The Kalevala , the Finnish epic. The Kalevala' s influence on Finland was massive, and strengthened Finnish nationalism and unity, despite

9506-444: Was transferred by Tsar Alexander I from Russia proper to Finland. After 1831 there were eight provinces in the Grand Duchy until the end and that continued in the independent Finland: The Grand Duchy of Finland had no official flag of its own, but different types of flags were used in different occasions. An official flag was debated even in the Diet of Finland in the 1860s, but one was never officially chosen. The flag of Russia

9604-435: Was unaware that such actions only fanned the flames and was subsequently assassinated by Dmitry Bogrov , a Jewish member of the far-left. From Stolypin's death henceforward, the Russian crown ruled Finland as a monarchist dictatorship until Russia's collapse during the Russian Revolution , from which Finland declared independence , a war of independence that soon transformed into a civil war . The Russian emperor ruled as

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