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86-515: The Groupe X-Crise (or X-Crise ) was a French technocratic movement created in 1931 as a consequence of the 1929 Wall Street stock market crash and the Great Depression . Formed by former students of the École Polytechnique (nicknamed "X"), it advocated planisme , or economic planning, as opposed to the then dominant ideology of classical liberalism which they held to have failed. Their ideas would not be put into practice until

172-640: A French peasant girl who led forces against the English, establishing herself as a national heroine. The war ended with a Valois victory in 1453, strengthening French nationalism and increasing the power and reach of the French monarchy. During the Ancien Régime over the next centuries, France transformed into a centralized absolute monarchy through the Renaissance and Reformation . At the height of

258-642: A Gaulish family. In the decade following Valerian 's capture by the Persians in 260, Postumus established a short-lived Gallic Empire , which included the Iberian Peninsula and Britannia, in addition to Gaul itself. Germanic tribes, the Franks and the Alamanni , entered Gaul at this time. The Gallic Empire ended with Emperor Aurelian 's victory at Châlons in 274. A migration of Celts occurred in

344-855: A cordial relation with the Plantagenet King. The Kingdom was involved in two crusades under Louis: the Seventh Crusade and the Eighth Crusade . Both proved to be complete failures for the French King. Philip III became king when Saint Louis died in 1270 during the Eighth Crusade. Philip III was called "the Bold" on the basis of his abilities in combat and on horseback, and not because of his character or ruling abilities. Philip III took part in another crusading disaster:

430-516: A correspondence between Lucius Munatius Plancus and Cicero to formalize the existence of Cularo (Grenoble). Gaul was divided into several different provinces. The Romans displaced populations to prevent local identities from becoming a threat to Roman control. Thus, many Celts were displaced in Aquitania or were enslaved and moved out of Gaul. There was a strong cultural evolution in Gaul under

516-589: A further period of division, subsequently conquering the Lombards under Desiderius in what is now northern Italy (774), incorporating Bavaria (788) into his realm, defeating the Avars of the Danubian plain (796), advancing the frontier with Al-Andalus as far south as Barcelona (801), and subjugating Lower Saxony after a prolonged campaign (804). In recognition of his successes and his political support for

602-706: A greater threat, and Aëtius used the Visigoths against the Huns. The conflict climaxed in 451 at the Battle of Châlons , in which the Romans and Goths defeated Attila. The Roman Empire was on the verge of collapsing. Aquitania was definitely abandoned to the Visigoths , who would soon conquer a significant part of southern Gaul as well as most of the Iberian Peninsula. The Burgundians claimed their own kingdom, and northern Gaul

688-704: A more lasting French Third Republic was established in 1870. France was one of the Triple Entente powers in World War I against the Central Powers . France was one of the Allied Powers in World War II , but was conquered by Nazi Germany in 1940. The Third Republic was dismantled, and most of the country was controlled directly by Germany, while the south was controlled until 1942 by

774-576: A period in Europe's cultural history that represented a break from the Middle Ages, creating a modern understanding of humanity and its place in the world. As a French citizen and historian, Michelet also claimed the Renaissance as a French movement. In the late 15th century, the French invasion of Italy and the proximity of the vibrant Burgundy court (with its Flemish connections) brought

860-569: A reliance on visual rhetoric , including the elaborate use of allegory and mythology . There are a number of French artists in this period including the painter Jean Fouquet of Tours (who achieved realistic portraits and remarkable illuminated manuscripts ) and the sculptors Jean Goujon and Germain Pilon . Late Mannerism and early Baroque Henry IV invited the artists Toussaint Dubreuil , Martin Fréminet and Ambroise Dubois to work on

946-557: A succession of victories against other Germanic tribes such as the Alamanni at Tolbiac . In 496, pagan Clovis adopted Catholicism . This gave him greater legitimacy and power over his Christian subjects and granted him clerical support against the Arian Visigoths. He defeated Alaric II at Vouillé in 507 and annexed Aquitaine, and thus Toulouse, into his Frankish kingdom. The Goths retired to Toledo in what would become Spain. Clovis made Paris his capital and established

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1032-549: Is debatable, the Hundred Years' War is remembered more as a Franco-English war than as a succession of feudal struggles. During this war, France evolved politically and militarily. Although a Franco-Scottish army was successful at the Battle of Baugé (1421), the humiliating defeats of Poitiers (1356) and Agincourt (1415) forced the French nobility to realise they could not stand just as armoured knights without an organised army. Charles VII (reigned 1422–61) established

1118-757: The Albigensian Crusade . Southern France was then largely absorbed in the royal domains. France became a truly centralised kingdom under Louis IX (reigned 1226–70). The kingdom was vulnerable: war was still going on in the County of Toulouse, and the royal army was occupied fighting resistance in Languedoc. Count Raymond VII of Toulouse finally signed the Treaty of Paris in 1229, in which he retained much of his lands for life, but his daughter, married to Count Alfonso of Poitou , produced him no heir and so

1204-729: The Aragonese Crusade , which cost him his life in 1285. More administrative reforms were made by Philip IV , also called Philip the Fair (reigned 1285–1314). This king was responsible for the end of the Knights Templar , signed the Auld Alliance , and established the Parlement of Paris . Philip IV was so powerful that he could name popes and emperors, unlike the early Capetians. The papacy was moved to Avignon and all

1290-612: The Black Death of the 14th century and the Hundred Years' War kept France economically and politically weak until the late 15th century. The word renaissance is a French word, whose literal translation into English is "rebirth". The term was first used and defined by French historian Jules Michelet in his 1855 work Histoire de France (History of France). Jules Michelet defined the 16th-century Renaissance in France as

1376-721: The Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age the territory of France was largely dominated by the Bell Beaker culture , followed by the Armorican Tumulus culture , Rhône culture , Tumulus culture , Urnfield culture and Atlantic Bronze Age culture, among others. The Iron Age saw the development of the Hallstatt culture followed by the La Tène culture . The first written records for the history of France appear in

1462-786: The Château d'Amboise and provided him with the Château du Clos Lucé , then called Château de Cloux, as a place to stay and work. Leonardo, a famous painter and inventor, arrived with three of his paintings, namely the Mona Lisa , Sainte Anne , and Saint Jean Baptiste , today owned by the Louvre museum of Paris . The art of the period from Francis I through Henry IV is often inspired by late Italian pictorial and sculptural developments commonly referred to as Mannerism (associated with Michelangelo and Parmigianino , among others), characterized by figures which are elongated and graceful and

1548-541: The Crusader states . The French were also active in the Iberian Reconquista to Rechristianize Muslim Spain and Portugal. The Iberian reconquista made use of French knights and settlers to repopulate former Muslim settlements that were sacked by conquering Spanish or Portuguese Christians. The monarchy overcame the powerful barons over ensuing centuries, and established absolute sovereignty over France in

1634-527: The Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520 for the most magnificent musical entertainment; likely the event was directed by Jean Mouton , one of the most famous motet composers of the early 16th century after Josquin. By far the most significant contribution of France to music in the Renaissance period was the chanson . The chanson was a variety of secular song, of highly varied character, and which included some of

1720-589: The French Revolution . The Revolutionary Tribunal executed political opponents by guillotine , instituting the Reign of Terror (1793–94). The country was governed as a Republic , until Napoleon 's French Empire was declared in 1804. Following his defeat in the Napoleonic Wars , France went through regime changes, being ruled as a monarchy , then Second Republic , then Second Empire , until

1806-661: The French Wars of Religion , France became embroiled in another succession crisis, as the last Valois king, Henry III , fought against factions the House of Bourbon and House of Guise . Henry, the Bourbon King of Navarre , won and established the Bourbon dynasty. A burgeoning worldwide colonial empire was established in the 16th century. In the late 18th century the monarchy and associated institutions were overthrown in

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1892-515: The INED demographic institute after World War II coined the term " Third World ". This article about an organization in France is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . History of France The first written records for the history of France appeared in the Iron Age . What is now France made up the bulk of the region known to the Romans as Gaul . Greek writers noted

1978-527: The Loire according to other authors like Strabo . The Celts founded cities such as Lutetia Parisiorum (Paris) and Burdigala (Bordeaux) while the Aquitanians founded Tolosa (Toulouse). Long before any Roman settlements, Greek navigators settled in what would become Provence . The Phoceans founded important cities such as Massalia (Marseille) and Nikaia (Nice), bringing them into conflict with

2064-573: The Merovingian dynasty but his kingdom would not survive his death in 511. Under Frankish inheritance traditions, all sons inherit part of the land, so four kingdoms emerged: centered on Paris , Orléans , Soissons , and Rheims . Over time, the borders and numbers of Frankish kingdoms were fluid and changed frequently. Also during this time, the Mayors of the Palace , originally the chief advisor to

2150-606: The Ottoman Empire . The Ottoman Admiral Barbarossa captured Nice in 1543 and handed it down to Francis I. During the 16th century, the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs were the dominant power in Europe. The many domains of Charles V encircled France. The Spanish Tercio was used with great success against French knights. Finally, on 7 January 1558, the Duke of Guise seized Calais from the English. Economic historians call

2236-537: The Robertians , were formerly powerful princes themselves who had successfully unseated the weak and unfortunate Carolingian kings. The Capetians, in a way, held a dual status of King and Prince; as king they held the Crown of Charlemagne and as Count of Paris they held their personal fiefdom, best known as Île-de-France . Some of the king's vassals would grow sufficiently powerful that they would become some of

2322-625: The Robertines , were the predecessors of the Capetian dynasty . Led by Rollo , some Vikings had settled in Normandy and were granted the land, first as counts and then as dukes, by King Charles the Simple , in order to protect the land from other raiders. The people that emerged from the interactions between the new Viking aristocracy and the already mixed Franks and Gallo-Romans became known as

2408-636: The Third Crusade ; however, their alliance and friendship broke down during the crusade. John Lackland , Richard's successor, refused to come to the French court for a trial against the Lusignans and, as Louis VI had done often to his rebellious vassals, Philip II confiscated John's possessions in France. John's defeat was swift and his attempts to reconquer his French possession at the decisive Battle of Bouvines (1214) resulted in complete failure. Philip II had annexed Normandy and Anjou, plus capturing

2494-468: The Treaty of Troyes Henry V was made heir to Charles VI. Henry V failed to outlive Charles so it was Henry VI of England and France who consolidated the Dual-Monarchy of England and France. It has been argued that the difficult conditions the French population suffered during the Hundred Years' War awakened French nationalism, a nationalism represented by Joan of Arc (1412–1431). Although this

2580-581: The Vichy era , when many technocrats seized the opportunity to reconstruct France. However, many members of the group joined the Resistance and opposed the Vichy regime, ultimately participating in the post-war administration. X-Crise was founded by Gérard Bardet and André Loizillon , and its members included Raymond Abellio , Louis Vallon , Jean Coutrot , Jules Moch and Alfred Sauvy , who as head of

2666-515: The château of Fontainebleau and they are typically called the second School of Fontainebleau . Marie de' Medici , Henry IV's queen, invited the Flemish painter Peter Paul Rubens to France , and the artist painted a number of large-scale works for the queen's Luxembourg Palace in Paris. Another Flemish artist working for the court was Frans Pourbus the younger . Outside France, working for

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2752-616: The papacy , Charlemagne was crowned Emperor of the Romans by Pope Leo III in 800. Charlemagne's son Louis the Pious (emperor 814–840) kept the empire united; however, this Carolingian Empire would not survive Louis I's death. Two of his sons — Charles the Bald and Louis the German — swore allegiance to each other against their brother — Lothair I — in the Oaths of Strasbourg , and the empire

2838-472: The " Estates General ", but in practice the Estates General had no power, for it could petition the king but could not pass laws. The Catholic Church controlled about 40% of the wealth. The king (not the pope) nominated bishops, but typically had to negotiate with noble families that had close ties to local monasteries and church establishments. The nobility came second in terms of wealth, but there

2924-526: The 1494 French invasion of Italy during the reign of Charles VIII until the 1610 death of Henry IV , with an apex during the 1515–1559 reigns of Francis I and Henry II . This chronology notwithstanding, certain artistic, technological or literary developments associated with the Renaissance arrived in France earlier (for example, by way of the Burgundy court or the papal court in Avignon ); however,

3010-526: The 16th century. Hugh Capet in 987 became "King of the Franks" (Rex Francorum). He was recorded to be recognised king by the Gauls , Bretons , Danes , Aquitanians , Goths , Spanish and Gascons . Hugh's son— Robert the Pious —was crowned King of the Franks before Capet's demise. Hugh Capet decided so in order to have his succession secured. Robert II, as King of the Franks, met Emperor Henry II in 1023 on

3096-441: The 1960s most of the French colonial empire became independent, while smaller parts were incorporated into the French state as overseas departments and collectivities . Since World War II France has been a permanent member in the UN Security Council and NATO . It played a central role in the unification process after 1945 that led to the European Union . It remains a strong economic, cultural, military and political factor in

3182-448: The 21st century. Stone tools discovered at Chilhac and Lézignan-la-Cèbe indicate that pre-human ancestors may have been present in France at least 1.6 million years ago. Neanderthals were present in Europe from about 400,000 BC , but died out about 40,000 years ago, possibly out-competed by modern humans during a period of cold weather. The earliest modern humans entered Europe by 43,000 years ago (the Upper Palaeolithic ). In

3268-443: The 3rd century BC. In the early 3rd century BC, some Belgae ( Germani cisrhenani ) conquered the surrounding territories of the Somme in northern Gaul after battles supposedly against the Armoricani (Gauls) near Ribemont-sur-Ancre and Gournay-sur-Aronde , where sanctuaries were found. When Carthaginian commander Hannibal Barca fought the Romans, he recruited several Gaulish mercenaries who fought on his side at Cannae . It

3354-460: The 4th century in Armorica . They were led by the legendary king Conan Meriadoc and came from Britain. They spoke the now extinct British language , which evolved into the Breton , Cornish , and Welsh languages . In 418 the Aquitanian province was given to the Goths in exchange for their support against the Vandals . Those same Goths had sacked Rome in 410 and established a capital in Toulouse. The Roman Empire had difficulty integrating all

3440-418: The Counts of Boulogne and Flanders, although Aquitaine and Gascony remained loyal to the Plantagenet King. Prince Louis (the future Louis VIII, reigned 1223–26) was involved in the subsequent English civil war as French and English (or rather Anglo-Norman) aristocracies were once one and were now split between allegiances. While the French kings were struggling against the Plantagenets, the Church called for

3526-411: The County of Toulouse went to the King of France. King Henry III of England had not yet recognized the Capetian overlordship over Aquitaine and still hoped to recover Normandy and Anjou and reform the Angevin Empire. He landed in 1230 at Saint-Malo with a massive force. This evolved into the Saintonge War (1242). Ultimately, Henry III was defeated and had to recognise Louis IX's overlordship, although

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3612-426: The Fair. Philip II spent an important part of his reign fighting the so-called Angevin Empire . During the first part of his reign Philip II allied himself with the Duke of Aquitaine and son of Henry II— Richard Lionheart —and together they launched a decisive attack on Henry's home of Chinon and removed him from power. Richard replaced his father as King of England afterward. The two kings then went crusading during

3698-455: The French Renaissance include the spread of humanism , early exploration of the "New World" (as New France by Giovanni da Verrazzano and Jacques Cartier ); the development of new techniques and artistic forms in the fields of printing, architecture , painting, sculpture, music, the sciences and literature ; and the elaboration of new codes of sociability, etiquette and discourse. The French Renaissance traditionally extends from (roughly)

3784-472: The French into contact with the goods, paintings, and the creative spirit of the Northern and Italian Renaissance , and the initial artistic changes in France were often carried out by Italian and Flemish artists, such as Jean Clouet and his son François Clouet and the Italians Rosso Fiorentino , Francesco Primaticcio and Niccolò dell'Abbate of the first School of Fontainebleau (from 1531). In 1516, Francis I of France invited Leonardo da Vinci to

3870-429: The French king. Abbot Suger arranged the 1137 marriage between Louis VII and Eleanor of Aquitaine in Bordeaux, which made Louis VII Duke of Aquitaine and gave him considerable power. The marriage was ultimately annulled and Eleanor soon married the Duke of Normandy — Henry Fitzempress , who would become King of England two years later. The late direct Capetian kings were considerably more powerful and influential than

3956-422: The French royal and aristocratic courts, as well as the major centers of church music . For the most part French composers of the time shunned the sombre colors of the Franco-Flemish style and strove for clarity of line and structure, and, in secular music such as the chanson , lightness, singability, and popularity. Guillaume Du Fay and Gilles Binchois are two notable examples from the Burgundian school during

4042-503: The Iron Age. In 600 BC, Ionian Greeks founded the colony of Massalia (present-day Marseille ) on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea , making it one of the oldest cities in France. At the same time, some Celtic tribes arrived in the eastern parts ( Germania superior ) of the current territory of France, but this occupation spread in the rest of France only between the 5th and 3rd century BC. Covering large parts of modern-day France, Belgium, northwest Germany and northern Italy, Gaul

4128-434: The King of France did not seize Aquitaine. Louis IX was now the most important landowner of France. There were some opposition to his rule in Normandy, yet it proved remarkably easy to rule, especially compared to the County of Toulouse which had been brutally conquered. The Conseil du Roi , which would evolve into the Parlement , was founded in these times. After his conflict with King Henry III of England , Louis established

4214-401: The Normans. France was a very decentralised state during the Middle Ages . The authority of the king was more religious than administrative. The 11th century in France marked the apogee of princely power at the expense of the king when states like Normandy , Flanders or Languedoc enjoyed a local authority comparable to kingdoms in all but name. The Capetians , as they were descended from

4300-419: The Protestant sympathizers among them) produced a variation of the chanson known as the chanson spirituelle , which was like the secular song but was fitted with a religious or moralizing text. Claude Goudimel , a Protestant composer most noted for his Calvinist-inspired psalm settings, was murdered in Lyon during the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre . However, not only Protestant composers were killed during

4386-594: The Roman Empire, the most obvious one being the replacement of the Gaulish language by Vulgar Latin . It has been argued the similarities between the Gaulish and Latin languages favoured the transition. Gaul remained under Roman control for centuries and Celtic culture was then gradually replaced by Gallo-Roman culture . The Gauls became better integrated with the Empire with the passage of time. For instance, generals Marcus Antonius Primus and Gnaeus Julius Agricola were both born in Gaul, as were emperors Claudius and Caracalla . Emperor Antoninus Pius also came from

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4472-464: The barbarian newcomers - with whom foederati treaties were concluded - within the empire, and generals as Flavius Aëtius had to use these tribes against each other in order to maintain some Roman control. He first used the Huns against the Burgundians , and these mercenaries destroyed Worms , killed king Gunther , and pushed the Burgundians westward. The Burgundians were resettled by Aëtius near Lugdunum in 443. The Huns, united by Attila , became

4558-402: The borderline. They agreed to end all claims over each other's realm, setting a new stage of Capetian and Ottonian relationships. The reign of Robert II was quite important because it involved the Peace and Truce of God (beginning in 989) and the Cluniac Reforms . Under King Philip I , the kingdom enjoyed a modest recovery during his extraordinarily long reign (1060–1108). His reign also saw

4644-432: The chanson was the style of musique mesurée , as exemplified in the work of Claude Le Jeune : in this type of chanson, based on developments by the group of poets known as the Pléiade under Jean-Antoine de Baïf , the musical rhythm exactly matched the stress accents of the verse, in an attempt to capture some of the rhetorical effect of music in Ancient Greece (a coincident, and apparently unrelated movement in Italy at

4730-399: The collaborationist Vichy government . Following liberation in 1944, the Fourth Republic was established. France slowly recovered, and enjoyed a baby boom that reversed its low fertility rate. Long wars in Indochina and Algeria drained French resources and ended in political defeat. In the wake of the 1958 Algerian Crisis , Charles de Gaulle set up the French Fifth Republic . Into

4816-452: The contemporary popes were French, such as Philip IV's puppet Bertrand de Goth, Pope Clement V . The tensions between the Houses of Plantagenet and Capet climaxed during the so-called Hundred Years' War (actually several distinct wars over the period 1337 to 1453) when the Plantagenets claimed the throne of France from the Valois. This was also the time of the Black Death in France , as well as several devastating civil wars. In 1420, by

4902-449: The death in 1477 of Charles the Bold , France and the Habsburgs began a long process of dividing his rich Burgundian lands, leading to numerous wars. In 1532, Brittany was incorporated into the Kingdom of France. France engaged in the long Italian Wars (1494–1559), which marked the beginning of early modern France. Francis I faced powerful foes, and he was captured at Pavia . The French monarchy then sought for allies and found one in

4988-418: The dukes of Lorraine , one finds a very different late mannerist style in the artists Jacques Bellange , Claude Deruet and Jacques Callot . Having little contact with the French artists of the period, they developed a heightened, extreme, and often erotic mannerism (including night scenes and nightmare images), and excellent skill in etching . One of the greatest accomplishments of the French Renaissance

5074-433: The earliest ones. This period also saw the rise of a complex system of international alliances and conflicts opposing, through dynasties, kings of France and England and the Holy Roman Emperor. The reign of Philip II Augustus (junior king 1179–80, senior king 1180–1223) saw the French royal domain and influence greatly expanded. He set the context for the rise of power to much more powerful monarchs like Saint Louis and Philip

5160-492: The early Renaissance period. The most renowned composer in Europe, Josquin des Prez , worked for a time in the court of Louis XII , and likely composed some of his most famous works there (his first setting of Psalm 129, De profundis , was probably written for the funeral of Louis XII in 1515). Francis I, who became king that year, made the creation of an opulent musical establishment a priority. His musicians went with him on his travels, and he competed with Henry VIII at

5246-545: The era from about 1475 to 1630 the "beautiful 16th century" because of the return of peace, prosperity and optimism across the nation, and the steady growth of population. In 1559, Henry II of France signed (with the approval of Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor ) two treaties ( Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis ) : one with Elizabeth I of England and one with Philip II of Spain . This ended long-lasting conflicts between France, England and Spain. The Protestant Reformation , inspired in France mainly by John Calvin , began to challenge

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5332-530: The first French standing army, the Compagnies d'ordonnance , and defeated the Plantagenets once at Patay (1429) and again, using cannons, at Formigny (1450). The Battle of Castillon (1453) was the last engagement of this war; Calais and the Channel Islands remained ruled by the Plantagenets. France's population was 13 million people in 1484 and 20 million in 1700. It had the second largest population in Europe around 1700. France's lead slowly faded after 1700, as other countries grew faster. Political power

5418-516: The form of canals, cascades and monumental fountains, and extensive use of artificial grottes , labyrinths and statues of mythological figures. They became an extension of the chateaux that they surrounded, and were designed to illustrate the Renaissance ideals of measure and proportion. Burgundy , the mostly French -speaking area unified with the Kingdom of France in 1477. Many of the most famous musicians in Europe either came from Burgundy, or went to study with composers there; in addition there

5504-420: The kings, would become the real power in the Frankish lands; the Merovingian kings themselves would be reduced to little more than figureheads. By this time Muslims had conquered Hispania and Septimania became part of the Al-Andalus, which were threatening the Frankish kingdoms. Duke Odo the Great defeated a major invading force at Toulouse in 721 but failed to repel a raiding party in 732. The mayor of

5590-415: The launch of the First Crusade to regain the Holy Land . It is from Louis VI (reigned 1108–37) onward that royal authority became more accepted. Louis VI was more a soldier and warmongering king than a scholar. The way the king raised money from his vassals made him quite unpopular; he was described as greedy and ambitious. His regular attacks on his vassals, although damaging the royal image, reinforced

5676-518: The legitimacy and rituals of the Catholic Church . French King Henry II severely persecuted Protestants under the Edict of Chateaubriand (1551). Renewed Catholic reaction — headed by the powerful Francis, Duke of Guise — led to a massacre of Huguenots at Vassy in 1562, starting the first of the French Wars of Religion , during which English, German, and Spanish forces intervened on the side of rival Protestant ("Huguenot") and Catholic forces. French Renaissance Notable developments during

5762-521: The market economy, provided much of the capital investment necessary for agricultural growth, and frequently moved from village to village (or town). Although most peasants in France spoke local dialects, an official language emerged in Paris and the French language became the preferred language of Europe's aristocracy and the lingua franca of diplomacy and international relations. Holy Roman Emperor Charles V quipped, "I speak Spanish to God, Italian to women, French to men, and German to my horse." With

5848-407: The most overwhelmingly popular music of the 16th century: indeed many chansons were sung all over Europe. The chanson in the early 16th century was characterised by a dactylic opening (long, short-short) and contrapuntal style which was later adopted by the Italian canzona , the predecessor of the sonata . Typically chansons were for three or four voices, without instrumental accompaniment, but

5934-401: The most popular examples were inevitably made into instrumental versions as well. Famous composers of these "Parisian" chansons included Claudin de Sermisy and Clément Janequin . Janequin's La guerre , written to celebrate the French victory at Marignano in 1515, imitates the sounds of cannon, the cries of the wounded, and the trumpets signaling advance and retreat. A later development of

6020-423: The neighboring Celts and Ligurians. The Celts themselves often fought with Aquitanians and Germans, and a Gaulish war band led by Brennus invaded Rome c. 393 or 388 BC following the Battle of the Allia . However, the tribal society of the Gauls did not change fast enough for the centralized Roman state. The Gaulish tribal confederacies were defeated by the Romans in battles such as Sentinum and Telamon during

6106-423: The palace, Charles Martel , defeated that raiding party at the Battle of Tours and earned respect and power within the Frankish Kingdom. The assumption of the crown in 751 by Pepin the Short (son of Charles Martel) established the Carolingian dynasty as the kings of the Franks. Carolingian power reached its fullest extent under Pepin's son, Charlemagne . In 771, Charlemagne reunited the Frankish domains after

6192-622: The presence of three main ethno-linguistic groups in the area: the Gauls , Aquitani and Belgae . Over the first millennium BC the Greeks, Romans and Carthaginians established colonies on the Mediterranean coast and offshore islands. The Roman Republic annexed southern Gaul in the late 2nd century BC, and legions under Julius Caesar conquered the rest of Gaul in the Gallic Wars of 58–51 BC. A Gallo-Roman culture emerged and Gaul

6278-503: The royal power. From 1127 onward Louis had the assistance of a skilled religious statesman, Abbot Suger . Louis VI successfully defeated, both military and politically, many of the robber barons . When Louis VI died in 1137, much progress had been made towards strengthening Capetian authority. Thanks to Abbot Suger's political advice, King Louis VII (junior king 1131–37, senior king 1137–80) enjoyed greater moral authority over France than his predecessors. Powerful vassals paid homage to

6364-521: The rule of the House of Capet , founded in 987. A succession crisis in 1328 led to the Hundred Years' War between the House of Valois and the House of Plantagenet . The war began in 1337 following Philip VI 's attempt to seize the Duchy of Aquitaine from its hereditary holder, Edward III of England , the Plantagenet claimant to the French throne. A notable figure of the war was Joan of Arc ,

6450-619: The same time was known as the Florentine Camerata ). Towards the end of the 16th century the chanson was gradually replaced by the air de cour , the most popular song type in France in the early 17th century. The era of religious wars had a profound effect on music in France. Influenced by Calvinism , the Protestants produced a type of sacred music much different from the elaborate Latin motets written by their Catholic counterparts. Both Protestants and Catholics (especially

6536-796: The strongest rulers of western Europe. The Normans , the Plantagenets , the Lusignans , the Hautevilles , the Ramnulfids , and the House of Toulouse successfully carved lands outside France for themselves. The most important of these conquests for French history was the Norman Conquest by William the Conqueror . An important part of the French aristocracy also involved itself in the crusades, and French knights founded and ruled

6622-1005: The west of the Louvre, Catherine de' Medici had built for her the Tuileries palace with extensive gardens and a grotte . The ascension of Henry IV of France to the throne brought a period of massive urban development in Paris , including construction on the Pont Neuf , the Place des Vosges (called the "Place Royale"), the Place Dauphine , and parts of the Louvre (amongst which the Great Gallery). French Renaissance gardens were characterized by symmetrical and geometric planting beds or parterres ; plants in pots; paths of gravel and sand; terraces; stairways and ramps; moving water in

6708-536: Was considerable interchange between the Burgundian court musical establishment and French courts and ecclesiastical organizations in the late 15th century. The Burgundian style gave birth to the Franco-Flemish style of polyphony which dominated European music in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. However, by the end of the 15th century, a French national character was becoming distinct in music of

6794-738: Was divided among Louis's three sons ( Treaty of Verdun , 843). After a last brief reunification (884–887), the imperial title ceased to be held in the western realm, which was to form the basis of the future French kingdom. The eastern realm, which would become Germany, elected the Saxon dynasty of Henry the Fowler . Under the Carolingians , the kingdom was ravaged by Viking raiders . In this struggle some important figures such as Count Odo of Paris and his brother King Robert rose to fame and became kings. This emerging dynasty, whose members were called

6880-507: Was increasingly integrated into the Roman Empire . In the later stages of the empire, Gaul was subject to barbarian raids and migration. The Frankish king Clovis I united most of Gaul in the late 5th century. Frankish power reached its fullest extent under Charlemagne . The medieval Kingdom of France emerged from the western part of Charlemagne's Carolingian Empire , known as West Francia , and achieved increasing prominence under

6966-562: Was inhabited by many Celtic and Belgae tribes whom the Romans referred to as Gauls and who spoke the Gaulish language roughly between the Oise and the Garonne , according to Julius Caesar . On the lower Garonne the people spoke Aquitanian , a Pre-Indo-European language related to (or a direct ancestor of) Basque whereas a Belgian language was spoken north of Lutecia but north of

7052-401: Was no unity. Each noble had his own lands, his own network of regional connections, and his own military force. The cities had a quasi-independent status, and were largely controlled by the leading merchants and guilds. Peasants made up the vast majority of the population, who in many cases had well-established rights that the authorities had to respect. In the 17th century peasants had ties to

7138-754: Was practically abandoned to the Franks. Aside from the Germanic peoples, the Vascones entered Wasconia from the Pyrenees and the Bretons formed three kingdoms in Armorica: Domnonia , Cornouaille and Broërec . In 486, Clovis I , leader of the Salian Franks , defeated Syagrius at Soissons and subsequently united most of northern and central Gaul under his rule. Clovis then recorded

7224-520: Was the construction of the Châteaux of the Loire Valley : no longer conceived of as fortresses, these pleasure palaces took advantage of the richness of the rivers and lands of the Loire region and they show remarkable architectural skill. The old Louvre castle in Paris was also rebuilt under the direction of Pierre Lescot and would become the core of a brand new Renaissance château . To

7310-680: Was this Gaulish participation that caused Provence to be annexed in 122 BC by the Roman Republic . Later, the Consul of Gaul — Julius Caesar — conquered all of Gaul. Despite Gaulish opposition led by Vercingetorix , the Gauls succumbed to the Roman onslaught. The Gauls had some success at first at Gergovia , but were ultimately defeated at Alesia in 52 BC. The Romans founded cities such as Lugdunum ( Lyon ), Narbonensis (Narbonne) and allow in

7396-418: Was widely dispersed. The law courts ("Parlements") were powerful. However, the king had only about 10,000 officials in royal service – very few indeed for such a large country, and with very slow internal communications over an inadequate road system. Travel was usually faster by ocean ship or river boat. The different estates of the realm — the clergy, the nobility, and commoners — occasionally met together in

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