Pontic Steppe
53-546: The acronym XPG can refer to the following: xpg, ISO 639-3 code for the Phrygian language XPG, IATA airport code for railway station Gare du Nord , Paris XPG ("Xtreme Performance Gear"), the gaming hardware and accessories product line of the Taiwanese memory and storage manufacturer ADATA X/Open Portability Guide , which specifies the requirements for any system which
106-606: A / k / sound ( Latin centum was pronounced with initial /k/), but in satem languages, they often began with / s / (the example satem comes from the Avestan language of Zoroastrian scripture). The table below shows the traditional reconstruction of the PIE dorsal consonants , with three series, but according to some more recent theories there may actually have been only two series or three series with different pronunciations from those traditionally ascribed. In centum languages,
159-473: A reiner K-Laut , "pure K-sound". Palatals were häufig mit nachfolgender Labialisierung , "frequently with subsequent labialization". The latter distinction led him to divide the palatale Reihe into a Gruppe als Spirant and a reiner K-Laut , typified by the words satem and centum respectively. Later in the book he speaks of an original centum-Gruppe , from which on the north of the Black and Caspian Seas
212-445: A current consensus which regards Greek as the closest relative of Phrygian. Ancient authors like Herodotus and Hesychius have provided us with a few dozen words assumed to be Phrygian, so-called glosses . In modern times the first monument with a Phrygian text, found at Ortaköy (classical Orcistus ), was described in 1752. In 1800 at Yazılıkaya (classical Nakoleia ) two more inscriptions were discovered. On one of them
265-490: A few Greek-Phrygian bilinguals . This allowed German scholar Andreas David Mordtmann to undertake the first serious attempt to decipher the script, though he overstressed the parallels of Phrygian to Armenian , which led to some false conclusions. After 1880, the Scottish Bible scholar William Mitchell Ramsay discovered many more inscriptions. In the 20th century, the understanding of Phrygian has increased, due to
318-489: A steady flow of new texts, more reliable transcriptions, and better knowledge of the Indo-European sound change laws. The alphabet is now well-known, though minor revisions of the rarer signs of the alphabet are still possible, one sign ( [REDACTED] = /j/, transcribed y ) was only securely identified in 1969. Armenian Greek Phrygian (extinct) Messapic (extinct) Albanian Phrygian
371-481: Is a member of the Indo-European linguistic family, but because of the fragmentary evidence, its exact position within that family is uncertain. Phrygian is placed among the Palaeo-Balkan languages , either through areal contact or genetic relationship . Phrygian shares important features mainly with Greek , but also with Armenian and Albanian . Also Macedonian and Thracian , ancient languages of
424-508: Is attested in 395 inscriptions in Anatolia and beyond. They were written in the Phrygian alphabet between 800 and 330 BCE. The Corpus des inscriptions paléo-phrygiennes (CIPPh) and its supplements contain most known Old Phrygian inscriptions, though a few graffiti are not included. The oldest inscriptions—from the mid-8th century BCE—have been found on silver, bronze, and alabaster objects in tumuli (grave mounds) at Gordion (Yassıhüyük,
477-652: Is between Centum and Satem languages). Another example is the Slavic prefix sъ(n)- ("with"), which appears in Latin, a centum language, as co(n)- ; conjoin is cognate with Russian soyuz ("union"). An [s] is found for PIE *ḱ in such languages as Latvian , Avestan , Russian and Armenian , but Lithuanian and Sanskrit have [ ʃ ] ( š in Lithuanian, ś in Sanskrit transcriptions). For more reflexes, see
530-404: Is indeed a centum language. While Tocharian is generally regarded as a centum language, it is a special case, as it has merged all three of the PIE dorsal series (originally nine separate consonants) into a single phoneme, *k . According to some scholars, that complicates the classification of Tocharian within the centum–satem model. However, as Tocharian has replaced some PIE labiovelars with
583-487: Is intended to be a Unix system, and a predecessor to the POSIX standard Xeroderma pigmentosum, complementation group G , a genetic disorder and a possible source of skin tumors an endonuclease involved in nucleotide excision repair Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title XPG . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change
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#1732791187973636-589: Is satem-like, as is the merger of *kʷ with *k in the Gaelic languages ; such later changes do not affect the classification of the languages as centum. Linguist Wolfgang P. Schmid argued that some proto-languages like Proto-Baltic were initially centum, but gradually became satem due to their exposure to the latter. The satem languages belong to the Eastern sub-families, especially Indo-Iranian and Balto-Slavic (but not Tocharian ), with Indo-Iranian being
689-469: The Indo-European family are classified as either centum languages or satem languages according to how the dorsal consonants (sounds of "K", "G" and "Y" type) of the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) developed. An example of the different developments is provided by the words for "hundred" found in the early attested Indo-European languages (which is where the two branches get their names). In centum languages, they typically began with
742-644: The Macedonian conquest. It is considered the first Phrygian text to be inscribed with the Greek alphabet . Its phraseology has some echoes of an Old Phrygian epitaph from Bithynia, but it anticipates phonetic and spelling features found in New Phrygian. Three graffiti from Gordion, from the 4th to the 2nd centuries BCE, are ambiguous in terms of the alphabet used as well as their linguistic stage, and might also be considered Middle Phrygian. The last mentions of
795-413: The palatovelars , which included the initial consonant of the "hundred" root, merged with the plain velars. In satem languages, they remained distinct, and the labiovelars merged with the plain velars. The centum–satem division forms an isogloss in synchronic descriptions of Indo-European languages. It is no longer thought that the PIE language split first into centum and satem branches from which all
848-613: The phonetic correspondences section below; note also the effect of the ruki sound law . "Incomplete satemisation" may also be evidenced by remnants of labial elements from labiovelars in Balto-Slavic, including Lithuanian ungurys "eel" < * angʷi- and dygus "pointy" < * dʰeigʷ- . A few examples are also claimed in Indo-Iranian, such as Sanskrit guru "heavy" < * gʷer- , kulam "herd" < * kʷel- , but they may instead be secondary developments, as in
901-617: The satem-Stämme , "satem tribes", dissimilated among the Nomadenvölker or Steppenvölker , distinguished by further palatalization of the palatal gutturals. By the 1897 edition of Grundriss , Brugmann (and Delbrück ) had adopted Von Bradke's view: "The Proto-Indo-European palatals... appear in Greek, Italic, Celtic and Germanic as a rule as K-sounds, as opposed to in Aryan, Armenian, Albanian, Balto-Slavic, Phrygian and Thracian... for
954-504: The 1871 Compendium of Comparative Grammar of the Indogermanic Language , published a table of original momentane Laute , or "stops", which has only a single velar row, *k, *g, *gʰ, under the name of Gutturalen . He identifies four palatals (*ḱ, *ǵ, *ḱʰ, *ǵʰ) but hypothesises that they came from the gutturals along with the nasal *ń and the spirant *ç. Karl Brugmann , in his 1886 work Outline of Comparative Grammar of
1007-626: The 1st till 3rd centuries CE (New-Phrygian). The Greek letters Θ, Ξ, Φ, Χ, and Ψ were rarely used—mainly for Greek names and loanwords (Κλευμαχοι, to Kleomakhos ; θαλαμει, funerary chamber ). It has long been claimed that Phrygian exhibits a sound change of stop consonants , similar to Grimm's Law in Germanic and, more to the point, sound laws found in Proto-Armenian ; i.e., voicing of PIE aspirates , devoicing of PIE voiced stops and aspiration of voiceless stops . This hypothesis
1060-481: The Balkans, are often regarded as being closely related to Phrygian, however they are considered problematic sources for comparison due to their scarce attestation. Between the 19th and the first half of the 20th century, Phrygian was mostly considered a satem language , and thus closer to Armenian and Thracian, while today it is commonly considered to be a centum language and thus closer to Greek. The reason that in
1113-420: The Indogermanic Language ( Grundriss ... ), promotes the palatals to the original language, recognising two rows of Explosivae , or "stops", the palatal (*ḱ, *ǵ, *ḱʰ, *ǵʰ) and the velar (*k, *g, *kʰ, *gʰ), each of which was simplified to three articulations even in the same work. In the same work, Brugmann notices among die velaren Verschlusslaute , "the velar stops", a major contrast between reflexes of
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#17327911879731166-490: The PIE numeral * ḱm̥tóm 'hundred', the initial palatovelar * ḱ became a plain velar /k/, as in Latin centum (originally pronounced with /k/, although most modern descendants of Latin have a sibilant there), Greek (he)katon , Welsh cant , Tocharian B kante . In the Germanic languages , the /k/ developed regularly by Grimm's law to become /h/, as in Old English hund(red) . Centum languages also retained
1219-545: The assibilation found in French and Swedish were later developments, there are not enough records of the extinct Dacian and Thracian languages to settle conclusively when their satem-like features originated. In Armenian , some assert that /kʷ/ is distinguishable from /k/ before front vowels. Martin Macak (2018) asserts that the merger of * kʷ and * k occurred "within the history of Proto-Armenian itself". In Albanian ,
1272-708: The back velars when in contact with sonorants . Because the original PIE tripartite distinction between dorsals is preserved in such reflexes, Demiraj argues Albanian is therefore to be considered, like Luwian, neither centum nor satem but at the same time it has a "satem-like" realization of the palatal dorsals in most cases. Thus PIE * ḱ , * kʷ and * k become th (Alb. thom "I say" < PIE * ḱeHsmi ), s (Alb. si "how" < PIE. kʷih 1 , cf. Latin quī ), and q (/c/: pleq "elderly" < *plak-i < PIE * plh 2 -ko- ), respectively. August Schleicher , an early Indo-Europeanist, in Part I, "Phonology", of his major work,
1325-591: The case of kuru "make" < * kʷer- in which it is clear that the ku- group arose in post-Rigvedic language. It is also asserted that in Sanskrit and Balto-Slavic, in some environments, resonant consonants (denoted by /R/) become /iR/ after plain velars but /uR/ after labiovelars. Some linguists argue that the Albanian and Armenian branches are also to be classified as satem, whereas other linguists argue that they show evidence of separate treatment of all three dorsal consonant rows and so may not have merged
1378-610: The centum and all the satem languages, respectively, would have derived. Such a division is made particularly unlikely by the discovery that while the satem group lies generally to the east and the centum group to the west, the most eastward of the known IE language branches, Tocharian , is centum. The centum languages of the Indo-European family are the "western" branches: Hellenic , Celtic , Italic and Germanic . They merged PIE palatovelars and plain velars, yielding plain velars ( k, g, g ) only ("centumisation"), but retained
1431-494: The centum and satem groups: For words and groups of words, which do not appear in any language with labialized velar-sound [the "pure velars"], it must for the present be left undecided whether they ever had the u-afterclap. The doubt introduced in that passage suggests he already suspected the "afterclap" u was not that but was part of an original sound. In 1890, Peter von Bradke published Concerning Method and Conclusions of Aryan (Indogermanic) Studies , in which he identified
1484-731: The distinction between the PIE labiovelar row (* kʷ , * gʷ , * gʷʰ ) and the plain velars. Historically, it was unclear whether the labiovelar row represented an innovation by a process of labialisation, or whether it was inherited from the parent language (but lost in the satem branches); current mainstream opinion favours the latter possibility. Labiovelars as single phonemes (for example, /kʷ/ ) as opposed to biphonemes (for example, /kw/ ) are attested in Greek (the Linear B q- series), Italic (Latin ⟨qu⟩ ), Germanic ( Gothic hwair ⟨ƕ⟩ and qairþra ⟨q⟩ ) and Celtic ( Ogham ceirt ⟨Q⟩ ) (in
1537-406: The earliest separation of PIE into the proto-languages of its individual daughter branches; it does not apply to any later analogous developments within any branch. For example, the palatalization of Latin /k/ to /t͡ʃ/ or /t͡s/ (often later /s/ ) in some Romance languages (which means that modern French and Spanish cent and cien are pronounced with initial /s/ and /θ/ respectively)
1590-482: The fragmentary evidence of Phrygian, its exact position within the Indo-European language family is uncertain. Phrygian shares important features mainly with Greek, but also with Armenian and Albanian . Evidence of a Thraco - Armenian separation from Phrygian and other Paleo-Balkan languages at an early stage, Phrygian's classification as a centum language, and the high frequency of phonetic , morphological , and lexical isoglosses shared with Greek, have led to
1643-467: The labiovelar-like, non-original sequence *ku , it has been proposed that labiovelars remained distinct in Proto-Tocharian , which would place Tocharian in the centum group (assuming that Proto-Tocharian lost palatovelars while labiovelars were still phonemically distinct). In the centum languages, PIE roots reconstructed with palatovelars developed into forms with plain velars. For example, in
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1696-610: The labiovelars as a distinct set. The Anatolian branch probably falls outside the centum–satem division; for instance, the Luwian language indicates that all three dorsal consonant rows survived separately in Proto-Anatolian . The centumisation observed in Hittite is therefore assumed to have occurred only after the breakup of Proto-Anatolian into separate languages. However, Craig Melchert proposes that proto-Anatolian
1749-432: The labiovelars with the plain velars, unlike the canonical satem branches. Assibilation of velars in certain phonetic environments is a common phenomenon in language development. Consequently, it is sometimes hard to establish firmly the languages that were part of the original satem diffusion and the ones affected by secondary assibilation later. While extensive documentation of Latin and Old Swedish, for example, shows that
1802-561: The language date to the 5th century CE, and it was likely extinct by the 7th century CE. From ca. 800 till 300 BCE, Phrygians used the Old-Phrygian alphabet of nineteen letters derived from the Phoenician alphabet . This script was usually written from left to right ("dextroverse"). The signs of this script are: About 15 percent of the inscriptions are written from right to left ("sinistroverse"), like Phoenician; in those cases,
1855-823: The link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=XPG&oldid=1201258347 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Phrygian language Caucasus East Asia Eastern Europe Northern Europe Pontic Steppe Northern/Eastern Steppe Europe South Asia Steppe Europe Caucasus India Indo-Aryans Iranians East Asia Europe East Asia Europe Indo-Aryan Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Others European The Phrygian language ( / ˈ f r ɪ dʒ i ə n / )
1908-407: The major Asian branch and Balto-Slavic the major Eurasian branch of the satem group. It lost the labial element of PIE labiovelars and merged them with plain velars, but the palatovelars remained distinct and typically came to be realised as sibilants . That set of developments, particularly the assibilation of palatovelars, is referred to as satemisation . In the satem languages, the reflexes of
1961-415: The most part sibilants." There was no more mention of labialized and non-labialized language groups after Brugmann changed his mind regarding the labialized velars. The labio-velars now appeared under that name as one of the five rows of Verschlusslaute (Explosivae) ( plosives/stops ), comprising die labialen V., die dentalen V., die palatalen V., die reinvelaren V. and die labiovelaren V. It
2014-427: The past Phrygian had the guise of a satem language was due to two secondary processes that affected it. Namely, Phrygian merged the old labiovelar with the plain velar, and secondly, when in contact with palatal vowels /e/ and /i/, especially in initial position, some consonants became palatalized. Furthermore, Kortlandt (1988) presented common sound changes of Thracian and Armenian and their separation from Phrygian and
2067-475: The presumed PIE palatovelars are typically fricative or affricate consonants, articulated further forward in the mouth. For example, the PIE root * ḱm̥tóm , "hundred", the initial palatovelar normally became a sibilant [s] or [ʃ], as in Avestan satem , Persian sad , Sanskrit śatam , sto in all modern Slavic languages, Old Church Slavonic sъto , Latvian simts , Lithuanian šimtas (Lithuanian
2120-439: The rest of the palaeo-Balkan languages from an early stage. Modern consensus views Greek as the closest relative of Phrygian. Furthermore, out of 36 isoglosses collected by Obrador Cursach, Phrygian shared 34 with Greek, with 22 being exclusive between them. The last 50 years of Phrygian scholarship developed a hypothesis that proposes a proto-Graeco-Phrygian stage out of which Greek and Phrygian originated, and if Phrygian
2173-409: The same division ( Trennung ) as did Brugmann, but he defined it in a different way. He said that the original Indo-Europeans had two kinds of gutturaler Laute , "guttural sounds" the gutturale oder velare, und die palatale Reihe , "guttural or velar, and palatal rows", each of which were aspirated and unaspirated. The velars were to be viewed as gutturals in an engerer Sinn , "narrow sense". They were
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2226-567: The same words in different daughter languages . In some, the velar is marked with a u-Sprache , "u-articulation", which he terms a Labialisierung , "labialization", in accordance with the prevailing theory that the labiovelars were velars labialised by combination with a u at some later time and were not among the original consonants. He thus divides languages into die Sprachgruppe mit Labialisierung and die Sprachgruppe ohne Labialisierung , "the language group with (or without) labialization", which basically correspond to what would later be termed
2279-407: The signs are drawn mirrored: ... [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] etc. instead of [REDACTED] BΓ. ... A few dozen inscriptions are written in alternating directions ( boustrophedon ). From ca. 300 BCE, this script was replaced by the Greek alphabet . A single inscription dates from ca. 300 BCE (sometimes called "Middle-Phrygian"), all other texts are much later, from
2332-461: The so-called P-Celtic languages /kʷ/ developed into /p/; a similar development took place in the Osco-Umbrian branch of Italic and sometimes in Greek and Germanic). The boukólos rule , however, states that a labiovelar reduces to a plain velar when it occurs next to * u or * w . The centum–satem division refers to the development of the dorsal series of sounds only at the time of
2385-428: The so-called " Midas Mound ") and Bayındır (East Lycia). New Phrygian is attested in 117 funerary inscriptions, mostly curses against desecrators added after a Greek epitaph . New Phrygian was written in the Greek alphabet between the 1st and 3rd centuries CE and is restricted to the western part of ancient Phrygia , in central Anatolia . Most New Phrygian inscriptions have been lost , so they are only known through
2438-411: The testimony of the first compilers. New Phrygian inscriptions have been cataloged by William M. Ramsay (ca. 1900) and by Obrador-Cursach (2018). Some scholars identify a third division, Middle Phrygian, which is represented by a single inscription from Dokimeion . It is a Phrygian epitaph consisting of six hexametric verses written in eight lines, and dated to the end of the 4th century BCE, following
2491-472: The three original dorsal rows have remained distinguishable when before historic front vowels. Labiovelars are for the most part differentiated from all other Indo-European velar series before front vowels (where they developed into s and z ultimately), but they merge with the "pure" (back) velars elsewhere. The palatal velar series, consisting of PIE * ḱ and the merged * ģ and ģʰ , usually developed into th and dh , but were depalatalized to merge with
2544-522: The word ΜΙΔΑΙ ( Midai ), 'to Midas', could be read, which prompted the idea that they were part of a building, possibly the grave, of the legendary Phrygian king Midas . Later, when Western archeologists, historians and other scholars began to travel through Anatolia to become acquainted with the geographical background of Homer 's world and the New Testament , more monuments were discovered. By 1862 sixteen Phrygian inscriptions were known, among them
2597-477: Was Brugmann who pointed out that labiovelars had merged into the velars in the satem group, accounting for the coincidence of the discarded non-labialized group with the satem group. When von Bradke first published his definition of the centum and satem sound changes, he viewed his classification as "the oldest perceivable division" in Indo-European, which he elucidated as "a division between eastern and western cultural provinces ( Kulturkreise )". The proposed split
2650-555: Was more sufficiently attested, that stage could perhaps be reconstructed. An alternative theory, suggested by Eric P. Hamp , is that Phrygian was most closely related to Italo-Celtic languages. The Phrygian epigraphical material is divided into two distinct subcorpora , Old Phrygian and New Phrygian. These attest different stages of the Phrygian language, are written with different alphabets and upon different materials, and have different geographical distributions. Old Phrygian
2703-431: Was rejected by Lejeune (1979) and Brixhe (1984) but revived by Lubotsky (2004) and Woodhouse (2006), who argue that there is evidence of a partial shift of obstruent series; i.e., voicing of PIE aspirates ( *bʱ > b ) and devoicing of PIE voiced stops ( *d > t ). The affricates ts and dz may have developed from velars before front vowels . What can be recovered of the grammatical structure of Phrygian
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#17327911879732756-556: Was the Indo-European language of the Phrygians , spoken in Anatolia (modern Turkey ), during classical antiquity (c. 8th century BCE to 5th century CE). Phrygian ethno-linguistic homogeneity is debatable. Ancient Greek authors used "Phrygian" as an umbrella term to describe a vast ethno-cultural complex located mainly in the central areas of Anatolia rather than a name of a single "tribe" or "people". Plato observed that some Phrygian words resembled Greek ones. Because of
2809-774: Was typically Indo-European . Declensions and conjugations are strikingly similar to ancient Greek. Phrygian nouns belong to three genders ; masculine, feminine, and neuter. Forms are singular or plural ; dual forms are not known. Four cases are known: nominative , accusative , genitive , and dative . Centum and satem languages Pontic Steppe Caucasus East Asia Eastern Europe Northern Europe Pontic Steppe Northern/Eastern Steppe Europe South Asia Steppe Europe Caucasus India Indo-Aryans Iranians East Asia Europe East Asia Europe Indo-Aryan Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Others European Languages of
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