Misplaced Pages

#273726

70-531: Many types of these devices exist. Stun guns, batons (or prods), cattle prods , shock collars , and belts administer an electric shock by direct contact, whereas Tasers fire projectiles that administer the shock through thin flexible wires. Long-range electroshock projectiles, which can be fired from ordinary shotguns and do not need the wires, have also been developed. Though the two terms are often used interchangeably, stun guns are actually direct contact weapons that work mainly through pain compliance by affecting

140-401: A diode - capacitor voltage multiplier to achieve an alternating high-voltage discharge or a continuous direct-current discharge. It may be powered by one or more batteries depending on manufacturer and model. The amount of current generated depends on what stunning capabilities are desired, but without proper current calculations, the cause and effect of high voltage is muted. Output voltage

210-474: A pain compliance technique involving placing the weapon in direct contact with the subject's body and discharging a shock without firing the probes. In 1935, Ciril Diaz of Cuba designed an electroshock glove for use by the police. The glove delivered 1,500 volts of electricity (only 3% of the modern tasers voltage) Jack Cover , a NASA researcher, began developing the Taser in 1969. By 1974, he had completed

280-489: A relative uncertainty of approximately a few parts in 10 , and involved realisations of the watt, the ohm and the volt. The 2019 revision of the SI defined the ampere by taking the fixed numerical value of the elementary charge e to be 1.602 176 634 × 10 when expressed in the unit C, which is equal to A⋅s, where the second is defined in terms of ∆ ν Cs , the unperturbed ground state hyperfine transition frequency of

350-449: A silver nitrate solution. Later, more accurate measurements revealed that this current is 0.999 85  A . Since power is defined as the product of current and voltage, the ampere can alternatively be expressed in terms of the other units using the relationship I = P / V , and thus 1 A = 1 W/V. Current can be measured by a multimeter , a device that can measure electrical voltage, current, and resistance. Until 2019,

420-405: A stock prod or a hot stick , is a handheld device commonly used to make cattle or other livestock move by striking or poking them. An electric cattle prod is a stick with electrodes on the end which is used to make cattle move via a relatively high-voltage, low-current electric shock . The electric cattle prod is said to have been invented by Texas cattle baron Robert J. Kleberg, Jr. of

490-447: A 21-year-old tourist from Brazil. He died after repeated exposure to a Taser device even after being physically apprehended (by the weight of several police officers lying on top of him compressing his chest and making it hard to breathe. He was pepper sprayed at the same time). The Coroner was scathing of the "thuggish" behavior of the police. The repeated use of several Taser devices was considered excessive and unnecessary. A study for

560-455: A Tasert CEW, police must immediately call for an ambulance. The victim must be medically checked directly at the place of the shooting, and only a medically trained person may remove the darts. From 2006 to 2012, Austrian police used Taser CEWs 133 times—127 against humans and six against dogs. About 1,000 police officers were permitted in 2012 to carry and use a Taser CEW. Use of the Taser device

630-563: A gun. According to previous interpretation of the Firearms Act, 1995 , Taser CEWs were considered "prohibited weapons" and could be used only by members of law-enforcement agencies after they were imported into the country under a special permit. The possession of restricted weapons must be licensed by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) Canadian Firearms Program unless exempted by law. A 2008 review of

700-430: A high range of voltages and currents. If more powerful prods are applied continuously to the skin, the current eventually causes heating, searing , burning, and scarring of skin at the contact point. Electric prods have found favour with torturers. Prior to the development of stun batons and the taser , electric cattle prods were also used on people in varying degrees. Their first common usage on people occurred during

770-408: A large animal such as a cow or sheep from short-term exposure, but strong enough to cause significant pain. The electric cattle prod is designed to inflict a painful shock to cattle, and thus "prod" them along; the pain stimulates movement. There are various designs of electric cattle prods. Their shape is designed to make them easy to use and handle. They range in length from six inches (usually of

SECTION 10

#1732780893274

840-407: A long-range wireless electro-shock projectile called XREP(eXtended Range Electro-Muscular Projectile), which can be fired from any 12-gauge shotgun . It contains a small high-voltage battery. Its range is currently 30 metres (98 ft), but the U.S. Department of Defense , which funded development for the technology, expected delivery of a 90 metres (300 ft) range projectile of this type from

910-403: A metal end split into two parts electrically insulated from each other, or two thin projecting metal electrodes about 2.5 centimetres (1 in) apart, at an end of a shaft containing the batteries and mechanism. At the other end of the shaft are a handle and a switch. Both electrodes must touch the subject. In some types the sides of the baton can be electrified to stop the subject from grasping

980-433: A more encased rectangular prism design like a stun gun ), to up to six feet. Most are simple designs powered by 9-volt battery or similarly small batteries, to make them small and light enough to wield. One typical design is a box containing a large battery (or battery pack) at the handle end and wires embedded in a fibreglass rod, ending with two electrodes in a rubber tip. As the precursor of stun guns, cattle prods have

1050-622: A prohibited "firearm". This misunderstanding was subsequently incorporated into the RCMP's operational policies and procedures as well as those of other police services in Canada. While the most recent RCMP operational manual, completed in 2007, correctly refers to the CEW as a prohibited firearm, a number of consequences of this error in classification remain to be dealt with, by both the RCMP and other Canadian police services. Consequently, it could be argued

1120-479: A prototype in 2003, uses an aerosol as the conductive medium. The manufacturers called it a "Plasma Taser"; however, this is only a marketing name, and the weapon does not use plasma . According to the proponents of this technology, problems associated with this design include: Since 2001, Russian developer Oleg Nemtyshkin has sought to create a repeating stun pistol, after the Axon Taser CEW. This weapon,

1190-496: A wide range of voltage with enough current to operate in the same manner as a stun gun does against humans. The use of electric cattle prods has been debated by many people. Organizations such as PETA contend that the use of cattle prods is as much mentally harmful as it is physically. Most farmers contend that the short shock is minutely felt, and soon forgotten. Some higher-voltage prods can interfere with radio reception when activated. Cattle prods today are designed with

1260-862: Is 1.2 A") and the charge accumulated (or passed through a circuit) over a period of time is expressed in coulombs (as in "the battery charge is 30 000  C "). The relation of the ampere (C/s) to the coulomb is the same as that of the watt (J/s) to the joule . The international system of units (SI) is based on seven SI base units the second , metre, kilogram , kelvin , ampere, mole , and candela representing seven fundamental types of physical quantity, or "dimensions" , ( time , length , mass , temperature , electric current, amount of substance , and luminous intensity respectively) with all other SI units being defined using these. These SI derived units can either be given special names e.g. watt, volt, lux , etc. or defined in terms of others, e.g. metre per second . The units with special names derived from

1330-496: Is a piezo-electric projectile that generates and releases electric charge on impact. Prototype electroshock guns exist that replace the solid wire with a stream of conductive liquid (e.g., metallic solution, salt water), which offers an increase in the range of a Taser CEW (or better) and the possibility of multiple shots. According to the proponents of this technology, difficulties associated with this experimental design include: Another design, announced by Rheinmetall W&M as

1400-427: Is an electric current equivalent to 10 elementary charges moving every 1.602 176 634 seconds or 6.241 509 074 × 10 elementary charges moving in a second. Prior to the redefinition the ampere was defined as the current passing through two parallel wires 1 metre apart that produces a magnetic force of 2 × 10 newtons per metre. The earlier CGS system has two units of current, one structured similarly to

1470-411: Is claimed to be in the range of 100 V up to 6 kV; current intensity output is claimed to be in the range of 100 to 500 mA; individual impulse duration is claimed to be in the range of 10 to 100 μs (microseconds); frequency of impulse is claimed to be in the range of 2 to 40 Hz ; electrical charge delivered is claimed to be in the range of 15 to 500 μC (micro coulombs ); energy delivered is claimed to be in

SECTION 20

#1732780893274

1540-421: Is equal to 1 coulomb (C) moving past a point per second. It is named after French mathematician and physicist André-Marie Ampère (1775–1836), considered the father of electromagnetism along with Danish physicist Hans Christian Ørsted . As of the 2019 revision of the SI , the ampere is defined by fixing the elementary charge e to be exactly 1.602 176 634 × 10  C , which means an ampere

1610-451: Is immobilized via two metal probes connected via wires to the electroshock device. The recipient feels pain , and can be momentarily paralyzed while an electric current is being applied. Essential to the operation of electroshock, stun guns and cattle prods is sufficient current to allow the weapon to stun. Without current these weapons cannot stun and the degree to which the weapon is capable of stunning depends on its proper use of current. It

1680-536: Is legal for the police in Brazil. Its use is widespread mainly in the Guardas Municipais (Municipal Guards), who receive professional training in the use of electro-conductive pistols. Taser devices are also used by military police and specialized forces. There are laws allowing their use by private security companies , but such use is unusual because of the expense of maintaining a Taser CEW compared with

1750-608: Is reported that applying electroshock devices to more sensitive parts of the body is even more painful. The maximum effective areas for stun gun usage are upper shoulder, below the rib cage, and the upper hip. High voltages are used, but because most devices use a less-lethal current, death does not usually occur from a single shock. The resulting "shock" is caused by muscles twitching uncontrollably, appearing as muscle spasms. The internal circuits of most electroshock weapons are fairly simple, based on either an oscillator , resonant circuit (a power inverter ), and step-up transformer or

1820-515: Is sent to tell the control pack to give the subject an electric shock. Some models are activated by the subject's movement. The United States uses these devices to control prisoners. One type is the REACT belt . Some stun belts can restrain the subject's hands and have a strap going under his groin to stop him from rotating the belt around his waist to reach its battery and control pack and trying to deactivate it. Stun belts are not generally available to

1890-406: Is used in the formal definition of the ampere. The SI unit of charge, the coulomb , was then defined as "the quantity of electricity carried in 1 second by a current of 1 ampere". Conversely, a current of one ampere is one coulomb of charge going past a given point per second: In general, charge Q was determined by steady current I flowing for a time t as Q = It . This definition of

1960-476: The Firearms Act, 1995 found that the act classifies "the TASER Public Defender and any variant or modified version of it" as "prohibited firearms". However, Canadian police forces typically treat TASER devices as "prohibited weapons", inconsistent with the restrictions on firearms. The direct source for this information comes from an independent report produced by Compliance Strategy Group for

2030-529: The Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s; prods were first adopted by police officers in Alabama to use on protesters and agencies elsewhere followed; Hotshot later developed an electric police baton. The picana is an electric prod based originally on the cattle prod but designed specifically for human torture . It works at very high voltage and low current so as to maximize pain and minimize

2100-571: The Committee against Torture of the UN. Possession, ownership and use of a stun gun (including Taser CEWs) by civilians is considerably restricted, if not illegal in all States and Territories. The importation into Australia is restricted with permits being required. Stun gun use in Australian law enforcement is as follows: Austria allows police to use stun guns, including Taser CEWs. After using

2170-709: The French National Police and Gendarmerie . In September 2008, they were made available to local police by a government decree, but in September 2009, the Council of State reversed the decision judging that the specificities of the weapon required a stricter regulation and control. However, since the murder of a policewoman on duty, the Taser CEW has been in use again by local police forces since 2010. Cattle prods A cattle prod , also called

Electroshock weapon - Misplaced Pages Continue

2240-457: The King Ranch around 1930, although versions were sold as early as 1917. An electric cattle prod is typically cylindrical , and can carry an open electric current at the "shock end" when activated. The electric current at the shock end runs through two metal electrodes. Anything that touches the electrodes receives a high- voltage low- current shock, not strong enough to kill a human or

2310-917: The Robert Dziekański Taser CEW incident at Vancouver International Airport . Under the Law of the People's Republic of China on the Control of Firearms and Public Security Punishment Law, stun guns and tasers are prohibited for civilian ownership in China without an application for a state licence. A weapons permit is required to purchase and own a stun gun or taser. Electroshock weapons that require direct contact are not regulated by Czech law. They may be purchased, owned and carried for personal protection without any limitations. Taser CEWs are considered class C-I firearms under Czech law, i.e. freely available over

2380-605: The United Nations special rapporteur , and the United States Food and Drug Administration issued a ban on all such electric shock devices in 2020. On August 14, 2013 in Lakewood Township, New Jersey , gang leader Mendel Epstein told two undercover Federal Bureau of Investigation agents that he used a cattle prod to coerce Jewish husbands to grant religious divorces to their wives, leading

2450-446: The caesium -133 atom. The SI unit of charge, the coulomb , "is the quantity of electricity carried in 1 second by a current of 1 ampere". Conversely, a current of one ampere is one coulomb of charge going past a given point per second: In general, charge Q is determined by steady current I flowing for a time t as Q = I t . Constant, instantaneous and average current are expressed in amperes (as in "the charging current

2520-506: The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, indicated that the threshold of energy needed to induce deadly ventricular fibrillation decreased dramatically with each successive burst of pulses; however, one pulse may provide enough energy to induce deadly ventricular fibrillation in some cases. The threshold for women may be less. Although the Taser CEW is a programmable device, the controlling software does not limit

2590-611: The Royal Canadian Mounted Police. The report is called An Independent Review of the Adoption and Use of Conducted Energy Weapons by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. In the report that is available through access to information, the authors argued that the CEW was, for several years after its adoption by the RCMP, erroneously characterized as a prohibited "weapon" under the Criminal Code , as opposed to

2660-478: The SI defined the ampere as follows: The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed one metre apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2 × 10 newtons per metre of length. Ampère's force law states that there is an attractive or repulsive force between two parallel wires carrying an electric current. This force

2730-508: The SI's and the other using Coulomb's law as a fundamental relationship, with the CGS unit of charge defined by measuring the force between two charged metal plates. The CGS unit of current is then defined as one unit of charge per second. The ampere is named for French physicist and mathematician André-Marie Ampère (1775–1836), who studied electromagnetism and laid the foundation of electrodynamics . In recognition of Ampère's contributions to

2800-469: The TASER device's electrical charge" may lead to medical risks such as cumulative exhaustion and breathing impairment. Because there was no automatic stop on older model Taser devices, many officers have used it repeatedly or for a prolonged period of time, thus potentially contributing to suspects' injuries or death. The current X26 model automatically stops five seconds after the trigger is depressed and then

2870-424: The Taser device on healthy test subjects. However, Taser International no longer claims the devices are "non-lethal", instead saying they "are more effective and safer than other use-of-force options". Currently, Taser devices are programmed to be activated in automatic five second bursts, and the operator can stop the energy charge by engaging the safety switch. The charge can also be prolonged beyond five seconds if

Electroshock weapon - Misplaced Pages Continue

2940-580: The United Kingdom the possession and purchase of any weapon of whatever description designed or adapted for the discharge of any noxious liquid, gas or other thing is prohibited. This includes electroshock weapons. The United Nations Committee against Torture reports that the use of Taser devices can be a form of torture, due to the acute pain they cause, and warns against the possibility of death in some cases. The use of stun belts has been condemned by Amnesty International as torture , not only for

3010-452: The amount of current that generates a force of two dynes per centimetre of length between two wires one centimetre apart. The size of the unit was chosen so that the units derived from it in the MKSA system would be conveniently sized. The "international ampere" was an early realization of the ampere, defined as the current that would deposit 0.001 118  grams of silver per second from

3080-485: The ampere was most accurately realised using a Kibble balance , but in practice the unit was maintained via Ohm's law from the units of electromotive force and resistance , the volt and the ohm , since the latter two could be tied to physical phenomena that are relatively easy to reproduce, the Josephson effect and the quantum Hall effect , respectively. Techniques to establish the realisation of an ampere had

3150-403: The animal's decision not to move forward. By studying the psychology of the animals and redesigning the working environment it is possible to handle the animals without the need for brute force and causing pain and suffering to the animal in many, but not all, cases. Significant work in this regard has been done by Colorado State University professor Temple Grandin to study how cattle perceive

3220-436: The baton above the electrodes. Some models are built into long flashlights also designed to administer an electric shock with its lit end's metal surround (which is split into halves insulated from each other). A stun belt is a belt that is fastened around the subject's waist, leg, or arm that carries a battery and control pack, and contains features to stop the subject from unfastening or removing it. A remote-control signal

3290-549: The company in 2007. An XREP projectile was controversially used by British police during the 2010 Northumbria Police manhunt . It subsequently transpired that the XREP had never been officially approved for use in the United Kingdom and the weapon system was provided unrequested to the police at the scene directly by the civilian company which distributes Taser International's products in the UK. The company's license to provide Taser systems

3360-468: The counter, however the owner must be older than 18, have full legal capacity, place of residence in the Czech Republic, clean criminal record, full mental capacity and must register the taser with police. In Finland possession of a Taser CEW is legal only for police officers. Police have been using Taser CEWs since 2005. Nowadays there is one in almost every patrol car. Taser devices are used by

3430-410: The creation of modern electrical science, an international convention, signed at the 1881 International Exposition of Electricity , established the ampere as a standard unit of electrical measurement for electric current. The ampere was originally defined as one tenth of the unit of electric current in the centimetre–gram–second system of units . That unit, now known as the abampere , was defined as

3500-641: The death of the Polish immigrant Robert Dziekanski at the airport in Vancouver, Canada where he died after the RCMP officer, in spite of his training, repeatedly stunned him with a TASER CEW. The report by forensic pathologist Charles Lee, of Vancouver General Hospital, listed the principal cause of death as "sudden death during restraint", with a contributory factor of "chronic alcoholism". A similar incident occurred in Sydney, Australia, to Roberto Laudisio Curti ,

3570-531: The device, which he named after his childhood hero Tom Swift ( "Thomas A. Swift's electric rifle" ). The Taser Public Defender product used gunpowder as its propellant, which led the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms to classify it as a firearm in 1976. Cover's patent was adapted by Nova Technologies in 1983 for the Nova XR-5000, their first non-projectile hand-held style stun gun. The XR-5000 design

SECTION 50

#1732780893274

3640-470: The environment around them and to design better livestock slaughterhouse handling systems that do not induce fear into the animal. Ampere The ampere ( / ˈ æ m p ɛər / AM -pair , US : / ˈ æ m p ɪər / AM -peer ; symbol: A ), often shortened to amp , is the unit of electric current in the International System of Units (SI). One ampere

3710-479: The first of its kind, uses tensioned, uninsulated wire and is capable of cycling multiple shots with the pull of a trigger. A video of the S5 pistol firing at targets was uploaded on YouTube . Because of the use of electricity and the claim of the weapon being non-lethal, controversy has sprouted over particular incidents involving the weapon and the use of the weapon in general. In essence, controversy has been centered on

3780-535: The justification of the use of the weapon in certain instances, and, in some cases, health issues that are claimed to be due to the use of the weapon. Tests conducted by the Cleveland Clinic found that Taser CEWs did not interfere with pacemakers and implantable defibrillators. A study conducted by emergency medicine physicians at the University of California, San Diego, US showed no lasting effects of

3850-639: The market. According to § 40 Abs. 4 WaffG, the German federal police may approve of exceptions. Such a special approval for purchase, ownership and carrying was in effect until 31 December 2010. As of 1 January 2011, only devices carrying the PTB 's seal of approval are legal. Previous owners may keep their devices, but cannot carry or sell them. Electroshock weapons effective over a distance, like Taser CEWs, have been completely outlawed in Germany since 1 April 2008. In

3920-411: The number of the bursts of pulses and the time between bursts while the trigger is held down continuously, or the number of times the shock cycles can be repeated. Electroshock weapons have been made illegal in Germany by supplement 2 WaffG if they do not carry an official seal of approval demonstrating they do not constitute a health risk. As of July, 2011, no such seal has been issued to any device on

3990-581: The physical marks left on the victim. Among its advantages over other torture devices is that it is portable, easy to use, and allows the torturer to localize the electric shocks to the most sensitive places on the body, where they cause intense pain that can be repeated many times. Electric shock devices, including cattle prods, have been used as a means of coercive control on autistic and mentally handicapped people. Famous proponents of this practice include Matthew Israel and Ivar Lovaas . The use of electric shocks in this way has been condemned as torture by

4060-649: The physical pain the devices cause, but also for their heightened abuse potential, due to their perceived "harmlessness" in terms of causing initial injuries, like ordinary police batons do. Amnesty International has reported several alleged cases of excessive electroshock gun use that possibly amount to torture. They have also raised extensive concerns about the use of other electro-shock devices by American police and in American prisons, as they can be (and according to Amnesty International , sometimes are) used to inflict cruel pain on individuals. Taser CEWs may also not leave

4130-458: The police in Canada may not have had the proper authority under their provincial policing Acts and Regulation to use the CEW in the first place. The point of unauthorized use by the police was also raised by Dirk Ryneveld, British Columbia's Police Complaint Commissioner at the Braidwood inquiry on June 25, 2008. Taser device safety and issues have been extensively rehearsed and investigated after

4200-664: The press to nickname him "The Prodfather". The cattle prod had been favored as a torture device by Epstein due to its effectiveness when used on cattle. He was convicted of conspiring to commit kidnapping , and sentenced to 10 years in prison. Cattle can be difficult to move and direct for a variety of reasons. Prods can be useful for moving stubborn or aggressive animals, but often cattle will not move forward when they are fearful of something they see, hear, or smell. Removal of these distractions or hiding them, such as with solid wall partitions, can greatly reduce animal handling problems, however, cattle handlers cannot completely overcome

4270-430: The products state that a half-second shock duration will cause intense pain and muscle contractions, startling most people greatly. Two to three seconds will often cause the recipient to become dazed and drop to the ground, and over three seconds will usually completely disorient and drop the recipient for at least several seconds. Taser International warns law enforcement agencies that "prolonged or continuous exposure(s) to

SECTION 60

#1732780893274

4340-465: The public. Stun shields are shields with electrodes embedded into the face, originally marketed for animal control, that have been adopted for riot control. A taser is a handheld weapon that fires two small dart-like electrodes which remain connected to the main unit by conductors. It delivers electric current to disrupt voluntary control of muscles resulting in pain and broad " neuromuscular incapacitation". Taser International has developed

4410-440: The range of 0.9 to 10 J. The output current upon contact with the target will depend on various factors such as target's resistance, skin type, moisture, bodily salinity, clothing, the electroshock weapon's internal circuitry, discharge waveform, and battery conditions. The M-26 Taser models produce a peak current of 18 amperes in pulses that last for around 10 microseconds. Manufacturers' instructions and manuals shipped with

4480-410: The sensory nervous system. It can also cause some muscular disruption, but that generally requires 3–5 seconds of direct contact. In comparison, a Taser is a long range weapon that fires barbed darts and incapacitates the target by disrupting voluntary muscular control through the motor nervous system. However, some models of Taser blur this distinction as they are capable of delivering a "drive stun" ,

4550-440: The size of a TV remote or calculator, and they must touch the subject when used. The original XR-5000 design in 1983 had the electrodes spread farther apart to make the noisy electric arc between the electrodes as a more visible warning. Some such devices are available disguised as other objects, such as umbrellas, mobile phones or pens. The larger baton-style prods are similar in basic design to an electric cattle prod . It has

4620-684: The telltale markings that a conventional beating might. The American Civil Liberties Union has also raised concerns about their use, as has the British human rights organization Resist Cardiac Arrest. In 2010, one court ruled against the use of five imported Taser devices by the Buenos Aires Metropolitan Police , to comply with a claim from the Human Rights Observatorium, that states that Taser CEWs are considered an instrument of torture by NGOs and

4690-403: The trigger is held down continuously. The operator can also inflict repeated shock cycles with each pull of the trigger as long as both barbs remain attached to the subject. The only technical limit to the number or length of the electrical cycles is the life of the battery, which can be ten minutes or more. Concerns about the use of conducted electrical weapons have arisen from cases that include

4760-489: The trigger must be depressed again to send another shock. The trigger can be held down continuously for a longer shock or the device can be switched off before the full five seconds have elapsed. The devices have no protections against multiple police officers giving multiple shocks, cumulatively exceeding the recommended maximum levels. There is a fabric that purports to protect the wearer from Taser devices or other electroshock weapons. The compact handheld stun guns are about

4830-493: Was afterwards revoked by the Home Secretary Theresa May . Due to increased interest in developing less-lethal weapons, mainly from the U.S. Military, a number of new types of electroshock weapon are being researched. They are designed to provide a "ranged" less-lethal weapon. The electrolaser is a prototype weapon that uses a laser to create a conducting ionized channel through the air. A shockround

4900-413: Was widely copied as the source for the compact handheld stun gun used today. Electroshock weapon technology uses a temporary high-voltage, low- current electrical discharge to override the body's muscle-triggering mechanisms. Commonly referred to as a stun gun, electroshock weapons are a relative of cattle prods , which have been around for over 100 years and are the precursor of stun guns. The recipient

#273726