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77-725: The fourth son of the Daoguang Emperor , he assumed the throne in 1850 and inherited an empire in crisis. A few months after his ascension, the Taiping Rebellion broke out in southern China and rapidly spread, culminating in the fall of Nanjing in 1853. Contemporaneously, the Nian Rebellion began in the north, followed by ethnic uprisings (the Miao Rebellion and the Panthay Rebellion ) in

154-755: A Hakka leader of a syncretic Christian sect, defeated local forces sent to disperse his followers. Hong then proclaimed the establishment of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom and the rebellion spread to several provinces with amazing speed. The following year, the Nian Rebellion started in North China . Unlike the Christian-influenced Taiping rebels, the Nian movement lacked a clear political program, but they became

231-625: A British diplomat, Sir Harry Parkes , was taken hostage by Chinese forces during negotiations on 18 September. Anglo-French forces clashed with Sengge Rinchen's Mongol cavalry on 18 September near Zhangjiawan before proceeding toward the outskirts of Beijing for a decisive battle in Tongzhou District, Beijing . On 21 September, at the Battle of Palikao , Sengge Rinchen's 10,000 troops, including his elite Mongol cavalrymen, were completely annihilated after several doomed frontal charges against

308-661: A San Miao ( 三苗 , Three Miao) kingdom around Dongting Lake . It was defeated by Yu the Great . Another Miao kingdom may have emerged in Yunnan around 704 BC that was subjugated by the Chinese in the 3rd century BC. In 2002, the Chu language has been identified as perhaps having influence from Tai–Kam and Miao–Yao languages by researchers at University of Massachusetts Amherst . The Miao were not mentioned again in Chinese records until

385-593: A coup with Prince Gong that ousted the eight regents. Empress Dowager Cixi then effectively ruled China over the subsequent 47 years as a regent. The Xianfeng Emperor was interred in the Eastern Qing Tombs , 125 kilometres/75 miles east of Beijing , in the Ding (定; lit. "Quietude") mausoleum complex. The Qing dynasty continued to decline during the reign of the Xianfeng Emperor. Rebellions in

462-517: A declining empire with Westerners encroaching upon the borders of China. His era name , "Daoguang", means "radiant path". The Daoguang Emperor had been ruling for six years when the exiled heir to the Khojas , Jahangir Khoja , attacked Xinjiang from Kokand in the Afaqi Khoja revolts . By the end of 1826, the former Qing cities of Kashgar , Yarkand , Khotan , and Yangihissar had all fallen to

539-509: A historical tendency by the Hmong, who resisted assimilation and political cooperation, to group all Miao peoples together under the term Hmong because of the potential derogatory use of the term Miao. In modern China, however, the term continues to be used regarding the Miao people there. Though the Miao themselves use various self-designations, the Chinese traditionally classify them according to

616-473: A low income. On the contrary, Miao men take up jobs that require more physical strengths and less visibility in public, such as engineering roads, building hotels, boats and pavilions. These jobs generally provide a more stable and profitable source of income. The above example of unequal division of labor demonstrates, in spite of socioeconomic changes in China, men are still considered the financial backbone of

693-458: A man of her choice. However, like many other cultures in Asia, there are strict cultural practices on marriage, one being clan exogamy . It is a taboo to marry someone within the same family clan name, even when the couple are not blood related or from the same community. In contrast to the common practice of the right of succession belonging to the firstborn son, the Miao's inheritance descends to

770-808: A part. It was said that the emperor did not even know where Britain was located in the world. His 30-year reign saw rising economic tensions , sectarian instability and foreign interventions which would eventually lead to the collapse of the Qing dynasty in 1911. The Daoguang Emperor was interred in the Mu (慕; lit. "Longing" or "Admiration") mausoleum complex, which is part of the Western Qing Tombs , 120 km southwest of Beijing. Empress Imperial Noble Consort Noble Consort Consort Concubine Noble Lady Second Class Attendant Lady-in-waiting Enthroned in 1626 as Khan , Hong Taiji changed

847-467: A purist view even if they had nothing to say about the domestic and foreign problems surrounding the dynasty". The Daoguang Emperor was born in the Forbidden City , Beijing , in 1782, and was given the name Mianning ( 绵宁 ; 綿寧 ; Miánníng ; Mien-ning ). It was later changed to Minning ( 旻宁 ; 旻寧 ; Mǐnníng ; Min-ning ) when he became emperor. The first character of his private name

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924-619: A regency council to assist his young successor. A few months later, Empress Dowager Cixi and Empress Dowager Ci'an along with Prince Gong instigated the Xinyou Coup and ousted the regents. Cixi ultimately rose to sole power and consolidated control over the Qing government. Yizhu was born in 1831 at the Old Summer Palace , eight kilometres northwest of Beijing . He was from the Manchu Aisin Gioro clan, and

1001-570: A serious threat to the Qing capital, Beijing , with the mobility of their cavalry-based armies. The Qing imperial forces suffered repeated defeats at the hands of both rebel movements. In 1853, the Taiping rebels captured Nanjing and for a while it seemed that Beijing would fall next; but the Taiping northern expedition was defeated and the situation stabilized. The Xianfeng Emperor dispatched several prominent mandarins , such as Zeng Guofan and

1078-589: A subgroup of the Yao . The term "Miao" gained official status in 1949 as a minzu (ethnic group) encompassing a group of linguistically related ethnic minorities in Southwest China . This was part of a larger effort to identify and classify minority groups to clarify their role in the national government, including establishing autonomous administrative divisions and allocating the seats for representatives in provincial and national government. Historically,

1155-682: A trend present until the fall of the Qing dynasty. Empress Imperial Noble Consort Noble Consort Consort Concubine First Class Attendant Enthroned in 1626 as Khan , Hong Taiji changed the dynastic name to "Great Qing" in 1636 and claimed the title of emperor. In 1644, the Shunzhi Emperor began to rule over China proper , replacing the Ming dynasty . Daoguang Emperor The Daoguang Emperor (16 September 1782 – 26 February 1850), also known by his temple name Emperor Xuanzong of Qing , personal name Mianning ,

1232-418: Is not one final masterpiece exactly the same as another. The Miao embroidery and silver jewelry are highly valued, delicate and beautiful. Silver jewelry is a highly valuable craftwork of the Miao people. Apart from being a cultural tradition, it also symbolises the wealth of Miao women. As a Miao saying goes, "decorated with no silver or embroidery, a girl is not a girl", Miao women are occasionally defined by

1309-590: The Battle of Zhuolu ( 涿鹿 ; Zhuōlù , a defunct prefecture on the border of present provinces of Hebei and Liaoning ) by the military coalition of Huang Di ( 黃帝 ; Huángdì ) and Yan Di, leaders of the Huaxia ( 華夏 ; Huáxià ) tribe as the two tribes struggled for supremacy of the Yellow River valley. The San Miao, according to legend, are the descendants of the Jiuli Tribe. Chinese records record

1386-619: The Great Qing Legal Code . Protestants hoped that the Qing government would discriminate between Protestantism and Catholicism, since the law mentioned the latter by name, but after Protestant missionaries gave Christian books to Chinese people in 1835 and 1836, the Daoguang Emperor demanded to know who were the "traitorous natives" in Guangzhou who had supplied them with books. The Daoguang Emperor granted

1463-780: The Hmongic languages belong to the Miao. For example, the speakers of the Bunu and Bahengic languages are designated as the Yao , and the speakers of the Sheic languages are designated as the She and the Yao. The Kem Di Mun people in Hainan , despite being officially designated as Miao people, are linguistically and culturally identical to the Kim Mun people in continental China who are classified as

1540-610: The Old Summer Palace . The Xianfeng Emperor was forced to flee for the imperial estate at Jehol , and the Convention of Peking was negotiated in his absence. His health was already in rapid decline in the face of mounting Qing losses. He died in 1861 in Jehol at the age of 30 and was succeeded by his six-year-old son, who assumed the throne as the Tongzhi Emperor . On his deathbed, the Xianfeng Emperor appointed eight men to

1617-523: The Second Opium War . The British and French, after engaging in a number of minor military confrontations on the coast near Tianjin , attempted to start negotiations with the Qing government. The Xianfeng Emperor believed in Chinese superiority and would not agree to any demands from the European powers. He delegated Prince Gong for several negotiations but relations broke down completely when

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1694-724: The Stanovoy Range and the Amur River was ceded to Russia, and in 1860, according to the Treaty of Beijing , the same thing happened also to the area east of the Ussuri River. After that treaty, the Russians founded the city of Vladivostok in the area they had annexed. While negotiations with British, French and Russian officials were being held, the Xianfeng Emperor and his imperial entourage fled to Jehol province in

1771-540: The Tang dynasty (618–907). In the following period, the Miao migrated throughout southern China and Southeast Asia . They generally inhabited mountainous or marginal lands and took up swidden or slash-and-burn cultivation techniques to farm these lands. During the Miao Rebellions of the Ming dynasty , thousands of Miao were killed by the imperial forces. Mass castrations of Miao boys also took place. During

1848-620: The United States , France , and Australia . Miao is a Chinese term, while the component groups of people have their own autonyms, such as (with some variant spellings) Hmong , Hmu , Xong (Qo-Xiong), and A-Hmao . These people (except those in Hainan ) speak Hmongic languages , a subfamily of the Hmong–Mien languages including many mutually unintelligible languages such as the Hmong , Hmub, Xong and A-Hmao . Not all speakers of

1925-741: The Yehe Nara clan . The Xianfeng Emperor died on 22 August 1861, from a short life of overindulgence, at the Chengde Mountain Resort , 230 kilometres northeast of Beijing . His successor was his surviving five-year-old son, Zaichun . A day before his death, the Xianfeng Emperor had summoned Sushun and his supporters to his bedside and gave them an imperial edict that dictated the power structure during his son's minority. The edict appointed eight men – Zaiyuan , Duanhua , Jingshou , Sushun , Muyin , Kuang Yuan, Du Han and Jiao Youying – as an eight-member regency council to aid Zaichun, who

2002-451: The 19th century. According to André-Georges Haudricourt and David Strecker's claims based on limited secondary data, the Miao were among the first people to settle in present-day China. They claim that the Han borrowed a lot of words from the Miao in regard to rice farming. This indicated that the Miao were among the first rice farmers in China. In addition, some have connected the Miao to

2079-724: The British in the Treaty of Nanjing in August 1842, and also pay a hefty indemnity which left the treasury desperate for funds. Meanwhile, in the Himalayas, the Sikh Empire attempted an occupation of Tibet but was defeated in the Sino-Sikh war (1841–1842). In 1811, a clause sentencing Europeans to death for spreading Catholicism had been added to the statute called "Prohibitions Concerning Sorcerers and Sorceresses" (禁止師巫邪術) in

2156-930: The Chinese-Miao for the Communists. However, after the war the Vietnamese were very aggressive towards the Hmong who suffered many years of reprisals. Most Hmong in Thailand also supported a brief Communist uprising during the war. Some of the origins of the Hmong and Miao clan names are a result of the marriage of Hmong women to Han Chinese men, with distinct Han Chinese-descended clans and lineages practicing Han Chinese burial customs. These clans were called "Han Chinese Hmong" ("Hmong Sua") in Sichuan , and were instructed in military tactics by fugitive Han Chinese rebels. Such Chinese "surname groups" are comparable to

2233-588: The Daoguang Emperor's reign, China experienced major problems with opium , which was imported into China by British merchants. Opium had started to trickle into China during the reign of the Yongzheng Emperor , but was limited to approximately 200 chests annually. By the time of the Qianlong era, this amount had increased to 1,000 chests, 4,000 chests by the Jiaqing era and more than 30,000 chests during

2310-607: The Daoguang era. The Daoguang Emperor issued many imperial edicts banning opium in the 1820s and 1830s, which were carried out by Lin Zexu , whom he appointed as an Imperial Commissioner to Canton . Lin Zexu's efforts to halt the spread of opium in China led directly to the First Opium War . With China losing the war, Lin Zexu was made a scapegoat. The Daoguang Emperor removed his authority and banished him to Yili . During

2387-700: The Daxi Culture (5,300 – 6,000 years ago) in the middle Yangtze River region. The Daxi Culture has been credited with being amongst the first cultivators of rice in the Far East by Western scholars. However, in 2006 rice cultivation was found to have existed in the Shandong province even earlier than the Daxi Culture. Though the Yuezhuang culture has cultivated rice, it is more of collected wild rice and not actual cultivated and domesticated rice like that of

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2464-627: The Daxi. A western study mention that the Miao (especially the Miao-Hunan) has its origins in southern China but have some DNA from the Northeast people of China. Recent DNA samples of Miao males contradict this theory. The White Hmong have 25% C, 8% D, & 6% N(Tat) yet they have the least contact with the Han population. According to the 2000 census, the number of Miao in China was estimated to be about 9.6 million. Outside of China, members of

2541-526: The Han, Hmong leaders made allies with Han merchants. The imperial government had to rely on political means to bring in Hmong people into the government: they created multiple competing positions of substantial prestige for Miao people to participate and assimilate into the Qing government system. During the Ming and Qing times, the official position of Kiatong was created in Indochina. The Miao would employ

2618-499: The Miao language family. This language family, which consists of 6 languages and around 35 dialects (some of which are mutually intelligible) belongs to the Hmong/Miao branch of the Hmong–Mien (Miao–Yao) language family . A large population of the Hmong have emigrated to the northern mountainous reaches of Southeast Asia including Thailand, Laos , Vietnam, and Burma . However, many continue to live in far Southwest China mostly in

2695-519: The Miao sub-group or nations of the Hmong live in Thailand , Laos , Vietnam and Burma due to outward migrations starting in the 18th century. As a result of recent migrations in the aftermath of the Indochina and Vietnam Wars from 1949 to 1975, many Hmong people now live in the United States , French Guiana , France and Australia . Altogether, there are approximately 10 million speakers in

2772-657: The Miao. Those became the ancestors of a part of the Miao population in Guizhou. The Hmong Tian clan in Sizhou began in the seventh century as a migrant Han Chinese clan. The origin of the Tunbao people traces back to the Ming dynasty when the Hongwu Emperor sent 300,000 Han Chinese male soldiers in 1381 to conquer Yunnan, with some of the men marrying Yao and Miao women. The presence of women presiding over weddings

2849-416: The Mongol general Sengge Rinchen , to crush the rebellions, but they only obtained limited success. The biggest revolt of the Miao people against Chinese rule in history started in 1854, and ravaged the region until finally put down in 1873. In 1856, an attempt to regain Nanjing was defeated and the Panthay Rebellion broke out in Yunnan . Meanwhile, an initially minor incident on the coasts triggered

2926-484: The Qing Dynasty the Miao fought three wars against the empire. The issue was so serious that the Yongzheng emperor sent one of his most important officials, Ortai , to be the Viceroy of the provinces with significant Miao populations in 1726, and through 1731, he spent his time putting down rebellions. In 1735 in the southeastern province of Guizhou, the Miao rose up against the government's forced assimilation. Eight counties involving 1,224 villages fought until 1738 when

3003-443: The age of nine, Mianning successfully hunted a deer, which greatly amused the Qianlong Emperor. The emperor would abdicate five years after that incident, in 1796, when Mianning was 14. Mianning’s father Prince Yongyan was then enthroned as the Jiaqing Emperor, after which he made Lady Hitara (Mianning's mother) his empress consort. The elderly Qianlong would live three more years in retirement before dying in 1799, aged 87, when Mianning

3080-454: The amount of silver jewelry she wears or owns. It is especially important to wear heavy and intricate silver headdresses and jewelry during significant occasions and festivals, notably during weddings, funerals and springtime celebration. Silver jewelry is an essential element of Miao marriages, particularly to the bride. Miao families would begin saving silver jewellery for the girls at an early age, wishing their daughters could marry well with

3157-419: The concentrated firepower of the Anglo-French forces, which entered Beijing on 6 October. On 18 October 1860, British and French forces sacked and burnt Old Summer Palace . Upon learning about this news, the Xianfeng Emperor's health quickly deteriorated. During the Xianfeng Emperor's reign, China lost part of Manchuria to the Russian Empire . In 1858, according to the Treaty of Aigun , the territory between

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3234-576: The connotation of "barbarian". Being a variation of Nanman, it was used to refer to the indigenous people in southern China who had not been assimilated into Han culture. During this time, references to "raw" (生 Sheng) and "cooked" (熟 Shu) Miao appear, referring to the level of assimilation and political cooperation of the two groups, making them easier to classify. Not until the Qing dynasty (1644–1911) do more finely grained distinctions appear in writing. Even then, discerning which ethnic groups are included in various classifications can be complex. There has been

3311-463: The country, which began the first year of his reign, would not be quelled until well into the reign of the Tongzhi Emperor and resulted in millions of deaths. The Xianfeng Emperor also had to deal with the British and French and their ever-growing appetite to expand trade further into China. The Xianfeng Emperor, like his father, the Daoguang Emperor , understood very little about Europeans and their mindset. He viewed non-Chinese as inferior and regarded

3388-429: The dynastic name to "Great Qing" in 1636 and claimed the title of emperor. In 1644, the Shunzhi Emperor began to rule over China proper , replacing the Ming dynasty . Miao people The Miao are a group of linguistically related peoples living in Southern China and Mainland Southeast Asia , who are recognized by the government of China as one of the 56 official ethnic groups . The Miao live primarily in

3465-412: The family name Deng founding another Hmong clan. Some scholars believe this lends further credence to the idea that some or all of the present day Hmong clans were formed in this way. Jiangxi Han Chinese are claimed by some as the forefathers of the southeast Guizhou Miao, and Miao children were born to the many Miao women married Han Chinese soldiers in Taijiang in Guizhou before the second half of

3542-553: The family. While the Miao people have had their own unique culture, the Confucian ideology exerted significant influences on this ethnic group. It is expected that men are the dominant figures and breadwinners of the family, while women occupy more domestic roles (like cooking and cleaning). There are strict social standards on women to be "virtuous wives and good mothers", and to abide by "three obediences and four virtues", which include cultural moral specifications of women's behavior. A Miao woman has some cultural freedom in marrying

3619-406: The king of the Hmong, aided Ho Chi Minh 's nationalist move against the French, and thus secured the Hmong's position in Vietnam. In Điện Biên Phủ , Hmongs fought on the side of the communist Viet Minh against the pro-French Tai Dam aristocrats. During the Vietnam War , Miao fought on both sides, the Hmong in Laos primarily for the US, across the border in Vietnam for the North-Vietnam coalition,

3696-468: The large amount of silver jewelry representing the wealth of the family. Although a growing Miao population is moving from rural Miao regions to cities, the new generation respects the families' silver heritage and is willing to pass on the practice as a cultural tradition more than a showcase of family wealth. Although Miao women are not strictly-governed, their social status is often seen as lower than that of men, as in most patriarchal societies. Be it in

3773-925: The most characteristic color of the women's clothes. The list below contains some of these self-designations, the color designations, and the main regions inhabited by the four major groups of Miao in China: Compared to the Confucian principles traditionally exercised over women in some regions of China, the Miao culture is generally less strict in categorization of women's roles in society. Miao women exercise relatively more independence, mobility and social freedom. They are known to be strong willed and politically minded. They actively contribute to their communities in social welfare, education, arts and culture, and agricultural farming. Miao women demonstrate great skill and artistry when making traditional clothing and handicrafts. They excel at embroidering, weaving, paper-cutting, batik, and intricate jewelry casting. From vests, coats, hats, collars and cuffs, to full skirts, and baby carriers,

3850-462: The mountains of southern China. Their homeland encompasses the provinces of Guizhou , Yunnan , Sichuan , Hubei , Hunan , Guangxi , Guangdong , and Hainan . Some sub-groups of the Miao, most notably the Hmong people , have migrated out of China into Southeast Asia ( Myanmar , Northern Vietnam , Laos , and Thailand ). Following the communist takeover of Laos in 1975, a large group of Hmong refugees resettled in several Western nations, mainly in

3927-406: The name of conducting the annual imperial hunting expedition. As his health worsened, the emperor's ability to govern also deteriorated, and competing ideologies in court led to the formation of two distinct factions — one led by the senior official Sushun and the princes Zaiyuan and Duanhua , and the other led by Noble Consort Yi , who was supported by the general Ronglu and the Bannermen of

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4004-456: The neighbouring provinces. By the time the war ended Professor Wu said only 30 percent of the Miao were left in their home regions. This defeat led to the Hmong people migrating out of China into Laos and Vietnam. During Qing times, more military garrisons were established in southwest China. Han Chinese soldiers moved into the Taijiang region of Guizhou , married Miao women, and the children were brought up as Miao. In spite of rebellion against

4081-431: The patrilineal Hmong clans and also practice exogamy. Han Chinese male soldiers who fought against the Miao rebellions during the Qing and Ming dynasties were known to have married with non-Han women such as the Miao because Han women were less desirable. The Wang clan, founded among the Hmong in Gongxian county of Sichuan's Yibin district, is one such clan and can trace its origins to several such marriages around

4158-419: The patterns on their clothes are extremely complicated and colorful with clean lines. Girls of around seven will learn embroidering from mothers and sisters, and by the time they are teenagers, they are quite deft. Additionally, Miao silver jewelry is distinctive for its design, style and craftsmanship. Miao silver jewelry is completely handmade, carved with fine decorative patterns. It's not easy to make and there

4235-827: The provinces of Yunnan , Guangxi and to a very limited extent in Guizhou . Most Miao currently live in China. Miao population growth in China: 3,600,000 Miao, about half of the entire Chinese Miao population, were in Guizhou in 1990. The Guizhou Miao and those in the following six provinces make up over 98% of all Chinese Miao: In the above provinces, there are 6 Miao autonomous prefectures (shared officially with one other ethnic minority): There are in addition 23 Miao autonomous counties : Most Miao reside in hills or on mountains, such as Several thousands of Miao left their homeland to move to larger cities like Guangzhou and Beijing . There are 789,000 Hmong spread throughout northern Vietnam , Laos , Burma , and on other continents. 174,000 live in Thailand , where they are one of

4312-401: The rebels. After a friend betrayed him in March 1827, Khoja was sent to Beijing in an iron litter and subsequently executed, while the Qing Empire regained control of their lost territory. The Uyghur Muslim Sayyid and Naqshbandi Sufi rebel of the Afaqi suborder, Jahangir Khoja was sliced to death (Lingchi) in 1828 by the Manchus for leading a rebellion against the Qing . During

4389-546: The repeated requests by the Europeans for the establishment of diplomatic relations as an offence. When the Europeans introduced the long-held concept of an exchanged consular relationship, the Xianfeng Emperor quickly rebuffed the idea. At the time of his death, he had not met with any foreign dignitary. Despite his tumultuous decade of reign, the Xianfeng Emperor was commonly seen as the last Qing emperor to have held paramount authority, ruling in his own right. The reigns of his son and subsequent successors were overseen by regents,

4466-522: The revolt ended. According to Xiangtan University Professor Wu half the Miao populations were affected by the war. The second war (1795–1806) involved the provinces of Guizhou and Hunan. Shi Sanbao and Shi Liudeng led this second revolt. Again, it ended in failure, but it took 11 years to quell the uprising. The greatest of the three wars occurred from 1854 to 1873 . Zhang Xiu-mei led this revolt in Guizhou until his capture and death in Changsha, Hunan. This revolt affected over one million people and all

4543-511: The six main hill tribes . The 2000 Chinese census recorded 8,940,116 Miao in mainland China . (Only includes counties or county-equivalents containing >0.25% of mainland China's Miao population.) Miao fish (苗鱼 miáo yǘ) is a dish made by steaming fish with a mixture of fresh herbs, green peppers, ginger slices and garlic. Huang et al. (2022) found that the most common Y-chromosome haplogroup among many Hmongic-speaking ethnic groups (including Miao and Pa-Hng from Hunan, and Thailand Hmong)

4620-501: The south. The revolts ravaged large parts of the country, caused millions of deaths and would not be quelled until well into the reign of the Xianfeng Emperor's successor. Qing defeat during the first phase of the Second Opium War led to the Treaty of Tientsin and the Treaty of Aigun , the latter of which resulted in the cession of much of Manchuria to the Russian Empire . Negotiations broke down and hostilities resumed soon after, and in 1860 Anglo-French forces entered Beijing and burned

4697-710: The subsistence economy or otherwise, men are the main economic force and provide the stable source of income for the family. Women are primarily involved in social welfare, domestic responsibilities, and additionally earn supplementary income. As tourism became a major economic activity to this ethnic group, Miao women gained more opportunities to join the labor force and earn an income. Women mostly take up jobs that require modern day customer service skills; for example, working as tour guides, selling craftwork and souvenirs, teaching tourists how to make flower wreaths, and even renting ethnic costumes. These jobs require soft skills and hospitality and more visibility in public, but provide

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4774-436: The term "Miao" had been applied inconsistently to a variety of non- Han peoples. Early Chinese-based names use various transcriptions: Miao, Miao-tse, Miao-tsze, Meau, Meo, mo, Miao-tseu etc. In Southeast Asian contexts, words derived from the Chinese "Miao" took on a sense which was perceived as derogatory by the subgroups living in that region. The term re-appeared in the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), by which time it had taken on

4851-421: The throne in 1850, at age 19, and was a relatively young emperor. He inherited a dynasty that faced not only internal but also foreign challenges. Yizhu's reign title , "Xianfeng", which means "universal prosperity", did not reflect the situation. In 1850, the first of a series of popular rebellions began that would nearly destroy the Qing dynasty. The Taiping Rebellion began in December 1850, when Hong Xiuquan ,

4928-654: The time of the Ming dynasty suppression of the Ah rebels. Nicholas Tapp wrote that, according to The Story of the Ha Kings in the village, one such Han ancestor was Wang Wu. It is also noted that the Wang typically sided with the Chinese, being what Tapp calls "cooked" as opposed to the "raw" peoples who rebelled against the Chinese. Hmong women who married Han Chinese men founded a new Xem clan among Northern Thailand's Hmong. Fifty years later in Chiangmai two of their Hmong boy descendants were Catholics. A Hmong woman and Han Chinese man married and founded northern Thailand's Lau2, or Lauj, clan, , with another Han Chinese man of

5005-414: The title of "Wujing Boshi" ( 五經博士 ; Wǔjīng Bóshì ) to the descendants of Ran Qiu . The Daoguang Emperor died on 26 February 1850 at the Old Summer Palace , 8 km/5 miles northwest of Beijing , being the last Qing emperor to pass away in that Palace before it was burnt down by Anglo-French troops during the Second Opium War , a decade later. He was succeeded by his eldest surviving son, Yizhu, who

5082-423: The use of the Kiatong government structure until the 1900s when they entered into French colonial politics in Indochina . During the founding of the People's Republic of China (PRC), the Miao played an important role in its birth when they helped Mao Zedong to escape the Kuomintang in the Long March with supplies and guides through their territory. In Vietnam, a powerful Hmong named Vuong Chinh Duc, dubbed

5159-443: The war, the Daoguang Emperor ordered 187 British and Indian prisoners of war held captive in Taiwan Prefecture to be summarily executed in 1842 in retaliation for the Chinese defeat at the Battle of Ningpo ; the executions were carried out on 10 August by Chinese officials. The Chinese defeat in the war exposed Qing China's technological and military inferiority to European powers, which led China in being forced to cede Hong Kong to

5236-458: The youngest son. The older sons leave the family and build their own residences, usually in the same province and close to the family. The youngest son is responsible for living with and caring for the aging parents, even after marriage. He receives a larger share of the family's inheritance and his mother's silver jewelry collection, which is used as bridal wealth or dowry . Some imperially commissioned Han Chinese chieftaincies assimilated with

5313-425: Was 17. In 1813, while he was still a prince, Mianning also played a vital role in repelling and killing Eight Trigrams invaders who stormed the Forbidden City . In September 1820, at the age of 38, Mianning inherited the throne after the Jiaqing Emperor died suddenly of unknown causes. He became the first Qing emperor who was the eldest legitimate son of his father. Now known as the Daoguang Emperor, he inherited

5390-407: Was Yongyan's second son, he was first in line after Prince Yongyan to his grandfather's throne. This was because according to the dishu system , his mother, Lady Hitara , was Yongyan's primary spouse whereas his elder brother was born to Yongyan's concubine. Mianning was favored by his grandfather, the Qianlong Emperor. He frequently accompanied his grandfather on hunting trips. On one such trip, at

5467-476: Was a feature noted in "Southeast Asian" marriages, such as in 1667 when a Miao woman in Yunnan married a Chinese official. Some Sinicization occurred, in Yunnan a Miao chief's daughter married a scholar in the 1600s who wrote that she could read, write, and listen in Chinese and read Chinese classics. According to a Tang dynasty Chinese legend, the Miao who descended from the Jiuli tribe led by Chiyou ( Chinese : 蚩尤 ; pinyin : Chīyóu ) were defeated at

5544-484: Was changed from Mian to Min to avoid the relatively common character Mian . This novelty was introduced by his grandfather, the reigning Qianlong Emperor , who thought it was inappropriate to use a common character in the emperor's private name due to the longstanding practice of naming taboo . Mianning was the second son of Prince Yongyan , the 15th son and heir of the Qianlong Emperor . Even though he

5621-565: Was highly dependent on the continued flow of taxes from southern China via the Grand Canal , which the British expeditionary force easily cut off at Zhenjiang . The Daoguang Emperor ultimately had a poor understanding of the British and the Industrial Revolution that Britain and Western Europe had undergone, preferring to turn a blind eye to the rest of the world, though the distance from China to Europe most likely played

5698-443: Was later enthroned as the Tongzhi Emperor . Xianfeng gave the eight men the power of regency, but their edicts would have to be endorsed by Noble Consort Yi and Empress Consort Zhen. By tradition, after the death of an emperor, the emperor's body was to be accompanied to the capital by the regents. Noble Consort Yi and Empress Consort Zhen , who were now known as Empress Dowagers Cixi and Ci'an travelled ahead to Beijing and planned

5775-538: Was later enthroned as the Xianfeng Emperor . The Daoguang Emperor failed to understand the intention or determination of the Europeans, or the basic economics of a war on drugs. Although the Europeans were outnumbered and thousands of miles away from logistical support in their native countries, they could bring far superior firepower to bear at any point of contact along the Chinese coast. The Qing government

5852-553: Was the eighth emperor of the Qing dynasty , and the sixth Qing emperor to rule over China proper . His reign was marked by "external disaster and internal rebellion". These include the First Opium War and the beginning of the Taiping Rebellion which nearly brought down the dynasty. The historian Jonathan Spence characterizes the Daoguang Emperor as a "well meaning but ineffective man" who promoted officials who "presented

5929-535: Was the fourth son of the Daoguang Emperor . His mother was the Noble Consort Quan , of the Manchu Niohuru clan, who was made Empress in 1834, and is known posthumously as Empress Xiaoquancheng . Yizhu was reputed to have an ability in literature and administration which surpassed most of his brothers, which impressed his father, who therefore decided to make him his successor. Yizhu succeeded

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