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62-567: Xu was sent to Japan in 1903 for study where he joined other Zhejiang students in rescuing Zhang Taiyan , who was arrested for spreading anti-Qing views. Xu set up a publishing house and a public school called Yuejun in Shaoxing with Zong Nengsu and Wang Ziyu. Xu was recommended into the China restoration Society, Guangfuhui in 1904 by Cai Yuanpei and Tao Chengzhang in Shanghai . Xu entered

124-525: A Western-derived disciplinary corset, Zhang suggested expanding existing categories in such a way as to make space for the new knowledge that the nation, as he readily agreed, so desperately needed. Zhang replaced conventional sense of mingjia (which was the name of one of the nine philosophical schools pre-Qin) with a new understanding—the methodology of debate similar to European logic and Buddhist dialectic. Zhang's thoughts on religion went through multiple phases. Originally, in his pre-imprisonment days, he

186-514: A constitutional monarchy in China. Tan Sitong refused to flee and was executed. An alternative view is that Liang and Kang had a different objective for leaving for Japan which is to not only justify fleeing China but to also solicit intervention by foreign powers like Britain or Japan to rescue Emperor Guangxu. During the Hundred Days' Reform, generals Dong Fuxiang , Ma Anliang , and Ma Haiyan were called to Beijing and helped put an end to

248-658: A cycle of the interplay between past, present and future continues". In his essay On Separating the Universal and Particular in Evolution , Zhang utilizes this framework to explain Hegel's philosophy of history. What Hegel describes as "a triumphant march of spirit" is actually "a degenerative disaster created by karmic seeds" according to Zhang. Yogacara (or Weishi ) primarily focuses on cognitive processes that could be used to overcome ignorance that prevented one from escaping

310-496: A daughter together named Xu Naijin (Nancy Zi) (1937 – August 20, 2005) who married Chiang Hsiao-wen , the son of the Republic of China President Chiang Ching-kuo . Zhang Taiyan Zhang Binglin (January 12, 1869 – June 14, 1936), also known by his art name Zhang Taiyan , was a Chinese philologist , textual critic, philosopher, and revolutionary. His philological works include Wen Shi (文始 "The Origin of Writing"),

372-519: A federation (合邦) of ten nations. Kang nonetheless asked fellow reformers Yang Shenxiu (楊深秀) and Song Bolu (宋伯魯) to report this plan to the Guangxu Emperor. On September 20, Yang sent a memorial to the emperor to that effect. In another memorial to the Emperor written the next day, Song advocated the formation of a federation and the sharing of the diplomatic, fiscal, and military powers of

434-579: A foreign plot due to the introduction into the Qing government of foreign advisors like Timothy Richards and Ito Hirobumi; Duan wanted to expel foreigners completely from China. In addition to the reforms, the reformers plotted to forcefully remove Empress Dowager Cixi from power. Tan Sitong asked Yuan Shikai to kill Ronglu , take control of the garrison at Tientsin , and then march on Beijing and arrest Cixi. However, Yuan had previously promised to support Ronglu; rather than kill him, Yuan informed Ronglu of

496-413: A higher level of theoretical sophistication as he had a firmer grasp of the purposes and limitations of European logic as well as knowledge of yinming principles and thinking. This enabled him to draw more convincing parallels between the notions he gleaned from his plethora of sources. Intellectual historian Joachim Kurtz argues that Zhang's most important contribution to the field of Chinese philosophy

558-594: A loyalist to the Republic of China, and became critical of Chiang Kai-shek . Zhang established the National Studies Society (國學講習會) in Suzhou in 1934 and chief-edited the magazine Zhi Yan (制言). He died two years later at 67 and was buried in a state funeral. On April 3, 1955, the People's Republic of China moved his coffin from Suzhou to Nanping Mountain, Hangzhou . The People's Republic established

620-474: A museum devoted to him beside the West Lake . He had three daughters with his first wife. With Cai Yuanpei as witness, he married again in 1913, with Tang Guoli (湯國梨), an early Chinese feminist. They had two sons, Zhang Dao (章導) and Zhang Qi (章奇). Originally, Zhang Binglin was firmly rooted in "Old Text" philology, which emphasized "the diversity of China's intellectual heritage led to a serious erosion of

682-557: A new philosophical framework that critiqued the dominant intellectual trend of modernization theory. He emerged from jail as devout Yogacarin. His attitude towards religion—namely Buddhism—changed after his time spent in prison. This is made apparent in "Zhang Taiyan's Notes on Reading Buddhist Texts", in which he is concerned with the concepts of "freedom, constraints, sadness, and happiness". After 1906, Buddhist terms became more prevalent in his writing, especially in his interpretation of Zhuangzi's "Discourse on Making Things Equal". Zhang

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744-542: A scholarly family. In 1901, to demonstrate his hatred of the Manchu rulers of the Qing state, he changed his name to ‘Taiyan’ after two scholars who had resisted the Qing takeover 250 years before: ‘Tai’ came from Taichong, the pen name of Huang Zongxi, and ‘Yan’ from Gu Yanwu. When he was 23, he began to study under the great philologist Yu Yue (1821–1907), immersing himself in the Chinese classics for seven years. After

806-436: A week later Qiu Jin was beheaded for her association with the plot. His family including his son Xu Xuewen (1906–1991) were arrested by the Qing. Under Qing law, his son under the age of 16 was supposed to be castrated to become a eunuch and serve in the Qing palace. The Qing was overthrown in 1912 and the castration was not carried out. Xu Xuewen later married a German woman, Maria Henriette Margarete Bordan (1915–2003). They had

868-626: A year before he escaped to Japan for several months. Upon return, he was arrested and jailed for three years until June 1906. He began to study the Buddhist scriptures during his time in jail. After his release, Zhang went to Japan to join Tongmeng Hui and became the chief editor of the newspaper Min Bao (民報) which strongly criticized the Qing Empire's corruption. There, he also lectured on

930-499: Is for this reason that faxiang learning was inappropriate to the situation in China during the Ming but most appropriate in modern times. This was brought about by the trends that have informed the development of scholarship. Zhang wanted to promote Yogacara Buddhism as a philosophy, not a religion. Buddhism was thought to be a form of scientific philosophy superior to religion, science and philosophy. Zhang based his philosophical vision on

992-527: Is good reason for my singular respect for faxiang (an alternate name for Weishi). Modern scholarship [in China] has gradually followed the path of 'seeking verification in actual events.' Of course the detailed analysis carried out by Han Learning scholars was far superior to that which scholars in the Ming were able to achieve. With the beginnings of science [introduced in China in the late-nineteenth century] scholars applied themselves with even greater precision. It

1054-450: Is not common in earlier Chinese philosophical discussions of symbol, language, and the sacred—before the 20th century, Chinese philosophical texts were in classical Chinese ( wenyanwen ), which uses monosyllabic style. The vernacular ( baihua ) began to be more commonly used after the May 4th Movement in 1919. Compound words like yuyen were rarely used in pre-20th-century Chinese writings. Zhang

1116-450: Is ultimate equality. This accords with the 'equalization of things.' Zhang tried to render equality without contradiction between the particular and the universal. Zhang believed that conceptual framework is generated through our karmic actions. When compared to his contemporary Liu Shipei 's attempt to extract logic from the masters of the Zhou dynasty , Zhang's writings and thoughts display

1178-768: The Empress Dowager Cixi to remove the emperor from power. Many, though not all, of the reforms came to naught. The council, now confident in their power, pushed for the execution of the reformers, an action that was carried out ruthlessly. According to Professor Lei Chia-sheng (雷家聖), Japanese former prime minister Itō Hirobumi (伊藤博文) arrived in China on September 11, 1898, about the same time that Kang Youwei invited British missionary Timothy Richard to Beijing. Richard suggested that China appoint Itō as one of many foreign advisors in order to further push China's reform efforts. On September 18, Richard successfully convinced Kang to adopt his plan in which China would join

1240-685: The First (1839–1842) and Second (1856–1860) Opium Wars. The effort concentrated on providing the armed forces with modern weapons, rather than reforming governance or society. The limitations of this approach were exposed by the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) when China was defeated by Meiji Japan , which had undergone comprehensive reforms during the same period. The defeat led to additional unequal treaties as European powers took advantage of China's weakness. As Tan Sitong (譚嗣同), Kang Youwei (康有爲), and Liang Qichao (梁啓超) saw

1302-645: The First Sino-Japanese War , he went to Shanghai , becoming a member of the Society for National Strengthening (強學會) and writing for a number of newspapers, including Liang Qichao 's Shi Wu Bao (時務報). In September 1898, after the failure of the Wuxu Reform , Zhang escaped to Taiwan with the help of a Japanese friend and worked as a reporter for Taiwan Nichinichi Shimpō ( 臺灣日日新報 ) and wrote for Qing Yi Bao (清議報) produced in Japan by Liang Qichao. In May of

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1364-598: The Grand Council and were seeking ways to expel all Western influence from China. When implementing reform, the Guangxu Emperor by-passed the Grand Council and appointed four reformers to advise him. These reformers were chosen after a series of interviews, including the interview of Kang Youwei , who was rejected by the Emperor and had far less influence than Kang's later boasting would indicate. At

1426-832: The Republic of China . Because of an ideological conflict with Sun Yat-sen and his Three Principles of the People , Zhang established the Tokyo branch of Guangfu Hui in February 1909. After the Wuchang Uprising , Zhang returned to China to establish the Republic of China Alliance (中華民國聯合會) and chief-edit the Dagonghe Ribao (大共和日報). After Yuan Shikai became the President of the Republic of China in 1913, Zhang

1488-470: The Chinese classics and philology for overseas Chinese students. His students in Japan include Lu Xun , Zhou Zuoren and Qian Xuantong . His most important student was Huang Kan . In 1908, Min Bao was banned by the Japanese government. This caused Zhang to focus on his philological research. He coined the phrase "Zhonghua Minguo" (中華民國, literally "Chinese People's State") which became the Chinese name of

1550-588: The Equalization of Things , Zhang uses Yogacara Buddhist concepts to make sense of Zhuangzi , an ancient Daoist philosopher. He claims that Zhuangzi's notion of equality entails making distinctions without the use of concepts: 'Equalizing things’ ( qiwuzhe ) refers to absolute equality ( pingdeng ). If we look at its meaning carefully, it does not simply refer to seeing sentient beings as equal...One must speak form (xiang, laksana) without words, write of form without concepts (ming) and think form without mind. It

1612-428: The Grand Council; this was one of the factors in their decision to stage a coup against the Emperor. Kang, like many of the reformers, grossly underestimated the reactionary nature of the vested interests involved. The Emperor set about to enact his reforms by largely bypassing the powerful Grand Council; said councilors, irritated at the Emperor's actions and fearful of losing the political power they had, then turned to

1674-519: The Wuxu year') was a failed 103-day national, cultural, political, and educational reform movement that occurred from 11 June to 22 September 1898 during the late Qing dynasty . It was undertaken by the young Guangxu Emperor and his reform-minded supporters. Following the issuing of the reformative edicts, a coup d'état ( Wuxu Coup ) was perpetrated by powerful conservative opponents led by Empress Dowager Cixi . While Empress Dowager Cixi supported

1736-478: The abolishing of the old writing style was put back into mandate, the removal of offices and agencies were reinstituted, and the establishment of certain newspapers, civil societies and schools were all suspended. The two principal leaders, Kang Youwei and his student Liang Qichao , fled to Japan to seek refuge where they founded Baohuang Hui (Protect the Emperor Society) and worked, unsuccessfully, for

1798-443: The capital to assist with the reforms. The goals of these reforms included: The reformers declared that China needed more than " self-strengthening " and that innovation must be accompanied by institutional and ideological change. Opposition to the reforms was intense among the conservative ruling elite who condemned it as too radical and proposed a more moderate and gradualist alternatives. Conservatives like Prince Duan suspected

1860-399: The concrete forces of the global capitalist system of nation-states". Following a string of defeats in the late 19th century, Chinese intellectuals began to focus on how China could be improved in order to compete in the global capitalist system. This marked a clear departure from previous Chinese thought, which had primarily focused on the teachings of traditional classical Chinese texts. This

1922-604: The conditions of possibility as described by Immanuel Kant in Buddhist terms, namely, "as the karmic fluctuations of the seeds in alaya consciousness (the storehouse consciousness)”. He viewed history as an “unconscious process of drives”. The storehouse consciousness, which is defined as the highest level of consciousness, contains seeds that initiate historical process. He believed that "karmic experiences develop from unseen roots, which stem from seeds. As we act in these experiences, we unconsciously plant new karmic seeds and so

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1984-411: The conservative elites were not opposed to change and that practically all of the reforms that were proposed were eventually implemented. For example, Sterling Seagrave , in his book "The Dragon Lady", argues that there were several reasons why the reforms failed. Chinese political power at the time was firmly in the hands of the ruling Manchu nobility. The highly xenophobic iron hats faction dominated

2046-554: The cultural and political regeneration of China. His 1907 text The Five Negations denounced how European economies "exhaust their own enterprises" and "extinguish the fertility of the land." Upon his return to China, Zhang worked on the commission "convened by the new Nationalist government's Ministry of Education in 1913 to establish a national language and helped develop the Chinese phonetic symbol system still used today in Taiwan, among other places." The terminology used by Zhang

2108-532: The doctrine of three natures. He believed that the third nature—the nature of existence being perfectly accomplished—was suitable to serve as the foundation for Chinese philosophy and religion. Zhang was not the only one who believed this—the late Qing discussion of religion became a philosophical project designed to modernize China so it could compete "as a nation-state in an increasingly rationalized and reified world." He used this belief to critique Western philosophers Kant, Hegel and Plato, who he felt only represented

2170-547: The establishment were seen to be largely hopeless, and the overthrow of the whole Qing government increasingly appeared to be the only viable way to save China. Despite the late Qing reforms in the early 1900s, such sentiments directly contributed to the success of the Xinhai Revolution in 1911, barely a decade later. Leo Tolstoy corresponded with Gu Hongming on the Hundred Day's Reform and agreed that

2232-445: The first and second doctrines of Yogacara. Zhang felt that yinming , or the knowledge of reasons, enabled people to recover the true meaning of Mohist and Confucian tests in ways that Western philosophy could not. Zhang's decision to frame his comparative inquiry in terms of yinming demonstrates his belief in yinming as a more effective 'art of reasoning' than either the 'Mohist Canons' or European logic. In his essay Discussion on

2294-563: The first systematic work of Chinese etymology. He also made contributions to historical Chinese phonology , proposing that "the niang (娘) and ri (日) initials [in Middle Chinese ] come from the ni (泥) initial [in Old Chinese ]" (known as niang ri gui ni 娘日歸泥). He developed a system of shorthand based on the seal script , called jiyin zimu (記音字母), later adopted as the basis of zhuyin . Though innovative in many ways, he

2356-508: The following year, Zhang went to Japan and was introduced to Sun Yat-sen by Liang Qichao. He returned to China two months later to be a reporter for the Shanghai-based Yadong Shibao (亞東時報). His most important political work, Qiu Shu (訄書) was published in 1900–1 and then in a substantially revised edition in 1904. In 1901, under the threat of arrest from the Qing Empire, Zhang taught at Soochow University for

2418-550: The four countries under a hundred-man committee. Lei Chia-sheng argues that this idea was the reason why Cixi, who had just returned from the Summer Palace on September 19, decided to put an end to the reforms with the September 21 coup. On October 13, following the coup, British ambassador Claude MacDonald reported to his government that Chinese reforms had been "much injured" by Kang and his friends' actions. However,

2480-636: The imperial exams and he met his cousin, Qiu Jin . He introduced her into the Guangfuhui. Fan Ainong was a student of Xu. Xu refused to join Sun Yat-sen 's revolutionary league, the Tongmenghui , when his Guangfuhui organization was merged into it. In 1906, Xu purchased an official rank and was placed in charge of police HQ of Anqing in Anhui province. On July 6, 1907, he was arrested before

2542-472: The karmic rounds of birth and death. Practicers/proponents of Yogacara stress attention to the issues of cognition, consciousness, perception, and epistemology. Yogacara Buddhism is based on the following concepts: three self-natures, storehouse consciousness, overturning the basis, and the theory of eight consciousnesses. Zhang viewed the teachings and principles of Yogacara as "a sophisticated knowledge system which could serve as an authoritative alternative to

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2604-614: The knowledge systems being introduced from the West." Yogacara focuses on meditative practice, epistemology and logic. This strain of Buddhism ceased to be popular in China by the time period of the Yuan dynasty (1206–1368). Yogacara principles and writings were reintroduced to China during the 19th century from Japan, where they had been flourishing for centuries. This revival was primarily led by Liang Qichao , Yang Wenhui , Tan Sitong , Zhang Taiyan and many other prominent intellectuals of

2666-491: The late Qing period. Yogacara was popular with the intellectuals of this period because it was characterized by structured and organized thoughts and concepts. Zhang found Weishi easy to understand “because it was essentially concerned with mingxiang (definitions of terms), matters in which he had been well grounded due to his rigorous training in the evidential learning techniques associated with Han Learning approaches to Classical Studies ( jingxue ).” Zhang wrote: There

2728-483: The model of Japan, and an experiment in constitutional and parliamentary government. The suddenness and ambitiousness of the reform effort actually hindered its success. One effect, to be felt for decades to come, was the establishment of the New Army , which, in turn, gave rise to warlordism . On the other hand, the failure of the reform movement gave great impetus to revolutionary forces within China. Changes within

2790-770: The movement along with Ma Fulu and Ma Fuxiang . Dong Fuxiang and the Muslim Gansu Army stationed in Beijing during the Hundred Days' Reform later participated in the Boxer Rebellion and became known as the Kansu Braves . The court put into effect some reform measures a decade later, starting with Cixi's New Policies . These included the abolition of the Imperial Examination in 1905, educational and military modernization patterned after

2852-629: The paramount position of Confucius as upheld by the unwavering guardians of orthodoxy" (Kurtz 302). Zhang shared the views of his contemporary, Liu Yiqing , that the Confucian classics should be read as history, not sacred scripture. However, he firmly rejected Liu's suggestion to put Chinese intellectual heritage into the matrix of Western philosophy. Joachim Kurtz writes: Zhang Binglin did not oppose radical reconceptualizations per se but only those that uncritically mirrored European taxonomies. Rather than squeezing ancient Chinese texts and concepts into

2914-630: The plot. With the support of the conservatives and the armed forces commanded by Yuan and Ronglu, Cixi launched a coup d'état on September 22, 1898, and took over the government. Guangxu was put under house arrest in the Summer Palace until his death in 1908. The reforms were reversed and their chief advocates – the " Six Gentlemen of Wuxu " (戊戌六君子): Tan Sitong , Kang Guangren (Kang Youwei's brother), Lin Xu , Yang Shenxiu, Yang Rui, and Liu Guangdi – were ordered to be executed. Reforms such as

2976-566: The principles of the Hundred Days' Reform, she feared that sudden implementation, without bureaucratic support, would be disruptive and that the Japanese and other foreign powers would take advantage of any weakness. She later backed the late Qing reforms after the invasions of the Eight-Nation Alliance . China embarked on an effort to modernize, the Self-Strengthening Movement , following its defeat in

3038-489: The reform movement was ill-advised. A mass of Kang and Liang's student reformer followers created a loyalty group called the "Kang Party" (AKA the "Kang dang") which helped set them apart from the other contemporary reformists of their time. This brought a rising fame to their name which put Kang and Liang's name on the top of the court conservatives' most wanted. Views of the Hundred Days' Reform have grown increasingly more complex and nuanced. The traditional view portrayed

3100-459: The reformers as heroes and the conservative elites, particularly the Empress Dowager Cixi , as villains unwilling to reform because of their selfish interests. However, some historians in the late 20th century have taken views that are more favorable to the conservatives and less favorable to the reformers. In this view, Kang Youwei and his allies were hopeless dreamers unaware of the political realities in which they operated. This view argues that

3162-436: The scheduled Anqing Uprising, part of the Xinhai Revolution . During his interrogation, Xu said he had murdered En Ming, provincial governor of Anhui Province, just because En Ming was a Manchu, and he had a hit list of Manchu officials he was prepared to assassinate, admitting that he hated Manchus in general. He was executed the next day by slow slicing , and his heart and liver were cut out by En Ming's guards for consumption;

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3224-571: The suggestion of the reform advisors, the Guangxu Emperor also held secret talks with former Japanese Prime Minister Itō Hirobumi with the aim of using his experience in the Meiji Restoration to lead China through similar reforms. It has also been suggested, controversially, that Kang Youwei actually did a great deal of harm to the cause by his perceived arrogance in the eyes of the conservatives. Numerous rumors regarding potential repercussions, many of them false, had made their way to

3286-623: The three years he spent in prison for "publishing anti-Manchu propaganda and insulting the Qing emperor as a 'buffoon' in 1903". During this time, he read the Yogacara-bhumi, the basic texts of Weishi "Consciousness Only" school, and the foundational work of Chinese Buddhist logic (the Nyayapravesa). These texts were given to him by members of the Chinese Society of Education ( Zhongguo jiaoyuhui ). He later claimed that "it

3348-557: The utter destruction and political problems of China at this time, such as political division, insurrection, opium addiction (due to the opium wars ) and foreign conflicts. Therefore, they developed influential philosophical systems for creating solutions which enacted political reform and a new Chinese reformist movement. Elements of the Qing government were sufficiently alarmed to permit Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao to propose reforms to Emperor Guangxu ; Guangxu agreed. Some of Kang's students were also given minor but strategic posts in

3410-750: Was "to show that it was possible, at least on an elementary level, to assert the validity of a 'traditional', namely Chinese Buddhist conceptual framework while simultaneously redefining individual notions, such as the boundaries of the logical realm, in accordance with a Western-derived understanding". Zhang continues to be viewed as an important intellectual figure in modern China in part because of his call for dissociate ideas of sovereign power from Heaven's Mandate and to instead associate it with political realism and human capacity. Wuxu Reform The Hundred Days' Reform or Wuxu Reform ( traditional Chinese : 戊戌變法 ; simplified Chinese : 戊戌变法 ; pinyin : Wùxū Biànfǎ ; lit. 'Reform of

3472-435: Was exposed to these linguistic approaches during his time in Japan following his imprisonment. In a time when most Chinese intellectuals favored modernization ideologies and endorsed history as a progressive movement, Zhang Taiyan (Binglin) drew on Buddhism and Daoism to express his critiques. Social and intellectual life during the Qing dynasty was primarily influenced by "widely circulating discourses of modern philosophy and

3534-494: Was further exposed to Yogacara Buddhism during his time in Japan (1906–1910), when he was actively involved in nationalist, anti-Manchu politics. During his time there, he edited the Tokyo-based The People's Journal ( Minbao ), where he first expressed a "Buddhist voice". While he was in Japan, he joined Tong Meng Hui, a party that was primarily made up of anti-Manchu exiles (including Sun Yat-sen) seeking

3596-489: Was highly critical of religion, and wrote several essays that criticized religious concepts: "Looking at Heaven", "The Truth about Confucianism", and "On Bacteria". In these essays, he emphasized that the scientific world could be reconciled with classical Chinese philosophy. However, his thoughts on religion significantly changed following his imprisonment. Zhang's interest and studies in Buddhism only became serious during

3658-595: Was his high-ranking advisor for a few months until the assassination of Song Jiaoren . After criticizing Yuan for possible responsibility of the assassination, Zhang was put under house arrest, in Beijing's Longquan Temple, until Yuan's death in 1916. After release, Zhang was appointed Minister of the Guangzhou Generalissimo (大元帥府秘書長) in June 1917. In 1924, Zhang left the Kuomintang , entitled himself

3720-402: Was only through reciting and meditating on these sutras that he was able to get through his difficult jail experience". His experiences with Buddhist philosophical texts gave him a framework to reassess the significance of his pain and suffering and view it in a different light. In 1906, after he was released from prison, Zhang went to Japan to edit The People's Journal ( Minbao ) and developed

3782-583: Was skeptical of new archaeological findings, regarding the oracle bones as forgery. An activist as well as a scholar, he produced many political works. Because of his outspoken character, he was jailed for three years by the Qing Empire and put under house arrest for another three by Yuan Shikai . Zhang was born with the given name Xuecheng (學乘) in Yuhang (now a district in Hangzhou ), Zhejiang to

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3844-440: Was thought to effectively prepare bureaucrats for their positions in the imperial government. However, a national crisis—the loss of several armed conflicts—spurred Chinese philosophers towards modernization thinking. Zhang was particularly revolutionary, as he "mobilized Buddhism for politics" and combined elements of Yogacara Buddhist thought with concepts he had developed himself in his pre-revolutionary years. Zhang understood

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