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107-524: Xue was a prolific writer – his works included: Essays from a Commonplace Hut ( 庸庵文編 ), More Essays from a Commonplace Hut ( 續編 ), Essays from Across the Ocean ( 庸庵海外文編 ), Diplomatic Journal from 4 Countries ( 出使四國日記 ), Notes from a Commonplace Hut ( 庸庵筆記 ), Preliminary proposals concerning Western Affairs ( 籌洋芻議 ), Diplomatic Memorials to the Throne ( 出使奏疏 ). His seminal works are included in

214-600: A Qing official's son, released him in due course. Travelling incognito and with great trepidations through Taiping held territory, the brothers crossed the Yangtze River and eventually located their mother and siblings to the north in the town of Baoying near the city of Yangzhou . In this same year of 1860, the British and French Army invaded Beijing and burned down the Summer Palace . The Emperor escaped from

321-453: A city of the dead. Robert Graves Poets make maximum use of the language to achieve an emotional and sensory effect as well as a cognitive one. To create these effects, they use rhyme and rhythm and they also apply the properties of words with a range of other techniques such as alliteration and assonance . A common topic is love and its vicissitudes. Shakespeare 's best-known love story Romeo and Juliet , for example, written in

428-653: A considerable income from their work. Every novel worthy of the name is like another planet, whether large or small, which has its own laws just as it has its own flora and fauna. Thus, Faulkner 's technique is certainly the best one with which to paint Faulkner's world, and Kafka 's nightmare has produced its own myths that make it communicable. Benjamin Constant , Stendhal , Eugène Fromentin , Jacques Rivière , Radiguet , all used different techniques, took different liberties, and set themselves different tasks. François Mauriac , novelist A satirist uses wit to ridicule

535-525: A large Taiping army, to defeat the Nian. Senggelinqin's army captured several fortified cities and destroyed most of the Nian infantry, and killed Zhang Lexing himself in an ambush in 1863. However, in late 1864, the Nian movement survived as skilled Taiping commanders Lai Wenguang (賴文光) (1827–1868) and Fan Ruzeng (1840–1867) arrived to take control of the Nian forces, and the bulk of the Nian cavalry remained intact. Senggelinqin's infantry-based army could not stop

642-630: A letter home to his son and stipulated: "all my descendants, whether male or female, should begin their education no later than the age of seven and study Western technology and the English language". Equal education for women was an uncommon stance in China at that time. While in Europe, Xue engaged in substantive trade negotiations with Britain on the question of the China-Burmese border as well as

749-511: A lively and entertaining expression of opinion. Some columnists have had collections of their best work published as a collection in a book so that readers can re-read what would otherwise be no longer available. Columns are quite short pieces of writing so columnists often write in other genres as well. An example is the female columnist Elizabeth Farrelly , who besides being a columnist, is also an architecture critic and author of books. Writers who record their experiences, thoughts, or emotions in

856-529: A long time, the "leading authority on the medical administration of armies". The logs and reports of Master mariner William Bligh contributed to his being honourably acquitted at the court-martial inquiring into the loss of HMS  Bounty . Nian Rebellion Nian militias The Nian Rebellion ( Chinese : 捻亂 ; pinyin : Niǎn Luàn ) was an insurrection against the Qing dynasty in northern China from 1851 to 1868, contemporaneously with

963-543: A modern navy. The court took notice of his recommendations and soon adopted measures to execute his proposals. The court also circulated his proposals as must-read materials for officialdom. He became an overnight sensation in government circles and many high officials proposed that he should be appointed to a diplomatic assignment overseas. The powerful governor of Zhili Province (Beijing is located in Zhili Province), Li Hongzhang , recruited Xue into his cabinet. In

1070-765: A number of genres, fictional or non-fictional . Other writers use multiple media such as graphics or illustration to enhance the communication of their ideas. Another recent demand has been created by civil and government readers for the work of non-fictional technical writers, whose skills create understandable, interpretive documents of a practical or scientific kind. Some writers may use images (drawing, painting, graphics) or multimedia to augment their writing. In rare instances, creative writers are able to communicate their ideas via music as well as words. As well as producing their own written works, writers often write about how they write (their writing process ); why they write (that is, their motivation); and also comment on

1177-493: A play or film. Satire for example, may be written as a poem, an essay, a film, a comic play, or a part of journalism. The writer of a letter may include elements of criticism, biography, or journalism. Many writers work across genres. The genre sets the parameters but all kinds of creative adaptation have been attempted: novel to film; poem to play; history to musical. Writers may begin their career in one genre and change to another. For example, historian William Dalrymple began in

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1284-406: A playwright's work may be honest to the original or creatively interpreted. If the writers' purpose in re-writing the play is to make a film, they will have to prepare a screenplay. Shakespeare's plays, for example, while still regularly performed in the original form, are often adapted and abridged, especially for the cinema . An example of a creative modern adaptation of a play that nonetheless used

1391-541: A position to use it as the basis of a decision. Well-written reports influence policies as well as decisions. For example, Florence Nightingale (1820–1910) wrote reports that were intended to effect administrative reform in matters concerning health in the army. She documented her experience in the Crimean War and showed her determination to see improvements: "...after six months of incredible industry she had put together and written with her own hand her Notes affecting

1498-485: A responsibility, to report the facts with context and completeness, to speak truth to power, to hold the feet of politicians and officials to the fire of exposure, to discomfort the comfortable, to comfort those who suffer. Geoffrey Barker, journalist. Writers of memoirs produce accounts from the memories of their own lives, which are considered unusual, important, or scandalous enough to be of interest to general readers. Although meant to be factual, readers are alerted to

1605-505: A sequential form over a period of time in a diary are known as diarists. Their writings can provide valuable insights into historical periods, specific events, or individual personalities. Examples include Samuel Pepys (1633–1703), an English administrator and Member of Parliament, whose detailed private diary provides eyewitness accounts of events during the 17th century, most notably of the Great Fire of London . Anne Frank (1929–1945)

1712-429: A single clan. As result, each banner army had a core area which consisted of a number of villages whose inhabitants were related to each other. Due to the widely differing numbers of the involved clans, the banner armies were accordingly smaller or bigger: the yellow banner army, led by Zhang himself, drew its forces from 18 villages; the white banner army of Kung Teh from 13; the red banner army of Hou Shih-wei from 12;

1819-416: A single sitting. Libretti (the plural of libretto) are the texts for musical works such as operas. The Venetian poet and librettist Lorenzo Da Ponte , for example, wrote the libretto for some of Mozart 's greatest operas. Luigi Illica and Giuseppe Giacosa were Italian librettists who wrote for Giacomo Puccini . Most opera composers collaborate with a librettist but unusually, Richard Wagner wrote both

1926-418: A somewhat broader meaning and is used to convey legal responsibility for a piece of writing, even if its composition is anonymous, unknown or collaborative. Author most often refers to the writer of a book. Writers choose from a range of literary genres to express their ideas. Most writing can be adapted for use in another medium. For example, a writer's work may be read privately or recited or performed in

2033-409: A text to improve its readability, sense or structure. This latter type of editor can go so far as to excise some parts of the text, add new parts, or restructure the whole. The work of editors of ancient texts or manuscripts or collections of works results in differing editions. For example, there are many editions of Shakespeare 's plays by notable editors who also contribute original introductions to

2140-403: A traditional Chinese courtyard and garden , a library building, an open-air opera stage and a billiards room. The mansion was called "half Wuxi city" because of its size reaches 21,000 square metres. It was constructed between 1890 and 1894. As of today, the remains of the mansion cover 6,000 square metres and has 160 rooms. This mansion was designed by Xue himself before he was sent to Europe, and

2247-691: A variety of poetic forms, has been performed in innumerable theaters and made into at least eight cinematic versions. John Donne is another poet renowned for his love poetry. A novelist is an author or writer of novels , though often novelists also write in other genres of both fiction and non-fiction . Some novelists are professional novelists, thus make a living writing novels and other fiction, while others aspire to support themselves in this way or write as an avocation . Most novelists struggle to have their debut novel published, but once published they often continue to be published, although very few become literary celebrities, thus gaining prestige or

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2354-427: A way that you don't feel the effort of the author, so that they shine and bubble and rise and fall, is very, very hard to do. Stephen Sondheim , lyricist A playwright writes plays which may or may not be performed on a stage by actors. A play's narrative is driven by dialogue. Like novelists, playwrights usually explore a theme by showing how people respond to a set of circumstances. As writers, playwrights must make

2461-405: A young Pakistani education activist, rose to prominence due to her blog for BBC . A blog writer is using the technology to create a message that is in some ways like a newsletter and in other ways, like a personal letter. "The greatest difference between a blog and a photocopied school newsletter, or an annual family letter photocopied and mailed to a hundred friends, is the potential audience and

2568-462: Is Jonathan Swift who wrote the four-volume work Gulliver's Travels and many other satires, including A Modest Proposal and The Battle of the Books . It is amazing to me that ... our age is almost wholly illiterate and has hardly produced one writer upon any subject. Jonathan Swift , satirist (1704) A short story writer is a writer of short stories, works of fiction that can be read in

2675-552: Is able to incorporate the theory behind the work they are evaluating into their assessment. Some critics are already writers in another genre. For example, they might be novelists or essayists. Influential and respected writer/critics include the art critic Charles Baudelaire (1821–1867) and the literary critic James Wood (born 1965), both of whom have books published containing collections of their criticism. Some critics are poor writers and produce only superficial or unsubstantiated work. Hence, while anyone can be an uninformed critic,

2782-652: Is as wide as 11 rooms in width. The building is called "1st turntable floor in China" for its size. Xue was the second Qing envoy to Europe. His predecessor also served a few years overseas. Writer A writer is a person who uses written words in different writing styles , genres and techniques to communicate ideas, to inspire feelings and emotions, or to entertain. Writers may develop different forms of writing such as novels , short stories , monographs , travelogues , plays , screenplays , teleplays , songs , and essays as well as reports , educational material, and news articles that may be of interest to

2889-412: Is highly critical for the translator to deliver the right information as a drastic impact could be caused if any error occurred. Even if translation is impossible – we have no choice but to do it: to take the next step and start translating. ... The translator's task is to make us either forget or else enjoy the difference. Robert Dessaix , translator, author Writers of blogs, which have appeared on

2996-598: The Encyclopédie . The encyclopaedist Bernardino de Sahagún (1499–1590) was a Franciscan whose Historia general de las cosas de Nueva España is a vast encyclopedia of Mesoamerican civilization, commonly referred to as the Florentine Codex , after the Italian manuscript library which holds the best-preserved copy. Essayists write essays, which are original pieces of writing of moderate length in which

3103-722: The Battle of Zhenhai to be mined, moved cannons to better-camouflaged locations, and ensured that the French could not recruit locals who knew how to navigate the coastal terrain. With his intimate knowledge of treaty terms, he reminded the British on their required neutrality. Consequently, in February 1885, under diplomatic pressure from China, Britain invoked provisions of the Foreign Enlistment Act 1870 and closed Hong Kong and other Far Eastern ports to French warships. In

3210-711: The Complete Works from the Commonplace Hut ( 庸庵全集 ). During his tenure as the Qing government's ambassador to the United Kingdom, France, Belgium and Italy, he wrote a diary describing his diplomatic activities and his impressions of European countries. Apart from documenting records of historical events such as the Taiping Rebellion , he also wrote essays on local legends, the macabre and

3317-458: The Liao , Jin and Yuan Dynasties (all foreign dynasties that had invaded and occupied China in the past). He also wrote and published stories about ghosts and the supernatural as well as anecdotes of curious local events and folklores that he had heard or read about in his childhood. These are collected in “Jottings from a Commonplace Hut” and showed a different side of his personality. In 1875,

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3424-488: The Nian Rebel Army. On his way north, he published recruitment notices for talented men to join him. While Zeng's boat was moored at a point near Baoying , Xue Fucheng, aged 27, braved a downpour in a rainstorm to submit his proposals to Zeng on June 28, 1865. The ten thousand words’ “Memorial to Marquis Zeng” detailed eight proposals to reform the government. Zeng was impressed and asked Xue to join his cabinet. For

3531-523: The Paris Salon of 1845 An editor prepares literary material for publication. The material may be the editor's own original work but more commonly, an editor works with the material of one or more other people. There are different types of editor. Copy editors format text to a particular style and/or correct errors in grammar and spelling without changing the text substantively. On the other hand, an editor may suggest or undertake significant changes to

3638-453: The Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864) in southern China. The rebellion was suppressed, but the population and economic losses contributed to the collapse of the empire in the early 20th century. Nian is a word borrowed from the Huaibei dialect, a form of Central Plains Mandarin , where it was used to refer to loosely affiliated gangs or groups or “ bandits ”. The Nian movement was formed in

3745-506: The World Wide Web since the 1990s, need no authorisation to be published. The contents of these short opinion pieces or "posts" form a commentary on issues of specific interest to readers who can use the same technology to interact with the author, with an immediacy hitherto impossible. The ability to link to other sites means that some blog writers – and their writing – may become suddenly and unpredictably popular. Malala Yousafzai ,

3852-507: The general public . Writers' works are nowadays published across a wide range of media . Skilled writers who are able to use language to express ideas well, often contribute significantly to the cultural content of a society. The term "writer" is also used elsewhere in the arts and music, such as songwriter or a screenwriter, but also a stand-alone "writer" typically refers to the creation of written language. Some writers work from an oral tradition . Writers can produce material across

3959-817: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire influenced the development of historiography . Writers who create dictionaries are called lexicographers. One of the most famous is Samuel Johnson (1709–1784), whose Dictionary of the English Language was regarded not only as a great personal scholarly achievement but was also a dictionary of such pre-eminence, that would have been referred to by such writers as Jane Austen . Researchers and scholars who write about their discoveries and ideas sometimes have profound effects on society. Scientists and philosophers are good examples because their new ideas can revolutionise

4066-555: The Eastern Army, under command of Lai Wenguang, stationed in central China whilst the Western Army advanced on Beijing. The Western Army, commanded by Zhang Zongyu , Zhang Lexing 's brother's son, was defeated southwest of Beijing by Qing troops, leaving large swathes of Nian territory exposed to a Qing counter-attack. By late 1867, Li Hongzhang's and Zuo Zongtang's troops had recaptured most Nian territory, and in early 1868,

4173-494: The Europeans at exorbitant prices. Zeng's army set about building canals and trenches to hem in the Nian cavalry, an effective but slow and expensive method. General Zeng was relieved of command after Nian infantry broke through one of his defense lines, and he was replaced by Generals Li Hongzhang and Zuo Zongtang equipped with more European artillery and firearms. In late 1866, the remaining Nian forces split into two, with

4280-527: The Health, Efficiency and Hospital Administration of the British Army. This extraordinary composition, filling more than eight hundred closely printed pages, laying down vast principles of far-reaching reform, discussing the minutest detail of a multitude of controversial subjects, containing an enormous mass of information of the most varied kinds – military, statistical, sanitary, architectural" became for

4387-522: The Korean military revolted in Seoul. In part, the flare-up of violence may have been caused by provocative policies and conduct by Japanese military advisors training the new Special Skills Force. Xue advised Li to take quick action to put down the rebellion. The Chinese dispatched Beiyang Naval Units under the command of Ding Ruchang to Joeson to assess the evolving situation. Chinese troops effectively quelled

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4494-536: The Nian leaders and the Nian and the Taiping occasionally cooperated, full coordination between the two rebellions was never achieved. Cases in which Nian armies submitted or even fully joined the Taipings remained rare, as most remained bandit armies that were only interested in imminent profit and survival. In 1855, Zhang Lexing took direct action by launching attacks against government troops in central China. By

4601-617: The Nians' defensive tactics were based on the so-called "earthwall communities" they controlled. Support of the peasantry proved crucial and provided the true base of the Nians' power. In 1851, the Nian began raiding the grain stores and silver caches of villages. Upon the seizure of Nanjing by the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom , some Nian leaders sought an alliance with the Taiping . While Hong Xiuquan bestowed titles upon

4708-399: The Taiping king's "appointments", but refusing to follow his orders. Had the Nian and Taipings joined forces, the Qing government would have been faced with a formidable threat, in spite of its alliances with European powers. Despite the Nians' failure to seize power, the events of the rebellion dealt a severe blow to the Qing dynasty . The environmental disasters of 1851 and 1855 devastated

4815-521: The Taiping rebels), but died in 1858 before he was able to take up the new assignment. Xue Fucheng was the third of six surviving sons and had one older sister. His mother and grandmother were both from the prominent literati Gu ( 顾 ) family of Wuxi, of which other notable members include scientist and polymath Y. H. Ku . Xue Fucheng started school at age 6, his first teacher being his 80 year old plus maternal great uncle Mr. Gu. Later in life, he would write about how he and his siblings studied late into

4922-401: The Taiping rebels’ invasion of their hometown but was unable to locate their mother and siblings who had fled Wuxi. To their dismay, the brothers found that an uncle, aunt and numerous cousins were killed or committed suicide to avoid capture by the Taiping rebels. The family home was burnt and destroyed. The Taiping rebels took Xue's older brother into custody, but unaware of his true identity as

5029-797: The White Lotus or the God Worshipping Society on them was low. For example, White Lotus rebels sometimes fought alongside Nian groups, but the latter sometimes also attacked the former in hopes of plunder. On average, the Nian groups in Henan remained more similar to mere bandits than the Nian in Anhui . Overall, the Nian movement "remained primarily the expression of mundane strategies of survival" according to historian Elizabeth J. Perry . They were never revolutionaries, and besides slogans that called for death of government officials and

5136-463: The antique books in the library. In fall of 1888, Xue was promoted to Ancha Shi (a position equivalent to an Attorney General) in Hunan Province. However, during a visit to the capital in the spring of 1889, he was reassigned as Imperial Envoy to the United Kingdom, France, Italy and Belgium. During his tenure in Europe (1890–1894), Xue visited many European countries in order to understand

5243-596: The author makes a case in support of an opinion. They are usually in prose , but some writers have used poetry to present their argument. A historian is a person who studies and writes about the past and is regarded as an authority on it. The purpose of a historian is to employ historical analysis to create coherent narratives that explain "what happened" and "why or how it happened". Professional historians typically work in colleges and universities, archival centers, government agencies, museums, and as freelance writers and consultants. Edward Gibbon 's six-volume History of

5350-535: The blue banner army of Han Lao-wan from just six; and the black banner army of Su T'ien-fu from one hundred villages. Though Zhang tried to impose more order and coordination upon the alliance, he enjoyed only limited success in this regard. Internal differences caused the alliance to quickly fall apart, and by 1858 it was effectively dissolved. In early 1856, the Qing government sent the Mongol General Senggelinqin , who had recently crushed

5457-510: The capital but the Qing government was forced to sign another unequal treaty to appease the Western powers. Xue Fucheng remained in Baoying and continued his studies but the crisis in government motivated him to study pragmatic and concrete ways to reform the weak and corrupt Qing government. In the summer of 1865, the governor-general of Liangjiang , Zeng Guofan , travelled north to put down

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5564-420: The case of Tom Lehrer , these were satirical. Lyricist Noël Coward , who wrote musicals and songs such as " Mad Dogs and Englishmen " and the recited song " I Went to a Marvellous Party ", also wrote plays and films and performed on stage and screen as well. Writers of lyrics, such as these two, adapt other writers' work as well as create entirely original parts. Making lyrics feel natural, sit on music in such

5671-484: The classic themes and often use similar and familiar plot devices to explore them. For example, in Shakespeare's Hamlet is a "play within a play", which the hero uses to demonstrate the king's guilt. Hamlet hives the co-operation of the actors to set up the play as a thing "wherein I'll catch the conscience of the king". Teleplay writer Joe Menosky deploys the same "play within a play" device in an episode of

5778-451: The countryside, prompting local towns to fortify themselves against Nian raiding parties. This resulted in constant fighting which devastated the previously rich provinces of Jiangsu and Hunan . In 1856, several Nian bands formed an alliance led by Zhang Lexing, organizing themselves into a loose confederation of five armies. Each army was identified by a colored banner, operated largely autonomously, and recruited mostly people belonging to

5885-467: The disaster but could not provide effective aid, as government finances had been drained during the First Opium War and the ongoing Taiping Rebellion . The damage created by the disaster had still not been repaired when, in 1855, the river burst its banks again, drowning thousands and devastating the fertile province of Jiangsu . Along with the destruction caused by the floods famine spread. At

5992-595: The ensuing conflict, several French warships were sunk in Zhenhai Bay and Admiral Courbet of the French fleet was wounded and died of his injuries soon afterwards. During his tenure in Ningbo , Xue Fucheng donated his annual salary for the restoration of Tianyi Ge , the oldest existing library in China originally built in the Ming dynasty but which had fallen into disrepair. He undertook the supervisory work of cataloging

6099-598: The establishment of consulates in Southeast Asia to protect the rights of Chinese citizens. In 1894, Xue completed his diplomatic term and returned to China, arriving in Shanghai on May 28 after a long and exhausting trip. A virulent local epidemic struck him down and he died in Shanghai, aged 56. A family mansion built in the late 19th century is now a national historical site open to the public. The mansion has

6206-550: The fast moving cavalry from devastating the countryside and launching surprise attacks on Imperial troops. In late 1865, Senggelinqin and his bodyguards were ambushed by Nian troops and killed, in the Battle of Goulawjai . The Qing regime sent General Zeng Guofan (曾国藩), who had recently ended the Taiping Rebellion by capturing the Taiping capital, to take command of Imperial forces protecting Beijing. They provided him with modern artillery and weapons, purchased from

6313-590: The genre of travel literature and also writes as a journalist. Many writers have produced both fiction and non-fiction works and others write in a genre that crosses the two. For example, writers of historical romances , such as Georgette Heyer , create characters and stories set in historical periods. In this genre, the accuracy of the history and the level of factual detail in the work both tend to be debated. Some writers write both creative fiction and serious analysis, sometimes using other names to separate their work. Dorothy Sayers , for example, wrote crime fiction but

6420-471: The government. Nevertheless, the main interest of most Nian members remained plundering communities that were better off, as well as resisting taxation. Religious motifs likewise were of little importance to the Nian rebels. While the Nian forces possibly inherited some of their symbols such as red turbans and Eight Trigram flags from the White Lotus , the overall influence of spiritual movements such as

6527-596: The heresy contained in some of his work, and the punishment of having to burn his own book, but also for the letters he wrote to Héloïse d'Argenteuil (1090?–1164) . The letters (or epistles ) of Paul the Apostle were so influential that over the two thousand years of Christian history, Paul became "second only to Jesus in influence and the amount of discussion and interpretation generated". Report writers are people who gather information, organise and document it so that it can be presented to some person or authority in

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6634-413: The impact of industrial development and how different European political systems impacted military power, education, law and finance. He came to the conclusion that Europe was significantly in advance of China and China can only modernize by adopting Western technology and systems. The account of his thoughts and experiences in Europe is in his "Diplomatic Journal of Four Countries". While in Europe, he wrote

6741-646: The increased potential for direct communication between audience members". Thus, as with other forms of letters the writer knows some of the readers, but one of the main differences is that "some of the audience will be random" and "that presumably changes the way we [writers] write." It has been argued that blogs owe a debt to Renaissance essayist Michel de Montaigne , whose Essais ("attempts"), were published in 1580, because Montaigne "wrote as if he were chatting to his readers: just two friends, whiling away an afternoon in conversation". Columnists write regular parts for newspapers and other periodicals, usually containing

6848-930: The language and the dialogue succeed in terms of the characters who speak the lines as well as in the play as a whole. Since most plays are performed, rather than read privately, the playwright has to produce a text that works in spoken form and can also hold an audience's attention over the period of the performance. Plays tell "a story the audience should care about", so writers have to cut anything that worked against that. Plays may be written in prose or verse. Shakespeare wrote plays in iambic pentameter as does Mike Bartlett in his play King Charles III (2014). Playwrights also adapt or re-write other works, such as plays written earlier or literary works originally in another genre. Famous playwrights such as Henrik Ibsen or Anton Chekhov have had their works adapted several times. The plays of early Greek playwrights Sophocles , Euripides , and Aeschylus are still performed. Adaptations of

6955-621: The late 1840s by Zhang Lexing and, by 1851, numbered approximately 2000. Unlike the Taiping Rebellion movement, the Nian initially had no clear goals or objectives, aside from criticism of the Qing government. Their slogan was "'kill the rich and aid the poor.'" However, the Nian were provoked into taking direct action against the Imperial regime following a series of environmental disasters. The 1851 Yellow River flood deluged hundreds of thousands of square miles and caused immense loss of life. The Qing government slowly began cleaning up after

7062-472: The latter half of 1875, during the domestic crisis caused by the Margary Affair , when British authorities put pressure on the Qing government for the murder of a junior British diplomat, Augustus Margary , during a trip to explore trade routes between British India and China's provinces, Xue Fucheng acted as advisor for Li Hongzhang in his negotiations with Britain. The crisis was resolved in 1876 with

7169-405: The likelihood of some inaccuracies or bias towards an idiosyncratic perception by the choice of genre. A memoir, for example, is allowed to have a much more selective set of experiences than an autobiography which is expected to be more complete and make a greater attempt at balance. Well-known memoirists include Frances Vane, Viscountess Vane , and Giacomo Casanova . Ghostwriters write for, or in

7276-476: The music and the libretti for his works himself. Chi son? Sono poeta. Che cosa faccio? Scrivo. E come vivo? Vivo. ("Who am I? I'm a poet. What do I do? I write. And how do I live? I live.") Rodolpho, in Puccini 's La bohème Usually writing in verses and choruses, a lyricist specializes in writing lyrics , the words that accompany or underscore a song or opera. Lyricists also write the words for songs. In

7383-481: The new Guangxu Emperor passed down an edict requesting learned men to submit their proposals for improvement to the government. Xue, aged 37, submitted his proposal (with help from Governor Ding Baozhen , employer of his younger brother) – advocating focus on diplomacy and knowledge of international laws in negotiation, establishing civil service exams to test candidates on knowledge of the Western world, sending scholars for further studies abroad, building and developing

7490-648: The new post, and as anticipated by Xue, Hart chose to retain his more lucrative assignment in the Custom Service. In 1881, Xue put forward his proposal for a modernized Chinese navy, and Li Hongzhang adopted many of his ideas in the implementation of the Beiyang Navy . In July 1882, in what was known as the Imo Incident in Joseon Korea, then still a traditional Chinese protectorate, units of

7597-413: The next 7 years working under Zeng, Xue was exposed to the practical workings of government in both military and civil affairs. Both Zeng and Xue were aficionados of the strategic game of Go , and often started the day with an early morning game. In 1872, Zeng Guofan died suddenly at age 61. Having lost his mentor, Xue Fucheng took up a new post at Suzhou Publishing House as an editor of the histories of

7704-504: The night under the tutelage and supervision of his mother. In 1858, aged 20, Xue and a younger brother both passed the local civil service exam. During that same year, he and his older brother went to visit their ailing father in Hunan. After Xue Xiang died, the two brothers spent over a year settling their father's affairs and remaining bureaucratic duties. In the spring of 1860, the two brothers hurriedly traveled back to Wuxi when they heard of

7811-477: The notable characteristics of a good critic are understanding, insight, and an ability to write well. We can claim with at least as much accuracy as a well-known writer claims of his little books, that no newspaper would dare print what we have to say. Are we going to be very cruel and abusive, then? By no means: on the contrary, we are going to be impartial. We have no friends – that is a great thing – and no enemies. Charles Baudelaire , introducing his Review of

7918-415: The original writer's words, is Baz Luhrmann 's version of Romeo and Juliet . The amendment of the name to Romeo + Juliet indicates to the audience that the version will be different from the original. Tom Stoppard 's play Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead is a play inspired by Shakespeare's Hamlet that takes two of Shakespeare's most minor characters and creates a new play in which they are

8025-605: The previous 1794 White Lotus Rebellion , recruiting from secret societies and sects such as the White Lotus, and actively borrowing their terminology and symbols, examples being the practice of sworn brotherhood , five colours of banners, flags with eight trigrams , and the widespread use of units of woman warriors . Zhang Lexing , leader of the rebellion, used the title "Bright King of the Great Han", an address reminiscent of White Lotus leadership positions. Political scientists Valerie Hudson and Andrea den Boer suggest that

8132-522: The protagonists. Player : It's what the actors do best. They have to exploit whatever talent is given to them, and their talent is dying. They can die heroically, comically, ironically, slowly, suddenly, disgustingly, charmingly or from a great height. Tom Stoppard , Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead (Act Two) Screenwriters write a screenplay – or script – that provides the words for media productions such as films, television series and video games. Screenwriters may start their careers by writing

8239-586: The rebellion was fueled, at least in part, by decades of female infanticide caused by the flood-related economic misery, leading to a large population of frustrated young men without any women to marry, perhaps as many as a quarter of all young men in the area being in this category of "bare branches". The Nian rebels were to a large degree desperate and poor peasants who banded together in bandit groups simply to survive. However, as natural disasters grew worse, these bandit groups grew increasingly large, and eventually became armies that were able to directly challenge

8346-544: The rebellion. In early summer of 1884, Xue was appointed governor of Ningbo and Shaoxing in Zhejiang Province, a strategic coastal area that came under attack by French warships during the Sino French War (1884–1885). His predecessor in the post had died suddenly under mysterious circumstances. Xue had to resolve internal dissensions in strategy between local civil and military authority. Xue ordered

8453-459: The rebellion. The pro-Japanese Regent Daewongun , accused of fomenting the disturbance and its violence, was arrested by Chinese troops and taken to China where he spent three years in custody and only returned to Korea in 1885. The incident was regarded by the Chinese as a Japanese plot to assert control over Korea. Xue received a promotion because of his advice to take quick action in putting down

8560-551: The remnants were crushed by the combined forces of the government's troops and the Ever Victorious Army . The Nian rebels were equipped with guns (including modern Western guns), muskets, and a significant quantity of cannons up to 5000 pounds in weight. The Nian rebellion failed to topple the Qing dynasty largely because it failed to make alliances with other rebels, especially the Taiping movement. The Nian only symbolically supported Taiping efforts by accepting

8667-419: The resulting publication. Editors who work on journals and newspapers have varying levels of responsibility for the text. They may write original material, in particular editorials, select what is to be included from a range of items on offer, format the material, and/or fact check its accuracy. Encyclopaedists create organised bodies of knowledge. Denis Diderot (1713–1784) is renowned for his contributions to

8774-413: The rich, as well as hopes for a more just society, they lacked clear, well-defined goals. That some Nian armies became actual rebel movements was mostly due to the ambitions of individual Nian leaders who wanted to become legitimate rulers. The Nian utilized cavalry in part to aid in looting, which served to support both the Nians' forces and their home communities. In contrast to their mobile cavalry,

8881-431: The richest provinces of China, depriving the Qing regime of tax income and trade duties. The endless fighting between Nian troops and Qing forces, who made widespread use of scorched earth tactics, ruined the countryside and resulted in countless deaths. Although the Nian rebellion was smaller than that of the Taiping, it severely drained government finances, devastated the richest areas of China, and left China's economy in

8988-445: The science fiction television series Star Trek: Voyager . The bronze-age playwright/hero enlists the support of a Star Trek crew member to create a play that will convince the ruler (or "patron" as he is called), of the futility of war. A speechwriter prepares the text for a speech to be given before a group or crowd on a specific occasion and for a specific purpose. They are often intended to be persuasive or inspiring, such as

9095-437: The screenplay speculatively ; that is, they write a script with no advance payment, solicitation or contract. On the other hand, they may be employed or commissioned to adapt the work of a playwright or novelist or other writer. Self-employed writers who are paid by contract to write are known as freelancers and screenwriters often work under this type of arrangement. Screenwriters, playwrights and other writers are inspired by

9202-561: The shortcomings of society or individuals, with the intent of revealing stupidity. Usually, the subject of the satire is a contemporary issue such as ineffective political decisions or politicians, although human vices such as greed are also a common and prevalent subject. Philosopher Voltaire wrote a satire about optimism called Candide , which was subsequently turned into an opera, and many well known lyricists wrote for it. There are elements of Absurdism in Candide , just as there are in

9309-722: The signing of the Chefoo Convention . In 1879, Manchu Prince Gong , head of the Zongli Yamen , China's equivalent of the Foreign Office, agreed to give over control and defense of China's coast to Robert Hart , then Inspector-General of China's Imperial Maritime Custom Service (IMCS). Xue advised Li Hongzhang on the serious consequences that could ensue if defense of China's coast rested in foreign hands. Following Xue's advice, Li Hongzhang asked Hart to resign his current post as Inspector-General in order to take up

9416-557: The speeches given by skilled orators like Cicero ; charismatic or influential political leaders like Nelson Mandela ; or for use in a court of law or parliament. The writer of the speech may be the person intended to deliver it, or it might be prepared by a person hired for the task on behalf of someone else. Such is the case when speechwriters are employed by many senior-level elected officials and executives in both government and private sectors. Biographers write an account of another person's life. Richard Ellmann (1918–1987), for example,

9523-404: The style of, someone else so the credit goes to the person on whose behalf the writing is done. Writers of letters use a reliable form of transmission of messages between individuals, and surviving sets of letters provide insight into the motivations, cultural contexts, and events in the lives of their writers. Peter Abelard (1079–1142), philosopher, logician, and theologian is known not only for

9630-402: The success of a work, the critic takes account of why it was done – for example, why a text was written, for whom, in what style, and under what circumstances. After making such an assessment, critics write and publish their evaluation, adding the value of their scholarship and thinking to substantiate any opinion. The theory of criticism is an area of study in itself: a good critic understands and

9737-505: The summer, the fast-moving Nian cavalry , well-trained and fully equipped with modern firearms, had cut the lines of communication between Beijing and the Qing armies fighting the Taiping rebels in the south. Qing forces were badly overstretched as rebellions broke out across China, allowing the Nian armies to conquer large tracts of land and gain control over economically vital areas. The Nian fortified their captured cities and used them as bases to launch cavalry attacks against Qing troops in

9844-700: The supernatural. As a proponent of introducing Western technology into China, Xue wrote about witnessing new technology such as the telephone while he was abroad. The Xue family had been in Wuxi since the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), the first ancestor moving to Wuxi being a veteran of the Chinese-Annam War ( Ming–Hồ War of 1406–1407), and General of the Nanjing Imperial Capital Guards known as “Running Tigers”. Xue's great-grandfather

9951-699: The task of finding some equivalence in another language to a writer's meaning, intention and style. Translators whose work has had very significant cultural effect include Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf ibn Maṭar , who translated Elements from Greek into Arabic and Jean-François Champollion , who deciphered Egyptian hieroglyphs with the result that he could publish the first translation of the Rosetta Stone hieroglyphs in 1822. Difficulties with translation are exacerbated when words or phrases incorporate rhymes, rhythms, or puns ; or when they have connotations in one language that are non-existent in another. For example,

10058-464: The time, the Qing government was trying to negotiate a deal with the European powers, and as state finances had been so severely depleted, the regime was again unable to provide effective relief. This enraged the Nian movement, which blamed the Europeans for contributing to the nation troubles, and increasingly viewed the Qing government as incompetent. The Nian rebels seemed to have been influenced by

10165-441: The title of Le Grand Meaulnes by Alain-Fournier is supposedly untranslatable because "no English adjective will convey all the shades of meaning that can be read into the simple [French] word 'grand' which takes on overtones as the story progresses." Translators have also become a part of events where political figures who speak different languages meet to look into the relations between countries or solve political conflicts. It

10272-554: The title of “Jinshi” or “Advanced Scholar”, and became a professor. Later he was promoted to the post of Anfu County Commissioner in Hunan Province . In Anfu, Xue Xiang organized the local militia that fought and defeated bands of invading Taiping rebels, and also led the militia in defense of two other local counties against the rebels. As a result, he was promoted to be governor of Xunzhou in Guangxi province (home province of

10379-462: The way people think and how they behave. Three of the best known examples of such a revolutionary effect are Nicolaus Copernicus , who wrote De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (1543); Charles Darwin , who wrote On the Origin of Species (1859); and Sigmund Freud , who wrote The Interpretation of Dreams (1899). These three highly influential, and initially very controversial, works changed

10486-449: The way people understood their place in the world. Copernicus's heliocentric view of the cosmos displaced humans from their previously accepted place at the center of the universe; Darwin's evolutionary theory placed humans firmly within, as opposed to above, the order of manner; and Freud's ideas about the power of the unconscious mind overcame the belief that humans were consciously in control of all their own actions. Translators have

10593-406: The work of contemporary satirist Barry Humphries , who writes comic satire for his character Dame Edna Everage to perform on stage. Satirists use different techniques such as irony , sarcasm , and hyperbole to make their point and they choose from the full range of genres – the satire may be in the form of prose or poetry or dialogue in a film, for example. One of the most well-known satirists

10700-400: The work of other writers (criticism). Writers work professionally or non-professionally, that is, for payment or without payment and may be paid either in advance, or on acceptance, or only after their work is published. Payment is only one of the motivations of writers and many are not paid for their work. The term writer has been used as a synonym of author , although the latter term has

10807-617: Was a 13-year-old Dutch girl whose diary from 1942 to 1944 records both her experiences as a persecuted Jew in World War II and an adolescent dealing with intra-family relationships. Journalists write reports about current events after investigating them and gathering information. Some journalists write reports about predictable or scheduled events such as social or political meetings. Others are investigative journalists who need to undertake considerable research and analysis in order to write an explanation or account of something complex that

10914-411: Was a scholar that died young. His grandfather passed the local civil service exam but did not achieve higher success. His father Xue Xiang was a notable writer and essayist and after passing the provincial civil service exam, became a teacher in the government academy at Zhenjiang. Xue Xiang's unique prose style was admired and imitated by many. In 1845, Xue Xiang passed the national civil service exam with

11021-473: Was also a playwright, essayist, translator, and critic.   I Will Write He had done for her all that a man could, And some might say, more than a man should, Then was ever a flame so recklessly blown out Or a last goodbye so negligent as this? ‘I will write to you,' she muttered briefly, Tilting her cheek for a polite kiss; Then walked away, nor ever turned about. ... Long letters written and mailed in her own head – There are no mails in

11128-508: Was an eminent and award-winning biographer whose work focused on the Irish writers James Joyce , William Butler Yeats , and Oscar Wilde . For the Wilde biography, he won the 1989 Pulitzer Prize for Biography . Critics consider and assess the extent to which a work succeeds in its purpose. The work under consideration may be literary, theatrical, musical, artistic, or architectural. In assessing

11235-515: Was built by his eldest son Xue Nanming. The Qing government sent him a plaque with the words "Residence of the Imperial Envoy" ( 钦使第 ) to recognise him for his diplomatic achievements. The plaque was hung at the entrance of his mansion. When Xue built this mansion, his official rank was Positive Third Grade ( 正三品 ). According to Qing government rules, a Third Grade official's residence cannot exceed five room doors in width, but Xue's mansion

11342-464: Was hitherto unknown or not understood. Often investigative journalists are reporting criminal or corrupt activity which puts them at risk personally and means that what it is likely that attempts may be made to attack or suppress what they write. An example is Bob Woodward , a journalist who investigated and wrote about criminal activities by the US President . Journalism ... is a public trust,

11449-418: Was too wide and violated the rules. Xue then thought of separating the nine rooms wide house by three columns of walls so the building looked like nine houses placed together. This design is unique in China. The Xue mansion also incorporates a lot of western-style features such as western-style sliding doors, coloured glass, and a snooker house imported from Europe. There is a turntable floor building inside which

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