War in Iraq (2013–2017)
94-775: The Women's Protection Units or Women's Defense Units is an all-female militia involved in the Syrian civil war . The YPJ is part of the Syrian Democratic Forces , the armed forces of Rojava , and is closely affiliated with the male-led YPG . While the YPJ is mainly made up of Kurds , it also includes women from other ethnic groups in Northern Syria. Women have been involved in Syrian Kurdish Resistance fighting since as early as 2011, when
188-616: A Rojavan economist, has said that: "The method in Rojava is not so much against private property, but rather has the goal of putting private property in the service of all the peoples who live in Rojava." In November 2022, a bombing occurred in Istanbul 's Beyoğlu district in Turkey, killing 6 and wounding 81 people in the attack. Some Turkish officials said that they have suspected the PYD for
282-534: A coup d'état in 1963 . For several years, Syria went through additional coups and changes in leadership, until in March 1971, General Hafez al-Assad , an Alawite , declared himself President . It marked the beginning of the domination of personality cults centred around the Assad dynasty that pervaded all aspects of Syrian daily life and was accompanied by a systematic suppression of civil and political freedoms, becoming
376-470: A full-blown civil war. Rebel forces, receiving arms from NATO and Gulf Cooperation Council states, initially made significant advances against the government forces, who were receiving arms from Iran and Russia . Rebels captured the regional capitals of Raqqa in 2013 and Idlib in 2015. Consequently, Russia launched a military intervention in support of the government in September 2015, shifting
470-477: A mass migration of farming families to urban centers. This migration strained infrastructure already burdened by the influx of some 1.5 million refugees from the Iraq War . The drought has been linked to anthropogenic global warming . Subsequent analysis, however, has challenged the narrative of the drought as a major contributor to the start of the war. Adequate water supply continues to be an issue in
564-841: A military court on various charges. From 2006 to 14 April 2009, at least two dozen PYD activists were formally tried before a special security court, some receiving sentences from five to seven years on charges of membership in a "secret organisation" and seeking "to cut off part of Syrian land to join it to another country". Many others were detained, often in severe conditions and without basic legal rights—some of those released reported being kept in extended solitary confinement and even being subjected to physical and psychological torture . Syrian security forces also often continued to harass activists and their families following their release. While similar methods were employed against many Kurdish prisoners and activists in Syria, Human Rights Watch noted that
658-2220: A point of contention for United States since falling in the hands of ISIS, which were captured by American-backed Syrian Democratic Forces in 2017. Protests, civil uprising, and defections (March–July 2011) Initial armed insurgency (July 2011 – April 2012) Kofi Annan ceasefire attempt (April–May 2012) Next phase of the war starts: escalation (2012–2013) Rise of the Islamist groups (January–September 2014) U.S. intervention (September 2014 – September 2015) Russian intervention (September 2015 – March 2016), including first partial ceasefire Aleppo recaptured; Russian/Iranian/Turkish-backed ceasefire (December 2016 – April 2017) Syrian-American conflict; de-escalation zones (April–June 2017) ISIL siege of Deir ez-Zor broken; CIA program halted; Russian forces permanent (July–December 2017) Army advance in Hama province and Ghouta; Turkish intervention in Afrin (January–March 2018) Douma chemical attack; U.S.-led missile strikes; southern Syria offensive (April–August 2018) Idlib demilitarization; Trump announces U.S. withdrawal; Iraq strikes ISIL targets (September–December 2018) ISIL attacks continue; U.S. states conditions of withdrawal; fifth inter-rebel conflict (January–May 2019) Demilitarization agreement falls apart; 2019 northwestern Syria offensive; northern Syria buffer zone established (May–October 2019) U.S. forces withdraw from buffer zone; Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria (October 2019) Northwestern offensive; Baylun airstrikes; Operation Spring Shield; Daraa clashes; Afrin bombing (late 2019; 2020) New economic crisis and stalemate conflict (June 2020–present) Democratic Union Party (Syria) The Democratic Union Party ( Kurdish : Partiya Yekîtiya Demokrat , pronounced [paːrtɨjaː jɛkiːtɨja dɛmokraːt] , PYD ; Arabic : حزب الاتحاد الديمقراطي , romanized : Ḥizb al-Ittiḥad al-Dimuqraṭiy ; Classical Syriac : ܓܒܐ ܕܚܘܝܕܐ ܕܝܡܩܪܐܛܝܐ , romanized: Gabo d'Ḥuyodo Demoqraṭoyo )
752-472: A political settlement have gone nowhere, leaving the Assad regime firmly in power. The U.S. Council on Foreign Relations said: The war whose brutality once dominated headlines has settled into an uncomfortable stalemate. Hopes for regime change have largely died out, peace talks have been fruitless, and some regional governments are reconsidering their opposition to engaging with Syrian leader Bashar al-Assad. The government has regained control of most of
846-404: A range of different backgrounds became involved, including Kurds , Arabs , Assyrians , Syrian Turkmen and Yazidis (from Muslim , Christian , and Yazidi religious groups). It sought to "establish a variety of groups, committees and communes on the streets in neighborhoods, villages, counties and small and big towns everywhere". The purpose of these groups was to meet "every week to talk about
940-622: A region in which women are systematically disadvantaged. Another all-female force in northern Syria is the Bethnahrain Women's Protection Forces , which was formed as an Assyrian all-female brigade of the Syriac Military Council , seemingly inspired by the example of the YPJ. The Al-Bab Military Council , Kurdish Front and Liwa Thuwar al-Raqqa have also established their own female units. Abdullah Öcalan's ideas surrounding women's rights have been integral to
1034-412: A stalemate, by early 2023. The United States Institute of Peace said: Twelve years into Syria's devastating civil war, the conflict appears to have settled into a frozen state. Although roughly 30% of the country is controlled by opposition forces, heavy fighting has largely ceased and there is a growing regional trend toward normalizing relations with the regime of Bashar al-Assad. Over the last decade,
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#17327833842821128-536: A threat. Violence in the war peaked during 2012–2017, but the situation remains a crisis. By 2020, the Syrian government controlled about two-thirds of the country and was consolidating power. Frontline fighting between the Assad government and opposition groups had mostly subsided by 2023, but there had been regular flareups in northwestern Syria and large-scale protests emerged in southern Syria and spread nationwide in response to extensive autocratic policies and
1222-401: A unit brought from Damascus—fired tear gas in an effort to disperse the crowds. After some protesters threw stones, the police opened fire with live ammunition, killing one and injuring at least two more. Dozens (including women and children) were detained in the ensuing police crackdown. Most were soon released, but 15 activists—three of them PYD officials—remained imprisoned and were sent before
1316-679: Is a Kurdish left-wing political party established on 20 September 2003 in northern Syria. It is a founding member of the National Coordination Body for Democratic Change . It is the leading political party among Syrian Kurds. The PYD was established as a Syrian branch of the Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK) in 2003, and both organizations are still closely affiliated through the Kurdistan Communities Union (KCK). On its website,
1410-618: Is a member of the Kurdistan Communities Union (KCK) and also a consultative member of the Socialist International . The PYD and the PKK are closely affiliated through the Kurdistan Communities Union (KCK). The PYD has adopted democratic confederalism as its main ideology and have implemented the ideas of Murray Bookchin and Abdullah Öcalan in the AANES, where hundreds of neighborhood-based communes have established across
1504-690: Is currently at 5,000. In the Syrian civil war , the YPJ and the YPG have fought against various groups in northern Syria, including the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) and was involved in the defense of Kobanî during the Siege of Kobanî beginning in March 2014, with various Kurdish media agencies reporting that "YPJ troops have become vital in the battle". In the Siege of Kobanî, prior to receiving
1598-495: The 2023 Ankara bombing , which the Turkish government alleges was carried out by attackers originating from Northeastern Syria. On November 27th, 2024 it was reported that in a sudden offensive rebels seized 13 villages, including the strategic towns of Urm Al-Sughra and Anjara, as well as Base 46, the largest Syrian regime base in western Aleppo. The non-religious Ba'ath Syrian Regional Branch government came to power through
1692-560: The Battle of Raqqa , the Islamic State was territorially defeated by late 2017. In August 2016, Turkey launched a multi-pronged invasion of northern Syria , in response to the creation of Rojava , while also fighting Islamic State and government forces in the process. Since the March 2020 Idlib ceasefire , frontline fighting has mostly subsided, but is characterized by regular skirmishes. In March 2011, popular discontent with
1786-492: The Constitution of Rojava . One notable example for amendment is the family law, where Rojava proclaims absolute equality of women under the law and a ban on polygamy . For the first time in Syrian history, civil marriage is being allowed and promoted, a significant move towards a secular open society and intermarriage between people of different religious backgrounds. In 2012, the PYD launched what it originally called
1880-474: The Iran–Iraq–Syria pipeline . Syrian president Bashar al-Assad declined Qatar's year 2000 proposal to build a $ 10 billion Qatar–Turkey pipeline through Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Syria and Turkey, allegedly prompting covert CIA operations to spark a Syrian civil war to pressure Bashar al-Assad to resign and allow a pro-American president to step in and sign off on the deal. Leaked documents have shown that in 2009,
1974-581: The Iraqi Kurdish leader Jalal Talabani a safe haven in Damascus to form his new Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK) Party. From the 1980s until the late 1990s, Assad also supported the PKK against his regional rival Turkey, similarly providing a safe haven for PKK leader Abdullah Ocalan and allowing the PKK to use Syrian Kurdistan as a base of operations. In 1998, the Syrian government banned Kurdish political parties and organizations, including
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#17327833842822068-870: The Kurdish National Council (KNC) when it was formed in October 2011, but agreed on cooperation with the KNC and as a result, the Kurdish Supreme Committee was founded. The PYD adopted a critical stance toward both the Syrian government and the Syrian opposition , including the Syrian National Council (SNC), which it accused of acting in Turkey's interests. The SNC's unwillingness to support Kurdish autonomy led all but one of its Kurdish parties to leave by February 2012. Over 640 PYD-linked prisoners were released by
2162-503: The Kurdistan Democratic Party of Iraq , and joined the newly formed PYD. PYD members suffered years of violent repression at the hands of the Syrian government . Though Syrian security forces had already for several years been targeting members of Kurdish political parties and organizations, the PYD came under intensified persecution in the aftermath of the 2004 Qamishli riots . According to Human Rights Watch ,
2256-689: The Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK), who is imprisoned by Turkey . Central to YPJ ideology is the PYD's ideological concept of " Jineology ". Dating back to the early 1990s, Öcalan had been advocating that a ‘basic responsibility’ of the Kurdish movement was to liberate women. He stated that gender equality and women's liberation is necessary for Kurdish liberation. The PKK established its first all-female units of guerrillas in 1995, stating that in order to “break down gender roles solidified by centuries, women had to be on their own.” The YPJ adheres to
2350-610: The Muslim Brotherhood and the ulama . Assad regime violently crushed the Islamic revolts that occurred during 1976–1982, waged by revolutionaries from the Syrian Muslim Brotherhood . The Ba'ath party carefully constructed Assad as the guiding father figure of the party and modern Syrian nation, advocating the continuation of Assad dynastic rule of Syria. As part of the publicity efforts to brand
2444-859: The Sinjar Resistance Units (YBŞ). The YPJ relies on local communities for supplies and food. The YPJ (along with the YPG) received 27 bundles totaling 24 tons of small arms and ammunition as well as 10 tons of medical supplies from the United States and the Kurdistan Regional Government in Iraqi Kurdistan during the Siege of Kobanî . In 2020, the United Nations reported that the YPG/YPJ had
2538-635: The Social Democratic Party of Sweden which included a certain support for the PYD, thanks to which the Swedish Government of Magdalena Andersson was able to assume. In Germany, there is a ban on PKK symbols that, as of March 2017, is officially extended the YPG and YPJ flags and symbols. Certain German states prosecute German citizens for posting YPJ-YPG symbols on social media, or bringing their flags to protests. The PYD
2632-636: The Syrian National Army and allied Free Syrian militias ). Another opposition faction is the Syrian Salvation Government , whose armed forces are represented by a coalition of Sunni militias led by Tahrir al-Sham . Independent of them is the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria , whose military force is the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), a multi-ethnic, Arab-majority force led by
2726-467: The regions of Rojava . Like its sister organisations in the KCK umbrella, the PYD is critical of nationalism , including Kurdish nationalism , in contrast to the Kurdish nationalist aims of the Kurdish National Council . In order to exert pressure on regional rivals, former Syrian President Hafez al-Assad supported Kurdish factions in neighboring Iraqi and Turkish Kurdistan . In 1975, Assad offered
2820-403: The 2000 Damascus Spring , Bashar al-Assad was widely reported as having failed to implement any improvements. In 2010, he imposed a controversial national ban on female Islamic dress codes (such as face veils ) across universities, where reportedly over a thousand primary school teachers that wore the niqab were reassigned to administrative jobs. A Human Rights Watch report issued just before
2914-710: The Assad government in mid-July 2012 to withdraw the majority of its forces from Syria's Kurdish areas" (leaving a strong presence only in Qamishli and Al-Hasakah ), prompted by a major opposition offensive against the capital Damascus . According to the Carnegie Middle East Center , "Despite these agreements, the Kurdish National Council has accused the PYD of attacking Kurdish demonstrators, kidnapping members of other Kurdish opposition parties, and setting up armed checkpoints along
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3008-770: The Autonomous Administration's Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF). Turkish forces currently occupy parts of northern Syria and, since 2016, have fought the SDF, IS and the Assad government while actively supporting the Syrian National Army (SNA). Between 2011 and 2017, fighting from the Syrian civil war spilled over into Lebanon as opponents and supporters of the Syrian government traveled to Lebanon to fight and attack each other on Lebanese soil. While officially neutral, Israel has exchanged border fire and conducted repeated strikes against Hezbollah and Iranian forces , whose presence in western Syria it views as
3102-468: The Ba'athist government led to large-scale protests and pro-democracy rallies across Syria, as part of the wider Arab Spring protests in the region. Numerous protests were violently suppressed by security forces in deadly crackdowns ordered by Bashar al-Assad, resulting in tens of thousands of deaths and detentions , many of whom were civilians The Syrian revolution transformed into an insurgency with
3196-855: The CIA began funding and supporting opposition groups in Syria to foment a civil war. Harvard Professor Mitchell A Orenstein and George Romer stated that this pipeline feud is the true motivation behind Russia entering the war in support of Bashar al-Assad, supporting his rejection of the Qatar-Turkey pipeline and hoping to pave the way for the Iran-Iraq-Syria pipeline which would bolster Russia's allies and stimulate Iran's economy. The U.S. military has set up bases near gas pipelines in Syria, purportedly to fight ISIS but perhaps also to defend their own natural gas assets, which have been allegedly targeted by Iranian militias. The Conoco gas fields have been
3290-536: The Kurdish YPG. Other competing factions include Jihadist organizations such as the al-Qaeda-branch Hurras al-Din (successor of Al-Nusra Front ) and the Islamic State (IS). A number of foreign countries, such as Iran , Russia , Turkey and the United States , have been directly involved in the civil war , providing support to opposing factions in the conflict. Iran, Russia and Hezbollah support
3384-512: The PKK were involved in an August 2014 military operation at Mount Sinjar , where up to as many as 10,000 Yazidis were rescued from genocide at the hands of ISIL . ISIL had taken control of most areas around Mount Sinjar after pushing out the Peshmerga . Because ISIL views the Yazidis as "a community of devil worshipers," those formerly inhabiting the town of Sinjar were forced to flee into
3478-518: The PUK and PKK, withdrawing its support and forcing them to leave Syria. During a meeting in Kobane in October 1998, Öcalan attempted to lay the foundations of a new party, which aim was obstructed by the Syrian secret service. In 2003, a second attempt led to the establishment of the PYD by Syrian Kurds . At the same year, Salih Muslim left the Kurdistan Democratic Party of Syria (KDP-S), an affiliate of
3572-420: The PYD describes itself as believing in "social equality, justice and the freedom of belief" as well as "pluralism and the freedom of political parties". It describes itself as "striving for a democratic solution that includes the recognition of cultural, national and political rights, and develops and enhances their peaceful struggle to be able to govern themselves in a multicultural, democratic society." The PYD
3666-469: The PYD quickly abandoned the coalition with Kurdish nationalists for the aim of creating a polyethnic and progressive society and polity in the Rojava region. In November 2013, the PYD announced an interim government, divided into three non-contiguous autonomous areas or cantons , Afrin , Jazira and Kobani . Leftist media commented that "Kurdish rebels are establishing self-rule in war-torn Syria, resembling
3760-467: The PYD, it characterised it as being the Syrian branch of the PKK. Turkish president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan said that he would not allow the creation of an autonomous area in Syrian Kurdistan . Since this time, the Turkish government has refused to countenance any PYD presence at the various Syrian peace talks. In August 2016, Erdogan said that "extermination of the PYD" is a policy aim of
3854-545: The Social Economy Plan, later renamed the People's Economy Plan (PEP). The PEP's policies are based primarily on the work of Abdullah Öcalan and ultimately seek to move beyond capitalism in favor of democratic confederalism . Private property and entrepreneurship are protected under the principle of "ownership by use", although accountable to the democratic will of locally organized councils. Dr Dara Kurdaxi,
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3948-570: The Syrian Arab Republic militarily, with Russia conducting airstrikes and ground operations in the country since September 2015. Since 2014, the U.S.-led international coalition has been conducting air and ground operations primarily against the Islamic State and occasionally against pro-Assad forces , and has been militarily and logistically supporting factions such as the Revolutionary Commando Army and
4042-581: The Syrian government saw the party as a particular threat due to its "ability to mobilise large crowds", and suspected it of organising numerous demonstrations. Therefore, many PYD activists imprisoned in the aftermath of the uprising were not given the amnesty that Bashar al-Assad granted other Kurdish detainees as a later goodwill gesture. On 2 November 2007, PYD activists organised large demonstrations in Qamishli and Kobanê , drawing hundreds of Kurds to protest Turkish threats to invade Iraqi Kurdistan , and Syria's support of Turkey. Security forces—including
4136-544: The Syrian government. The Turkish government's relationship with the Kurds deteriorated during the Siege of Kobanî , when it was accused of facilitating the advance of the Islamic State, leading to the 2014 Kobanî protests . The Kurdish-Turkish peace process broke down soon after, leading to a resumption of the Kurdish-Turkish conflict , this time with a Syrian dimension. After Turkey changed its view towards
4230-412: The Syrian security apparatus in 2011, most of whom returned to the north. In mid-2012 the People's Council of Western Kurdistan signed an agreement with the Kurdish National Council (KNC), forming a joint Kurdish Supreme Council ( Kurdish Supreme Committee ) and agreeing to cooperate on security for Kurdish areas, forming People's Protection Units (YPG). This followed an "operational decision made by
4324-469: The U.S.-led coalition —of severe human rights violations and massacres . The conflict has caused a major refugee crisis , with millions of people fleeing to neighboring countries such as Turkey, Lebanon and Jordan ; however, a sizable minority has also sought refuge in countries outside of the Middle East, with Germany alone accepting over half a million Syrians since 2011. Over the course of
4418-425: The United States gives no diplomatic support to the AANES, excluding it from peace talks at the behest of its NATO ally Turkey. While US officials liaise with the PYD, they don't accept its requests for representation at these talks. By allying itself with PYD, the United States has created tension with the Turkish government, and has had to go out of its way to appease its NATO ally. During his time as president of
4512-405: The United States, Barack Obama had to make a number of personal phone calls to Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan to appease the outraged Turkish leader. What is more, on the 6 November 2018, U.S Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for European and Eurasian Affairs, Matthew Palmer, announced U.S bounties on three leaders of the PKK, Murat Karayilan, Cemil Bayik, and Duran Kalkan. The value of
4606-789: The Zapatista experience and providing a democratic alternative for the region." The polyethnic Movement for a Democratic Society (TEV-DEM), led by the Democratic Union Party (PYD), is the political coalition governing Rojava. According to Zaher Baher of the Haringey Solidarity Group, the PYD-led TEV-DEM has been "the most successful organ" in Rojava because it has the "determination and power" to change things, it includes many people who "believe in working voluntarily at all levels of service to make
4700-522: The academies they receive education but are not involved in military activities. Syrian civil war Total deaths 580,000 –617,910+ Civilian deaths 219,223–306,887+ Displaced people Foreign intervention in behalf of Syrian rebels U.S.-led intervention against ISIL The Syrian civil war is an ongoing multi-sided conflict in Syria involving various state-sponsored and non-state actors . In March 2011, popular discontent with
4794-555: The attack. While the Turkish state now vehemently opposes the PYD, this wasn't always the case. During the early years of the Syrian civil war, Turkish government ministers met PYD leader Salih Muslim several times. Muslim held talks with Turkish officials in July 2013 in regards to its movement for autonomy within Syria. According to some officials, Turkey's demands included that the PYD not seek an autonomous region through violence, not harm Turkish border security, and be firmly opposed to
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#17327833842824888-487: The balance of the conflict. By late 2018, all rebel strongholds except parts of Idlib region had fallen to the government forces. In 2014, the Islamic State group seized control of large parts of Eastern Syria and Western Iraq , prompting the U.S. -led CJTF coalition to launch an aerial bombing campaign against it, while providing ground support to the Kurdish -majority Syrian Democratic Forces . Culminating in
4982-531: The beginning of the 2011 uprising stated that Assad had failed to substantially improve the state of human rights since taking power. The United States and its allies intended to build the Qatar–Turkey pipeline which would relieve Europe of its dependence on Russian natural gas, especially during winter months where many European homes rely on Russia to survive the winter. On the contrary, Russia and its allies intended to stop this planned pipeline and instead build
5076-511: The border with Turkey." In mid-2012 Reuters cited unconfirmed reports that the towns of Amuda , Derik , Kobani and Afrin were under PYD control. Abdelbasset Seida , head of the opposition Syrian National Council claimed in July 2012 after a meeting with Turkish Foreign Minister Ahmet Davutoğlu that the Syrian Army had handed over control of certain parts of northeastern Syria to the PYD. The PYD's alleged control over certain areas
5170-522: The bulk of YPJ fighters are Kurdish women, Kurdish forces in Syria declared in 2017 that they will establish a battalion and training facility for Arab women to join the battle against the Islamic State group [IS]. YPJ is a volunteer army, and there is no compulsory recruitment. Some impoverished families receive financial compensation for their daughters' service. Women are allowed five days off per month to visit their families, but not all choose to do so, especially if their families discourage their return to
5264-578: The central feature of state propaganda. Authority in Ba'athist Syria is monopolised by three power-centres: Alawite loyalist clans, Ba'ath party and the armed forces ; glued together by unwavering allegiance towards the Assad dynasty . The Syrian Regional Branch remained the dominant political authority in what had been a one-party state until the first multi-party election to the People's Council of Syria
5358-443: The civil society groups, political reformists and democratic activists that emerged during the Damascus spring in the 2000s. Bashar Al-Assad claims that no 'moderate opposition' to his government exists, and that all opposition forces are Islamists focused on destroying his secular leadership ; his view was that terrorist groups operating in Syria are 'linked to the agendas of foreign countries'. The total population in July 2018
5452-652: The civilian population. Upon Hafez al-Assad's death in 2000, his son Bashar al-Assad succeeded him as the President of Syria . Bashar's wife Asma , a Sunni Muslim born and educated in Britain, was initially hailed in the Western press a "rose in the desert". The couple once raised hopes amongst Syrian intellectuals and outside Western observers as wanting to implement economic and political reforms. However, Bashar failed to deliver on promised reforms, instead crushing
5546-412: The conflict erupted into one of the most complicated in the world, with a dizzying array of international and regional powers, opposition groups, proxies, local militias and extremist groups all playing a role. The Syrian population has been brutalized, with nearly a half a million killed, 12 million fleeing their homes to find safety elsewhere, and widespread poverty and hunger. Meanwhile, efforts to broker
5640-414: The country), Druze 3% and Jewish (few remaining in Damascus and Aleppo). Socioeconomic inequality increased significantly after free market policies were initiated by Hafez al-Assad in his later years, and it accelerated after Bashar al-Assad came to power. With an emphasis on the service sector , these policies benefited a minority of the nation's population, mostly people who had connections with
5734-494: The country, and Assad's hold on power seems secure. In 2023, the main military conflict was not between the Syrian government and rebels, but between Turkish forces and factions within Syria. In late 2023, Turkish forces continued to attack Kurdish forces in the region of Rojava. Starting on 5 October 2023, the Turkish Armed Forces launched a series of air and ground strikes targeting the Syrian Democratic Forces in Northeastern Syria . The airstrikes were launched in response to
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#17327833842825828-421: The economic situation. The protests were noted as resembling the 2011 revolution that preceded the civil war. The war has resulted in an estimated 470,000–610,000 violent deaths, making it the second-deadliest conflict of the 21st century, after the Second Congo War . International organizations have accused virtually all sides involved—the Assad government, IS, opposition groups, Iran, Russia, Turkey, and
5922-497: The event/experiment successful". The Rojava system of community government is focused on direct democracy. The system has been described as pursuing "a bottom-up, Athenian-style direct form of democratic governance", contrasting the local communities taking on responsibility versus the strong central governments favoured by many states . In this model, states become less relevant and people govern through councils. Its programme immediately aimed to be "very inclusive" and people from
6016-417: The first British woman to die while fighting as a part of the YPJ. Campbell had left her home in Lewes, East Sussex to go to Rojava and join the YPJ. She was killed in the city of Afrin during a YPJ confrontation with Turkish military forces. Since her enlistment, a number of other British women, such as Rûken Renas, have also signed up to fight with the YPJ. Hanna Bohman is another YPJ fighter hailing from
6110-446: The formation of resistance militias across the country, deteriorating into a full-blown civil war by 2012. The war is fought by several factions. The Syrian Arab Armed Forces , alongside its domestic and foreign allies, represent the Syrian Arab Republic and Assad government. Opposed to it is the Syrian Interim Government , a big-tent alliance of pro-democratic , nationalist opposition groups (whose military forces consist of
6204-424: The founding of the YPJ. Öcalan argued that “the struggle for women's freedom must be waged through the establishment of their own political parties, attaining a popular women's movement, building their own nongovernmental organizations and structures of democratic politics.” Öcalan developed this idea in 1996 when he published his theory of separation, which asserts that "if it is held that revolution cannot be made for
6298-481: The front lines. In contrast to men, who can go home every ten days, the rules for women's visits are more flexible, as YPJ makes its own decisions based on their unique perspectives and priorities. This reflects a distinct approach from Western feminism, as the women in YPJ have experienced a more direct and tangible form of oppression compared to many in the West, where oppression can be subtler, leading some to deny its existence. On March 16, 2018, Anna Campbell became
6392-403: The government of Turkey. On 20 January 2018, Turkey began Operation Olive Branch against the PYD-governed Afrin Canton in the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria . Finland and Sweden’s alleged support for the PYD, is one of the points which caused Turkey to oppose Finland and Sweden’s NATO accession bid . While supporting the SDF militarily since the Siege of Kobanî ,
6486-410: The government, and members of the Sunni merchant class of Damascus and Aleppo. In 2010, Syria's nominal GDP per capita was only $ 2,834, comparable to Sub-Saharan African countries such as Nigeria and far lower than its neighbors such as Lebanon, with an annual growth rate of 3.39%, below most other developing countries. The country also faced particularly high youth unemployment rates. At the start of
6580-421: The mixed-sex YXG was founded, later to be renamed YPG in 2012. The YPJ was founded as a strictly women's organization on 4 April 2013 with the first battalion formed in Jindires and later expanded its activities towards the Kobane and Jazira cantons. All female fighters who were previously part of the YPG mixed units automatically became members of the YPJ. Initially, there was just one YPJ battalion in each of
6674-493: The most child soldier recruits of any faction in the Syrian civil war , with 283 child soldiers followed by Tahrir al-Sham with 245 child soldiers. This comes despite a 2014 agreement made with the human rights group Geneva Call promising an end to recruitment of soldiers under the age of 18. Since the agreement, the YPJ has actually recruited more children into their ranks. Often the YPJ is seen as an opportunity to either escape forced marriage or difficult domestic situations. In
6768-582: The mountains. This left many Yazidis, including children and the elderly, without food, shelter, or resources. Those still in the town were either massacred by ISIL or forced into sexual slavery . Along with the help of US air strikes, the attacking force was able to create a 30 kilometres (19 mi) safe zone for the Yazidi refugees to escape ISIL capture. The refugees were then moved into Northern Syria, with most later departing for safer areas of Iraqi Kurdistan . YPJ continues to fight alongside YPG as part of
6862-518: The multi-ethnic Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF). The YPJ was involved in battles such as the SDF offensive against the major IS strongholds in Tabqa and Raqqa , serving as the main proxy force (along with the YPG) for the United States. During Operation Olive Branch , the Turkish offensive against Afrin Canton , YPJ units were again heavily involved in the fighting. Guerrilla warfare tactics were among
6956-461: The nation and Assad dynasty as inseparable; slogans such as "Assad or we burn the country", "Assad or to hell with the country" and "Hafez Assad, forever" became an integral part of the state and party discourse during the 1980s. Eventually the party organisation itself became a rubber stamp and the power structures became deeply dependent on sectarian affiliation to the Assad family and the central role of armed forces needed to crack down on dissent in
7050-531: The ongoing civil war and it is frequently the target of military action. The human rights situation in Syria has long been the subject of harsh critique from global organizations. The rights of free expression , association and assembly were strictly controlled in Syria even before the uprising. The country was under emergency rule from 1963 until 2011 and public gatherings of more than five people were banned. Security forces had sweeping powers of arrest and detention. Despite hopes for democratic change with
7144-655: The people, but rather by the people, then it must be held that revolution cannot merely be made for women but by women.” The YPJ makes women an integral part of the governmental structure of Rojava as well as giving women an independent military unit which aligns with the theory of separation. As such the YPJ is an example of the manifestation of Kurdish political ideology particularly regarding women's role in nation building. The YPJ (Women's Defense Units) recruits primarily single women for active combat roles. Married women with children are often assigned to non-combat roles in public relations, administration, and recruitment. Although
7238-473: The problems people face where they live". The representatives of the different community groups meet 'in the main group in the villages or towns called the "House of the People"'. As a September 2015 report in The New York Times observed: For a former diplomat like me, I found it confusing: I kept looking for a hierarchy, the singular leader, or signs of a government line, when, in fact, there
7332-438: The role of women in conflict in the region. YPJ militants often enter the militia over hardships endured in the family, like lost relatives caused by attacks or fighting. They play a role in changing the Islamic thinking and societal traditions by taking arms. These women say they are changing their community and society by doing so. The YPJ has attracted international attention as an example of significant achievement for women in
7426-484: The rule of Bashar al-Assad triggered large-scale protests and pro-democracy rallies across Syria, as part of the wider Arab Spring protests in the region. After months of crackdown by the government's security apparatus, various armed rebel groups such as the Free Syrian Army began forming across the country, marking the beginning of the Syrian insurgency . By mid-2012, the crisis had escalated into
7520-473: The same strand of feminist ideology. Having joined the YPJ, women must spend at least a month practicing military tactics and studying the political theories of Öcalan, including Jineology . In any communal decision, regarding the YPJ/YPG or otherwise, it is required that no less than 40% of women participate. The group has been praised by feminists for confronting traditional gender expectations and redefining
7614-694: The security forces tended to reserve their harshest treatments for PYD members. With the outbreak of anti-government demonstrations across Syria in early 2011, the PYD joined the Kurdish Patriotic Movement in May, was a founding member of the National Coordination Body for Democratic Change in July, and of the KCK-aligned People's Council of Western Kurdistan in December. Unlike most other Kurdish Syrian parties, it did not join
7708-434: The society. Critics of the regime have pointed out that deployment of violence is at the crux of Ba'athist Syria and describe it as "a dictatorship with genocidal tendencies". Hafez ruled Syria for 3 decades with an iron first, using methods ranging from censorship to violent measures of state terror such as mass murders , forced deportations and brutal practices such as torture , which were unleashed collectively upon
7802-457: The support of Western powers, the YPJ was forced to hold off ISIL attacks using only " vintage Russian Kalashnikovs bought on the black market, handmade grenades, and tanks they put together out of construction vehicles and pick-up trucks ." It was not until October 2014 that the United States began coordinating air strikes with the YPJ-YPG fighters on the ground. Additionally, the YPG, YPJ and
7896-419: The tactics used against Turkey and their Syrian rebel allies. During the 2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria , Turkish-backed Free Syrian Army fighters trampled and mutilated the body of what appeared to be a YPJ fighter they killed in the countryside near Kobanî. The YPJ is politically aligned to the PYD , which bases its philosophy on the writings of Abdullah Öcalan , the leading ideologue in
7990-470: The three bounties combined is $ 12 million. The announcement of the bounties—a move strongly praised by the Turkish regime—represents a potential conflict in policy, with the U.S fighting alongside YPJ-YPG, while actively looking to capture members of the PKK. Sweden is an influential actor for the PYD, as Amineh Kakabaveh , an independent MP in the Swedish Parliament struck an agreement with
8084-413: The three cantons of Rojava, but battalions were quickly established in every neighborhood, expanding the organization. Between 2014 and November 2016 the YPJ counted between 7,000 and 20,000 members. As of August 2017, the group was reported to have 24,000 members. After the defeat of ISIL the number has decreased and according to an interview by its General Commander Newroz Ahmed given to The Guardian ,
8178-646: The war, a number of peace initiatives have been launched, including the March 2017 Geneva peace talks on Syria led by the United Nations , but fighting has continued. In October 2019, Kurdish leaders of Rojava , a region within Syria, announced they had reached a major deal with the government of Syria under Assad. This deal was enacted in the wake of the U.S. withdrawal from Syria. The Kurdish leaders made this deal in order to obtain Syria's help in stopping hostile Turkish forces who were invading Syria and attacking Kurds. The civil war had largely subsided, settling into
8272-414: The war, discontent against the government was strongest in Syria's poor areas, predominantly among conservative Sunnis. These included cities with high poverty rates, such as Daraa and Homs , and the poorer districts of large cities. This coincided with the most intense drought ever recorded in Syria, which lasted from 2006 to 2011 and resulted in widespread crop failure, an increase in food prices and
8366-633: The western hemisphere, in her case Canada. After nearly dying in a motorcycle incident, Bohman decided to leave her home in Vancouver, Canada to join the YPJ in February 2014. Additionally, Arab and Yazidi women that the YPJ liberated from ISIS have also begun fighting against their former oppressors. The YPJ has set up institutions where these women are trained both militarily, as well as in fields such as feminist history and philosophy. The Yazidi population has since created its own self defense force,
8460-401: Was estimated at 19,454,263 people; ethnic groups—approximately Arab 50%, Alawite 15%, Kurd 10%, Levantine 10%, other 15% (includes Druze , Ismaili , Imami , Assyrian , Turkmen , Armenian ); religions— Muslim 87% (official; includes Sunni 74% and Alawi, Ismaili and Shia 13%), Christian 10% (mainly of Eastern Christian churches —may be smaller as a result of Christians fleeing
8554-408: Was held in 2012. On 31 January 1973, Hafez al-Assad implemented a new constitution, leading to a national crisis. The 1973 Constitution entrusted Arab Socialist Baath party with the distinctive role as the "leader of the state and society", empowering it to mobilise the civilians for party programmes, issue decrees to ascertain their loyalty and supervise all legal trade unions. Ba'athist ideology
8648-542: Was imposed upon children as compulsory part of school curriculum and Syrian Armed Forces were tightly controlled to the Party. The constitution removed Islam from being recognised as the state religion and stripped existing provisions such as the president of Syria being required to be a Muslim . These measures caused widespread furore amongst the public, leading to fierce demonstrations in Hama , Homs and Aleppo organized by
8742-419: Was none; there were just groups. There was none of that stifling obedience to the party, or the obsequious deference to the "big man"—a form of government all too evident just across the borders, in Turkey to the north, and the Kurdish regional government of Iraq to the south. The confident assertiveness of young people was striking. The civil laws of Syria are valid in Rojava, as far as they do not conflict with
8836-515: Was said to have led to disputes and clashes between the PYD, the KNC, and the Syrian National Council. The PYD soon became the dominant force in the Kurdish opposition, with its members running checkpoints on major roads and entrances to Kurdish cities. Under the agreement with the KNC, cities that fall under the control of Syrian Kurdish forces would be ruled jointly by the PYD and the KNC until an election can be held. However,
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