Misplaced Pages

#422577

135-538: The 1848 Revolutions , starting in Sicily before spreading to the rest of Europe, led to the formation of the first Czech political parties in the Austrian Empire . Upon the resignation of State Chancellor Klemens von Metternich , the new Austrian government under Prime Minister Franz Anton von Kolowrat-Liebsteinsky finally ceded to the provisional Bohemian "national assembly" ( Svatováclavský výbor roku 1848 )

270-777: A Pan-Slavic congress in Prague between June 2 and June 12, 1848. It was primarily composed of Austroslavs who wanted greater freedom within the Empire, but their status as peasants and proletarians surrounded by a German middle class doomed their autonomy . They also disliked the prospect of annexation of Bohemia to a German Empire. Insurgents quickly lost in street fighting to King Ferdinand's troops led by General Radetzky , prompting several liberal government ministers to resign in protest. Ferdinand, now restored to power in Vienna , appointed conservatives in their places. These actions were

405-712: A Hungarian army. Jelačić then took military action against the Hungarian government without any official order. The national assembly of the Serbs in Austrian Empire was held between 1 and 3 May 1848 in Sremski Karlovci , during which the Serbs proclaimed autonomous Habsburg crownland of Serbian Vojvodina . The war started, leading to clashes as such in Srbobran , where on July 14, 1848, the first siege of

540-639: A Prussian military envoy has concluded a military convention with the Russian Government, according to which the two governments will reciprocally afford facilities to each other for the suppression of the insurrectionary movements which have lately taken place in Poland and Lithuania. The Prussian railways are also to be placed at the disposal of the Russian military authorities for the transportation of troops through Prussian territory from one part of

675-911: A boycott of participation in the Reichsrat until the Emperor suspended the February Patent . Further passive action was taken in withdrawing from the Bohemian Diet with the Declaration of 1868 that called for a tripartite monarchy. The Young Czechs reluctantly upheld the party's boycott of the Reichsrat but seven young delegates defied the party's policy by returning to the Bohemian Diet in September, 1874. This defiance, led by Alois Pravoslav Trojan and Edvard Grégr , heralded

810-551: A considerable blow to the revolutionaries, and by August most of northern Italy was under Radetzky's control. In Bohemia , the leaders of both the German and Czech nationalist movements were both constitutional monarchists, loyal to the Habsburg Emperor. Only a few days after the Emperor reconquered northern Italy, Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz took provocative measures in Prague to prompt street fighting . Once

945-515: A crushing defeat on 21 February 1864 which presaged the end of the armed struggle. On 29 February, Austria imposed martial law, and on 2 March, the tsarist authorities brought in the abolition of serfdom in the Polish Kingdom. Both events neutralised Traugutt's concept of developing the uprising with a general mobilisation of the population in the Russian partition and reliance on assistance from Galicia. In April 1864, Napoleon III abandoned

1080-429: A culture that criticized Metternich's government from the city's coffeehouses , salons, and even stages, but prior to 1848 their demands had not even extended to constitutionalism or freedom of assembly , let alone republicanism . They had merely advocated relaxed censorship, freedom of religion , economic freedoms, and, above all, a more competent administration. They were opposed to outright popular sovereignty and

1215-567: A desire to be part of an Italian confederacy of states; but for the Venetian government this lasted only five days, after the 1848 armistice between Austria and Piedmont . A new Hungarian government in Pest announced its intentions to break away from the Empire and elect Ferdinand its King, and a Polish National Committee announced the same for the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria . The victory of

1350-491: A forest, pasture and other privileges, known under the name of servitutes , which proved to be a source of incessant irritation between the landowners and peasants over the ensuing decades and impeded economic development. The government took over all church estates and funds and abolished monasteries and convents. With the exception of religious instruction, all teaching in schools was ordered to be in Russian . That also became

1485-542: A forthcoming amendment which would make Czech an internal official language in all Czech areas. Rieger received no government assistance in backing his request which was eventually denied by the Emperor. The government further discredited Rieger and the Old Czech party by bribing Czech newspapers to publish articles supporting the government. As a result, it appeared as if the Old Czech Party, who had been leading

SECTION 10

#1732764756423

1620-661: A gradual enrollment into the uprising of agricultural workers. The secret Polish state was directed by the Rada Narodowa (RN, National Council) to which the civil and military structures on the ground were accountable. It was a "virtual coalition government" formed of the Reds and the Whites and was led by Zygmunt Sierakowski , Antanas Mackevičius and Konstanty Kalinowski . The latter two supported their counterparts in Poland and adhered to common policies. Its diplomatic corps

1755-705: A hopeless situation Görgey, signed a surrender at Világos (now Şiria, Romania ) to the Russians, who handed the army over to the Austrians. Slovak Uprising was an uprising of Slovaks against Magyar (i.e. ethnic Hungarian) domination in the Western parts of Upper Hungary (present-day Western Slovakia ), within the 1848/49 revolution in the Habsburg Monarchy. It lasted from September 1848 to November 1849. During this period Slovak patriots established

1890-475: A nationalist Hungarian leader, Schwarzenberg faced uprisings by Hungarians. Playing on the long-standing Russian tradition of conservativism, he convinced Tsar Nicholas I to send Russian forces in. The Russian army quickly destroyed the rebellion, forcing the Hungarians back under Austrian control. In less than three years, Schwarzenberg had returned stability and control to Austria. However, Schwarzenberg had

2025-693: A nationalist war on March 23 in the Austrian held northern Italian provinces that would consume the attention of the entire peninsula. The German nationalist movement faced the question of whether or not Austria should be included in the united German state, a quandary that divided the Frankfurt National Assembly . The liberal ministers in Vienna were willing to allow elections for the German National Assembly in some of

2160-427: A petition for a change in the system of governance. Ultimately, he agreed to the appointment of Aleksander Wielopolski to head a commission to look into Religious Observance and Public Education and announced the formation of a State Council and self-governance for towns and powiats . The concessions did not prevent further demonstrations. On 8 April, there were 200 killed and 500 wounded by Russian fire. Martial law

2295-485: A single national banner that the struggle could be upheld. His restructuring in preparation for an offensive in spring 1864 was banking on a European-wide war. On 27 December 1863, he enacted a decree of the former provisional government by granting peasants the land they worked. The land was to be provided by compensating the owners through state funds after the successful conclusion of the uprising. Traugutt called upon all Polish classes to rise against Russian oppression for

2430-581: A stroke in 1852, and his successors failed to uphold the control Schwarzenberg had so successfully maintained. January Uprising [REDACTED] Russian Empire [REDACTED] Polish National Government [REDACTED] Garibaldi Legion Foreign volunteers: The January Uprising was an insurrection principally in Russia 's Kingdom of Poland that was aimed at putting an end to Russian occupation of part of Poland and regaining independence. It began on 22 January 1863 and continued until

2565-472: A sympathizer with Poland, was concerned to protect his border on the Rhine and turned his political guns on Prussia with a view to provoking a war with it. He was simultaneously seeking an alliance with Austria. The United Kingdom , on the other hand, sought to prevent a Franco-Prussian war and to block an Austrian alliance with France and so looked to scupper any rapprochement between France and Russia. Austria

2700-616: A taste of freedom of assembly and government only to experience defeat, which was completed with the failed Vienna Uprising and the dissolution of the Kremsier Parliament in 1849. Despite this defeat and its implications, the 1848 experience boosted ethnic nationalism in the Habsburg lands, and activists looked upon the Czech National Revival with pride. As a result of the failed revolution, in 1851

2835-512: A united federal Germany composed of only 'German' lands. This would have led to the relationship between Austria and Hungary (as a 'non-German' area) being reduced to a personal union under the Habsburgs, rather than a united state, an unacceptable arrangement for both the Habsburgs and Austro-German liberals in Austria. In the end, Friedrich Wilhelm refused to accept the constitution written by

SECTION 20

#1732764756423

2970-489: Is at the same time. The Austrian Constituent Assembly was divided into a Czech faction, a German faction, and a Polish faction, and within each faction was the political left-right spectrum. Outside the Assembly, petitions, newspapers, mass demonstrations, and political clubs put pressure on their new governments and often expressed violently many of the debates that were occurring within the assembly itself. The Czechs held

3105-451: The Reds , represented a democratic movement uniting peasants, workers and some clergy. For both streams central to their dilemma was the peasant question . However, estate owners tended to favour the abolition of serfdom in exchange for compensation, but the democratic movement saw the overthrow of the Russian yoke as entirely dependent on an unconditional liberation of the peasantry. Just as

3240-561: The Diet (parliament) of Lower Austria at Niederösterreichisches Landeshaus (Estates House of Lower Austria) in March demanded the resignation of Prince Metternich , the conservative State Chancellor and Foreign Minister. With no forces rallying to Metternich's defense, nor word from Ferdinand I of Austria to the contrary, he resigned on 13 March. Metternich fled to London, and Ferdinand appointed new, nominally liberal, ministers. By November,

3375-642: The Frankfurt Parliament , demanded a federation of the Austrian states and the withdrawal from the German Confederation . The succeeding "Whitsun Riot" from 12 to 17 June 1848 aimed at the independence of the " Czech lands " of Bohemia, Moravia and Austrian Silesia, similar to the Hungarian Revolution ; it was crushed by Austrian troops under Field Marshal Prince Alfred I of Windisch-Grätz . The Czech people were given

3510-632: The Greek Catholic population, outraged and persecuted for their religious observance, " Kryaki " (those baptised into the Greek Orthodox Church), and others like the commander and priest Stanisław Brzóska , clung the longest to the revolutionary banner until the spring of 1865. After the collapse of the uprising, harsh reprisals followed. According to official Russian information, 396 persons were executed and 18,672 were exiled to Siberia. Large numbers of men and women were sent to

3645-403: The Habsburg lands, but it was undetermined which Habsburg territories would participate. Hungary and Galicia were clearly not German; German nationalists (who dominated the Bohemian Diet ) felt the old crown lands rightfully belonged to a united German state, despite the fact that the majority of the people of Bohemia and Moravia spoke Czech — a Slavic language . Czech nationalists viewed

3780-465: The October Crisis in Vienna, when insurgents attacked a garrison on its way to Hungary to support Croatian forces under Jelačić. After Vienna was recaptured by imperial forces, General Windischgrätz and 70,000 troops were sent to Hungary to crush the Hungarian revolution and as they advanced the Hungarian government evacuated Pest. However the Austrian army had to retreat after heavy defeats in

3915-485: The Polish National Government for being reactionary with its policy to incentivise Polish peasants to fight in the uprising. The government justified its inaction on the back of hopes of foreign military intervention promised by Napoleon III that never materialised. It was only after Polish General Romuald Traugutt had taken matters into his own hands on 17 October 1863 to unite all classes under

4050-723: The Slovak National Council as their political representation and military units known as the Slovak Volunteer Corps. The political, social and national requirements of the Slovak movement were declared in the document entitled "Demands of the Slovak Nation" from April 1848. The Serb Revolution of 1848 was an uprising of Serbs living in Délvidék against Magyar domination. The majority of

4185-697: The Warsaw Citadel . That marked the symbolic closure of the Uprising. Only Aleksander Waszkowski, the head of the Warsaw insurgency eluded the police till December 1864, but he too joined the list of "the lost" in February 1865. The war consisting of 650 battles and skirmishes with 25,000 Polish and other insurgents killed, had lasted 18 months. The insurgency persisted in Samogitia and Podlasie , where

Young Czech Party - Misplaced Pages Continue

4320-417: The universal franchise . More to the left was a radicalized, impoverished intelligentsia . Educational opportunities in 1840s Austria had far outstripped employment opportunities for the educated. The industrial revolution , which spread to Austria in the 1840s, has been cited as a key factor leading up to the 1848 revolution, and argued to be a far greater contributor than intellectual developments in

4455-455: The " Nerchinsk silver-mining district... after the unsuccessful insurrection of 1863". These measures of cultural eradication proved to be only partially effective. In 1905, 41 years after Russia crushed the uprising, the next generation of Poles rose once again in the Łódź insurrection , which too failed. The January Uprising was one in a centuries-long series of Polish uprisings . In its aftermath, two new movements began to evolve that set

4590-471: The 1890s. Problems with the Young Czech reign: the party's inability to win legislation adequate to satisfy rising Czech expectations and needs; government suppression of the labor and radical youth movements, with resultant curtailment of civil liberties; bitter disputes among party leaders and factions; opportunistic tactics that discouraged progressives and induced them to quit the party. From 1901 on,

4725-721: The 19th century. The industrial revolution had hurt small businesses and brought poor working conditions, which made ordinary citizens - namely the middle and lower classes - more receptive to revolutionary thought. In 1845, potato blight arrived in Belgium from North America, thus starting the Hungry Forties . As the disease quickly spread throughout Europe, the major calorie source for the poorer population failed and food prices soared. In 1846 there had been an uprising of Polish nobility in Austrian Galicia , which

4860-522: The Assembly. Schwarzenberg dissolved the Hungarian Parliament in 1849, imposing his own constitution that conceded nothing to the liberal movement. Appointing Alexander Bach head of internal affairs, he oversaw the creation of the Bach system, which rooted out political dissent and contained liberals within Austria and quickly returned the status quo. After the deportation of Lajos Kossuth ,

4995-436: The Austrian Empire saw several short-lived liberal governments under five successive minister-presidents of Austria : Count Kolowrat (17 March–4 April), Count Ficquelmont (4 April–3 May), Baron Pillersdorf (3 May–8 July), Baron Doblhoff-Dier (8 July–18 July) and Baron Wessenberg (19 July–20 November). The established order collapsed rapidly because of the weakness of the Austrian armies. Field Marshal Joseph Radetzky

5130-520: The Austrian Empire. Lombardy-Venetia was quickly brought back under Austrian rule in the mainland, even because popular support for the revolution vanished: revolutionary ideals were often limited to part of middle and upper classes, which failed both to gain "hearts and minds" of lower classes and to convince the population about Italian nationalism . Most part of lower classes indeed were quite indifferent, and actually most part of Lombard and Venetian troops remained loyal. The only widespread support to

5265-571: The Bohemian nobility on principle due to the nobility's opposition of all democratic and anticlerical measures supported by the Party. Furthermore, the Party did not feel that the landowning nobility had the interests of ordinary Czech citizens in mind. The Young Czechs sought to advance the political and economic welfare of the peasants. Moving speeches and publications were made to remind the Czechs of

5400-531: The Czech lands. Imperial recognition of an autonomous Bohemian kingdom did not come to pass despite continued efforts by the National Party to receive formal recognition of their autonomy. Nationalities assigned to second class status by the constitutional arrangements of the monarchy in the 1860s could do no more than work for reform within the oppressive and bureaucratic framework of the dual monarchy. Action

5535-591: The Czech nation, was supporting the Habsburg government in its endeavors to subjugate the people and control the press. This fueled the Young Czechs to garner more support as a great majority of the nation transferred its allegiance to their party. The Young Czechs won a sweeping victory in the Parliamentary elections of 1891. The Old Czech Party's hegemony in Czech politics was officially eliminated and

Young Czech Party - Misplaced Pages Continue

5670-490: The Czechs remained loyal to the monarchy due to fear of further disobedience the monarchy assented to Hungarian demands by creating the December Constitution of 1867 which established the dual monarchy . The Ausgleich, Compromise, gave a unified Hungary a large measure of internal autonomy and an equal status with Austria, but kept oversight and ultimate power in the monarch's hands. Rieger reacted by advocating

5805-535: The Diet. A few months later, the founding congress of the Young Czech Party proclaimed its independence and issued a wide-ranging agenda that differed substantially from its predecessor. After eight years (1871–79) of boycotting the Reichsrat in protest against the collapse of a negotiated agreement with Emperor Franz Joseph , the Young Czech chose to compromise. Their reentry into legislative politics marked

5940-529: The Habsburg areas Revolutionaries [REDACTED]   Austrian Empire The Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire were a set of revolutions that took place in the Austrian Empire from March 1848 to November 1849. Much of the revolutionary activity had a nationalist character: the Empire, ruled from Vienna , included ethnic Germans , Hungarians , Poles , Bohemians ( Czechs ), Ruthenians ( Ukrainians ), Slovenes , Slovaks , Romanians , Croats , Italians , and Serbs ; all of whom attempted in

6075-474: The Hungarian government ministers attempted to gain Habsburg support against Jelačić by offering to send troops to northern Italy. Additionally, they attempted to come to terms with Jelačić himself, but he insisted on the recentralization of Habsburg authority as a pre-condition to any talks. By the end of August, the imperial government in Vienna officially ordered the Hungarian government in Pest to end plans for

6210-564: The Hungarian nobility. These demands were not easy for the imperial court to accept, however, its weak position provided little choice. One of the first tasks of the Diet was abolishing serfdom, which was announced on March 18, 1848. The Hungarian government set limits on the political activity of both the Croatian and Romanian national movements. Croats and Romanians had their own desires for self-rule and saw no benefit in replacing one central government for another. Armed clashes between

6345-538: The Hungarians and the Croats , Romanians , Serbs , along one border and Slovaks on the other ensued. In some cases, this was a continuation and an escalation of previous tensions, such as the 1845 July victims in Croatia. The Habsburg Kingdom of Croatia and the Kingdom of Slavonia severed relations with the new Hungarian government in Pest and devoted itself to the imperial cause. Conservative Josip Jelačić , who

6480-562: The Old Czechs, the Young Czechs sought to rid themselves of the Catholic Church ’s influence and also supported Polish independence from authoritarian Russia. They advocated active and liberal politics and thus, favored a multiparty system as opposed to the one National Party under Palacký and Rieger. The Young Czechs had wide appeal as they held the professional, petit bourgeoisie, and peasant support. In 1888, Rieger, fearful of

6615-562: The Party to positive politics and found opposition to be unproductive. The Party thrived with forming coalitions and negotiations with parties such as the Social Democrats and the Progressives. Thus, the Young Czech Party continued to have a very important role in Czech politics. The Czech National Council, which the Party helped establish in 1900, served as the coordinating body for all Czech parties. The Young Czechs remained

6750-468: The Piedmontese return to war. Renewed military conflicts cost the Empire the little that remained of its finances. Another challenge to Habsburg authority came from Germany and the question of either "big Germany" (united Germany led by Austria) or "little Germany" (united Germany led by Prussia). The Frankfurt National Assembly proposed a constitution with Friedrich Wilhelm of Prussia as monarch of

6885-615: The Polish cause. Władysław Czartoryski wrote to Traugutt: "We are alone, and alone we shall remain". Arrests eliminated key positions in the secret Polish state, and those who felt threatened sought refuge abroad. Traugutt was taken on the night of 10 April. After he and the last four members of the National Council, Antoni Jezioranski, Rafał Krajewski, Józef Toczyski and Roman Żuliński , had been apprehended by Russian troops, they were imprisoned and executed by hanging on 5 August at

SECTION 50

#1732764756423

7020-560: The Serbs there sided with the Austrians. However, there were also some exceptions, e.g. General János Damjanich of the Hungarian Revolutionary Army . Revolutionary movements of 1849 faced an additional challenge: to work together to defeat a common enemy. Previously, national identity allowed Habsburg forces to conquer revolutionary governments by playing them off one another. New democratic initiatives in Italy in

7155-584: The Spring Campaign of the Hungarian Army from March to May 1849. Instead of pursuing the Austrian army, the Hungarians stopped to retake the Fort of Buda and prepared defenses. In June 1849 Russian and Austrian troops entered Hungary heavily outnumbering the Hungarian army. Kossuth abdicated on August 11, 1849, in favour of Artúr Görgey , who he thought was the only general who was capable of saving

7290-405: The Young Czech Party in the negotiations. The Young Czechs declared the agreement a thinly disguised attempt to increase the political privileges of the German minority. Rieger was declared a traitor to the Czech cause. The Agreement of 1890 even failed to acquire the unanimous consent of the Old Czech party. The Czech club voted to endorse the agreement only on the provision of Rieger's promise of

7425-410: The Young Czech's radicalism and potential power, sought assistance from the Emperor but this plea was rejected. In 1889, in the Bohemian Diet elections, the Young Czechs made impressive strides in the rural curia by obtaining 37 seats. In 1890, the Taafe government and the Old Czech party sought a German-Czech compromise. This compromise was never put into effect due to Rieger's blunder in not including

7560-426: The advice of Władysław Czartoryski, had taken to arms. Moreover, to Indicate their solidarity, all Commonwealth citizens holding office under the Russian government, including the Archbishop of Warsaw , Zymunt Feliński , resigned their positions and signed their allegiance to the newly constituted Government, which was composed of the five most prominent representatives of the Whites . The Reds , meanwhile, criticised

7695-411: The aims of the Bohemian feudal nobles during the accepted boycott of the Diet in Prague and the imperial Parliament in Vienna . Protests became widespread as the national discontent with the Old Czechs grew. This gave the Young Czechs a strong base of support to expand their political control. In September 1874, seven newly elected Young Czech deputies defied the Old Czech boycott and took their seats in

7830-413: The arrival of Hungarian troops as the only force able to stand up against the court and ministry. The radicals took control of the city for only a short period of time. Windisch-Grätz led soldiers from Prussia to quickly defeat the insurgents. Windisch-Grätz restored imperial authority to the city. The reconquering of Vienna was seen as a defeat over German nationalism. At this point, Ferdinand I named

7965-462: The autocratic regime then seemed to be brewing. It also counted on the active support of Napoleon III , particularly after Prussia , expecting the inevitable armed conflict with France, had made overtures to Russia sealed in the Alvensleben Convention and offered assistance in suppressing the Polish uprising. Arrangements had already been completed on 14 February and the British Ambassador to Berlin , Sir Alexander Malet , informed his government that

8100-570: The barricades went up, he led Habsburg troops to crush the insurgents. After having taken back the city, he imposed martial law, ordered the Prague National Committee dissolved, and sent delegates to the "Pan-Slavic" Congress home. These events were applauded by German nationalists, who failed to understand that the Habsburg military would crush their own national movement as well. Attention then turned to Hungary. War in Hungary again threatened imperial rule and prompted Emperor Ferdinand and his court to once more flee Vienna. Viennese radicals welcomed

8235-425: The borders from Galicia , in the Austrian Partition , and from the Prussian Partition . Volunteers also arrived from Italy , Hungary , France and Russia itself. The greatest setback was that in spite of the liberation manifesto from the KCN, without prior ideological agitation, the peasantry could not be mobilized to participate in the struggle except in those regions that were dominated by Polish units, which saw

SECTION 60

#1732764756423

8370-411: The conditions: an amnesty for the insurgents, the creation of a national representative structure, the development of autonomous concessions across the Kingdom, a recall of a conference of Congress of Vienna (1815) signatories and a ceasefire for its duration. That fell well below the expectations of the leadership of the uprising. While concerned by the threat of war, Alexander II felt secure enough with

8505-420: The course of the revolution to either achieve autonomy , independence , or even hegemony over other nationalities. The nationalist picture was further complicated by the simultaneous events in the German states , which moved toward greater German national unity. Besides these nationalists , liberal , and even socialist currents resisted the Empire's longstanding conservatism . The events of 1848 were

8640-406: The creation of a new Polish state. The response was moderate since the policy came too late. The Russian government had already begun working among peasants to grant them generous parcels of land for the asking. The peasants who had been bought off did not engage with Polish revolutionaries to any extent or provide them with support. Fighting continued intermittently during the winter of 1863–1864 on

8775-436: The creation of national structures that were intended to become a new secret Polish state. The CNC had not planned an uprising before the spring of 1863 at the earliest. However, Wielopolski's move to start conscription to the Russian Army in mid-January forced its hand to call the uprising prematurely on the night of 22–23 January 1863. The uprising broke out at a moment when general peace prevailed in Europe, and although there

8910-532: The decision to form an independent Young Czech party in December of the same year. The Národní Listy (National Paper) saluted the “seven Maccabees who unsheathed the sword of political activism to defend their homeland” while the loyal Old Czech newspapers decried “the seven Krauts who carried the national cross to Golgotha." The Young Czech Party (National Liberal Party) was formed in Prague with Karel Sladkovský serving as its first chairman. Sladkovský's associate, Vincenc Vávra also became an important figure in

9045-405: The decreed March Constitution was abolished and a non-constitutional system was put in place under Interior Minister Baron Alexander von Bach , deemed " Bachist neo-absolutism ". Yet by 1860, due to the lost Second Italian War of Independence , Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria was forced to revoke absolutist policies with the October Diploma in an attempt to pacify internal dissent, including

9180-419: The democrats organized the first religious and patriotic demonstrations in 1860, covert resistance groups began to form among educated youth. Blood was first to shed in Warsaw in February 1861, when the Russian Army attacked a demonstration in Castle Square on the anniversary of the Battle of Grochów . There were five fatalities. Fearing the spread of spontaneous unrest, Alexander II reluctantly agreed to accept

9315-419: The dominant party in Bohemian politics. They were criticized for abstaining from the election for the Bohemian Diet in protest against the centralist theories of the February Patent. Tensions rose when the Young Czechs supported the rebel cause during the Polish Revolution of 1863 and the Old Czechs condemned it. Julius and Eduard Grégr attacked the Old Czechs for sacrificing liberal nationalist goals in favor of

9450-446: The effects of the Old Czechs' policy of passive resistance and cooperation with the nobility. The war in 1866 between the monarchy and Prussia displayed how the Old Czechs' policy of loyalty and cooperation backfired. At war the monarchy sought the financial aid of its lands and Hungary , also seeking imperial recognition of its autonomy, refused to provide assistance as long as their demands for self-government were not fulfilled. While

9585-459: The empire nearly bankrupt and in continual need of soldiers. Draft commissions led to brawls between soldiers and civilians. All of this further agitated the peasantry, who resented their remaining feudal obligations. Despite lack of freedom of the press and association, there was a flourishing liberal German culture among students and those educated in German universities. They published pamphlets and newspapers discussing education and language;

9720-473: The end of German Reichsrat majority. The Young Czechs held 85 to 87 of the 425 seats in the Reichsrat by 1900. The supporters of the Young Czechs came from petty tradespeople, lawyers, progressive intellectuals, teachers and university students, some leaders in the Sokol gymnastic organization and middling farmers hurt by Hungarian and North American competition. Their followers believed in the liberal approach to

9855-553: The evolution of the insurgency would ultimately push western powers to adopt an armed intervention, which was the flavour of Polish diplomatic talks with those powers. The Polish line was that the establishment of continued peace in Europe was conditional on the return of an independent Polish state. With the threat of war averted, St. Petersburg left the door open for negotiations but was adamant in its rejection of any western rights to armed conflict. In June 1863, western powers iterated

9990-427: The ex-serfs in the empire who actually gained land after 1861 were confined to the eight western provinces. Along with Romania , Polish landless or domestic serfs were the only people who were eligible for land grants after serfdom had been abolished. All of that was to punish the szlachta for its role in the uprisings of 1830 and 1863. In addition to the land granted to the peasants, the Russian government gave them

10125-529: The extent to which the party should cooperate with the conservative landowners, how best to define and advance Bohemian state rights, whether or not to passively resist centralization of the monarchy, and their difference of opinion with the January Uprising in Russian Poland . The conflict within the National Party that led most directly to the creation of an independent Young Czech Party was

10260-498: The final break between Vienna and Pest occurred when Field Marshal Count Franz Philipp von Lamberg was given control of all armies in Hungary (including Jelačić's). In response to Lamberg being attacked on arrival in Hungary a few days later, the imperial court ordered the Hungarian parliament and government dissolved. Jelačić was appointed to take Lamberg's place. War between Austria and Hungary had officially begun. The war led to

10395-418: The former Polish-Lithuanian commonwealth to another. That step by Otto von Bismarck led to protests from several governments and incensed the several constituent nations of the former Commonwealth. The result was the transformation of a relatively insignificant uprising into another "national war" against Russia. Encouraged by promises made by Napoleon III, all provinces of the erstwhile Commonwealth, acting on

10530-549: The general proportion of participants. Despite outreach to Rus (Ruthenian) peasants by the Polish gentry (szlachta), comparatively few partook in the January Uprising. In some cases they assisted the Russian forces in catching rebels. This has been cited as one of the primary reasons for the failure of the uprising. During the first 24 hours of the uprising, armouries across the country were looted, and many Russian officials were executed on sight. On 2 February 1863,

10665-541: The growth of other Czech mass parties. The Christian Socialism Party and the Social Democracy Party are examples of two steadily growing and established mass parties. Czech political parties after the year 1900 were organized both as national parties and as parties with specific constituents or interests. This serves to display the greater democratization and diversification of Czech political parties. The Young Czechs, despite decreasing popularity, committed

10800-399: The heirs of Karel Havlíček Borovský , a journalist and martyr who advocated Slavic reciprocity and criticized the authoritarian Russian government. This, in part, helped establish a “founding father” much like Palacký was to the Old Czechs. Establishing this historic base also provided historical support to the Party's mission and ideology. The Young Czechs opposed the Old Czech alliance with

10935-586: The implementation of an Imperial Council parliament. Immediately, a Czech National Party ( Národní strana , "Old Czech" party) was formed under the guidance of František Palacký and his son-in-law, František Ladislav Rieger . The National Party sought to achieve a large measure of political and cultural autonomy for the Czech people within a federated Austria. Yet, with the February Patent of 1861 by Interior Minister Anton von Schmerling , an abrupt reversion to centralized ideas spread once again throughout

11070-539: The interior of Russia and to the Caucasus , Urals and other remote areas. Altogether over 60,000 persons were imprisoned and subsequently exiled from Poland and consigned to distant regions of Russia. The abolition of serfdom in early 1864 was deliberately enacted in a move designed specifically to ruin the szlachta . The Russian government confiscated 1,660 estates in Poland and 1,794 in Lithuania. A 10% income tax

11205-485: The issue of passive resistance. The Old Czech faction, under the leadership of Palacký and Rieger, sought to act conservatively against the monarchy through working with the great landowners to achieve greater political influence and by refusing to attend the imperial council ( Reichsrat ) meetings. The Young Czechs, on the other hand, felt that Czech national interests would be best served by participating actively in all forms of government. Two events in particular display

11340-601: The landed gentry hard and, as a result, the whole economy, with a sudden decision in 1864 for finally abolishing serfdom in Poland . The ensuing breakup of estates and destitution of many peasants convinced educated Poles to turn instead to the idea of " organic work ", economic and cultural self-improvement. Despite the Russian Empire's loss of the Crimean War and weakened economic and political state, Alexander II warned in 1856 against further concessions with

11475-646: The language as far more significant, calling for a boycott of the Frankfurt Parliament elections in Bohemia, Moravia, and neighboring Austrian Silesia (also partly Czech-speaking). Tensions in Prague between German and Czech nationalists grew quickly between April and May. After the abolition of serfdom on April 17, Supreme Ruthenian Council was established in Galicia to promote the unification of ethnic Ukrainian lands of Eastern Galicia, Transcarpathia and Bukovina in one province. Ukrainian language department

11610-429: The last insurgents were captured by the Russian forces in 1864. It was the longest-lasting insurgency in partitioned Poland. The conflict engaged all levels of society and arguably had profound repercussions on contemporary international relations and ultimately transformed Polish society. A confluence of factors rendered the uprising inevitable in early 1863. The Polish nobility and urban bourgeois circles longed for

11745-572: The late spring and the early summer of 1863, there were 35,000 Poles under arms facing a Russian Army of 145,000 in the Polish Kingdom. On 1 February 1863, the uprising erupted in the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In April and May, it had spread to Dinaburg , Latvia and Witebsk , Belarus , to the Kiev Governorate , northern Ukraine, and to the Wolynian Voivodship . Volunteers, weapons and supplies began to flow in over

11880-474: The leader of the lower gentry in the Diet. In 1848, news of the outbreak of revolution in Paris arrived as a new national cabinet took power under Kossuth, and the Diet approved a sweeping reform package, referred to as the " April laws " (also "March laws"), that changed almost every aspect of Hungary's economic, social, and political life: (The April laws based on the 12 points: In April 1848, Hungary became

12015-458: The most bitter. Despite this, the Hungarian government hired a new commander and attempted to unite with Romanian democrat Avram Iancu , who was known as Crăişorul Munţilor ("The Prince of the Mountains"). However, division and mistrust were too severe. Three days after the start of hostilities in Italy, Charles Albert of Sardinia abdicated the throne of Piedmont-Savoy, essentially ending

12150-623: The nation. However, in May 1849, Czar Nicholas I pledged to redouble his efforts against the Hungarian Government. He and Emperor Franz Joseph started to regather and rearm an army to be commanded by Anton Vogl, the Austrian lieutenant-field-marshal. The Czar was also preparing to send 30,000 Russian soldiers back over the Eastern Carpathian Mountains from Poland. On August 13, after several bitter defeats in

12285-478: The nationalist program prescribed by the Young Czechs rather than the more conservative approach of the Old Czechs . In 1891, the end of the Old Czech predominance in Czech politics helped to disrupt the conservative “iron ring” parliamentary coalition with whose help Count Taaffe had governed since 1879, and marks the beginning of the modern era of Czech political parties. The Young Czechs began to dissolve in

12420-495: The nations of Western Europe that was received everywhere with supportive sentiments from Norway to Portugal . The Confederate States of America sympathized with the Polish-Lithuanian rebels and viewed their struggles analogous. Italian, French and Hungarian officers answered the call. Pope Pius IX was against the 1863 uprising of which he informed Wsyslaw Czartoryski. The historian Jerzy Zdrada records that by

12555-629: The need for basic liberal reforms was assumed. These middle class liberals largely understood and accepted that forced labor is not efficient, and that the Empire should adopt a wage labor system. The question was how to institute such reforms. Notable liberal clubs of the time in Vienna included the Legal-Political Reading Club (established 1842) and Concordia Society (1840). They, like the Lower Austrian Manufacturers' Association (1840) were part of

12690-410: The new political party. Sladkovský and Vávra were both 1848 revolutionaries who served to represent the transformation of the revolutionary democratic nationalism into the cautious national and liberal Young Czech party. The Young Czechs differed mostly from the Old Czechs in their active politics policies as opposed to the latter's passive resistance policies. After 1874, the Young Czechs claimed to be

12825-408: The noble Prince Felix of Schwarzenberg head of government. Schwarzenberg, a consummate statesman, persuaded the feeble-minded Ferdinand to abdicate the throne to his 18-year-old nephew, Franz Joseph . Parliamentarians continued to debate, but had no authority on state policy. Both the Czech and Italian revolutions were defeated by the Habsburgs. Prague was the first victory of counter-revolution in

12960-447: The number as 80,000 and noted it was the single largest deportation in Russian history. Whole villages and towns were burned down. All economic and social activities were suspended, and the szlachta was ruined through the confiscation of property and exorbitant taxes. Such was the brutality of Russian troops that their actions were condemned throughout Europe. Count Fyodor Berg , the newly appointed governor, Namiestnik of Poland , and

13095-625: The official language of the country, to be used exclusively in all offices of central and local government. All traces of former Polish autonomy were removed, and the Kingdom was divided into ten provinces, each with an appointed Russian military governor under the control of the Governor-General in Warsaw. All former Polish government functionaries were deprived of their positions and replaced by Russian officials. According to George Kennan , "thousands of Polish insurgents" were transported to

13230-413: The ones who supported the broadest franchise, lost under the system they advocated because they were not the locally influential and affluent men. The mixed results led to confrontations similar to the "June Days" uprising in Paris. Additionally, these constituent assemblies were charged with the impossible task of managing both the needs of the people of the state and determining what that state physically

13365-529: The party faced stern competition at the polls from newly founded parties that exploited weaknesses in the Young Czech social and economic programs and organizational structure. The Russian Revolution of 1905 stimulated strikes and other mass movements in the Czech Lands. In the parliamentary election of 1907 Young Czechs lost heavily to the Social Democrats and Agrarians . In February 1918,

13500-639: The party formally merged with a new coalition, the Czech State Right Democratic Party, which later, under the Republic, became the National Democratic Party headed by Karel Kramář . The Young Czech Party ushered in the democratization of political parties and thus, greater representation in politics. By 1901, the Young Czech Party had lost its predominance in Czech politics. Its decline was accompanied by

13635-711: The party of movement was looked at as an opportunity for lower classes to renew old conflicts with greater anger and energy. Several tax boycotts and attempted murders of tax collectors occurred in Vienna . Assaults against soldiers were common, including against Radetzky's troops retreating from Milan . The archbishop of Vienna was forced to flee, and in Graz, the convent of the Jesuits was destroyed. The demands of nationalism and its contradictions became apparent as new national governments began declaring power and unity. Charles Albert of Sardinia , King of Piedmont-Savoy, initiated

13770-416: The peasant's contribution to the preservation of their maternal language. This coincided with the party's nationalist outlook. The Young Czechs wished to realize Czech autonomy on the basis of historical and natural rights of the people. The Party also wished to institute universal manhood suffrage and civil liberties as part of their state rights program. More avidly anticlerical and anti-authoritarian than

13905-459: The peasants, whether on the basis of rent or service, should become their unconditional property, and compensation for it would be given to the landlords out of State general funds. The provisional government did its best to send supplies to the unarmed and scattered volunteers, who, in February, had fought in eighty bloody skirmishes with the Russians. Meanwhile, the CNC issued an appeal for assistance to

14040-599: The political agenda for the next century. One, led by the descendant of Lithuanians, Józef Piłsudski emerged as the Polish Socialist Party . The other, led by Roman Dmowski , became the National Democracy movement; sometimes referred to as Endecja , its roots lay in Catholic conservatism that sought national sovereignty, along with the reversal of forced Russification and Germanisation by

14175-642: The product of mounting social and political tensions after the Congress of Vienna of 1815. During the "pre-March" period, the already conservative Austrian Empire moved further away from ideas of the Age of Enlightenment , restricted freedom of the press, limited many university activities, and banned fraternities. Conflicts between debtors and creditors in agricultural production as well as over land use rights in parts of Hungary led to conflicts that occasionally erupted into violence. Conflict over organized religion

14310-414: The revolution was in the cities of Milan and Venice , with the Republic of San Marco lasting under siege until 28th of August, 1849 . The Hungarian Diet was reconvened in 1825 to handle financial needs. A liberal party emerged in the Diet. The party focused on providing for the peasantry in mostly symbolic ways because of their inability to understand the needs of the laborers. Lajos Kossuth emerged as

14445-700: The right to hold elections for a Landtag parliament in the Lands of the Bohemian Crown . Though initially backed by the Austrian governor Count Leopold von Thun und Hohenstein , the attempt failed due to disagreement with Moravian and Austrian Silesian representatives as well as the resistance of the German -speaking minority. In June 1848 the Prague Slavic Congress , led by the historian František Palacký , who had rejected his mandate to

14580-610: The semi-autonomous status they had enjoyed in Congress Poland before the previous insurgency , a generation earlier in 1830, and youth encouraged by the success of the Italian independence movement urgently desired the same outcome. Russia had been weakened by its Crimean adventure and had introduced a more liberal attitude in its internal politics which encouraged Poland's underground National Government to plan an organised strike against their Russian occupiers no earlier than

14715-554: The southern edge of the Kingdom, near the Galician border, from where assistance was still forthcoming. In late December in the Lublin Voivodeship , General Michał Heydenreich 's unit was overwhelmed. The most determined resistance continued in the Świętokrzyskie Mountains , where General Józef Hauke-Bosak distinguished himself by taking several cities from the vastly superior Russian forces. However, he too succumbed to

14850-418: The spring of 1848 led to a renewed conflict with Austrian forces in the provinces of Lombardy and Venetia. At the very first anniversary of the first barricades in Vienna, German and Czech democrats in Bohemia agreed to put mutual hostilities aside and work together on revolutionary planning. Hungarians faced the greatest challenge of overcoming the divisions of the previous year, as the fighting there had been

14985-483: The spring of 1863. They had not reckoned with Aleksander Wielopolski , the pro-Russian archconservative head of the civil administration in the Russian partition. In an attempt to derail the Polish national movement, he brought forward to January the conscription of young Polish activists into the Imperial Russian Army for 20-year service. That decision is what triggered the January Uprising of 1863,

15120-628: The strongest influence in the Council up to 1914. The Czech political parties that emerged at the turn of the century were essentially those that formed the political, social, and economic base of the First Czechoslovak Republic, Czechoslovakia . The Young Czech Party (National Liberal Party), with its democratic and liberal leadership, successfully helped establish a separate and independent Czech state through leading and democratizing its politics. Revolutions of 1848 in

15255-485: The successor to Muravyov, employed harsh measures against the population and intensified systematic Russification in an effort to eradicate Polish traditions and culture. Insurgents of landed background constituted 60% of the uprising's participants (in Lithuania and Belarus around 50%, in Ukraine some 75%). Records indicate that 95% of those punished for participation in the uprising were Catholic, which corresponded to

15390-809: The support of his people to reject the proposals. Although France and Britain were insulted, they did not proceed with further interventions, which enabled Russia to extend and finally to break off negotiations in September 1863. Apart from the efforts of Sweden , diplomatic intervention by foreign powers on behalf of Poland was on the balance unhelpful in drawing attention away from the aim of Polish national unity towards its social divisions. It alienated Austria, which had maintained friendly neutrality towards Poland and not interfered with Polish activities in Galicia. It prejudiced public opinion among radical groups in Russia that until then had been friendly because they regarded

15525-409: The third country of Continental Europe (after France , in 1791, and Belgium , in 1831) to enact a law implementing democratic parliamentary elections. The new suffrage law (Act V of 1848) transformed the old feudal parliament ( Estates General ) into a democratic representative parliament. This law offered the widest right to vote in Europe at the time. The April laws utterly erased all privileges of

15660-555: The town by Hungarian forces began under Baron Fülöp Berchtold. The army was forced to retreat due to a strong Serbian defense. With war raging on three fronts (against Romanians and Serbs in Banat and Bačka, and Romanians in Transylvania ), Hungarian radicals in Pest saw this as an opportunity. Parliament made concessions to the radicals in September rather than let the events erupt into violent confrontations. Shortly thereafter,

15795-602: The uprising an internal matter, and European stability was generally predicated on the fate of Poland's aspiration. The uncovering of the existence of the Alvensleben Convention , signed on 8 February 1863 by Prussia and Russia in St. Petersburg, to suppress the Poles jointly, internationalized the uprising. It enabled Western powers to take the diplomatic initiative for their own ends. Napoleon III of France, already

15930-556: The uprising as a social, rather than a national, insurgency. It also stirred the Russian government to ever more brutal suppression of hostilities and repression against its Polish participants, who had grown in strength. In addition to the thousands who fell in battle, 128 men were hanged under the personal supervision of Mikhail Muravyov 'Muravyov the Hangman', and 9,423 men and women were exiled to Siberia, 2,500 men according to Russia's own estimates. The historian Norman Davies gives

16065-615: The uprising gathered secretly in St. Petersburg , Warsaw , Vilna, Paris and London . Two bodies emerged from those consultations. By October 1861, the urban "Movement Committee" (Komitet Ruchu Miejski) had been formed, followed in June 1862, by the Central National Committee ( CNC ). Its leadership included Stefan Bobrowski , Jarosław Dąbrowski , Zygmunt Padlewski , Agaton Giller and Bronisław Szwarce . The body directed

16200-530: The very outcome that Wielopolski had wanted to avoid. The rebellion by young Polish conscripts was soon joined by high-ranking Polish-Lithuanian officers and members of the political class. The insurrectionists, as yet ill-organised, were severely outnumbered and lacking sufficient foreign support and forced into hazardous guerrilla tactics . Reprisals were swift and ruthless. Public executions and deportations to Siberia eventually persuaded many Poles to abandon armed struggle. In addition, Tsar Alexander II hit

16335-467: The words "forget any dreams". There were two prevailing streams of thought among the population of the Kingdom of Poland. One had patriotic stirrings within liberal-conservative usually landed and intellectual circles, centered around Andrzej Zamoyski and hoped for an orderly return to the constitutional status before 1830; they became characterized as the Whites . The alternative tendency, characterized as

16470-538: Was also a significant number of the younger sons of the poorer szlachta (nobility) and a number of priests of lower rank. Initially, the Russian government had at its disposal an army of 90,000 men, under Russian General Anders Edvard Ramsay , in Poland. It looked as if the rebellion might be crushed quickly. Undeterred, the CNC's provisional government issued a manifesto in which it declared "all sons of Poland are free and equal citizens without distinction of creed, condition or rank". It decreed that land cultivated by

16605-404: Was appointed the new ban of Croatia-Slavonia in March by the imperial court, was removed from his position by the constitutional monarchist Hungarian government. He refused to give up his authority in the name of the monarch. Thus, there were two governments in Hungary issuing contradictory orders in the name of Ferdinand von Habsburg. Aware that they were on the path to civil war in mid-1848,

16740-426: Was centered on Paris under the direction of Wladyslaw Czartoryski . The eruption of armed conflict in the former Commonwealth of Two Nations had surprised western European capitals, even if public opinion responded with sympathy for the rebel cause. It had dawned on Paris, London, Vienna and Saint Petersburg that the crisis could plausibly turn into an international war. For their part, Russian diplomats considered

16875-675: Was competing with Prussia for the leadership of the German territories but rejected French approaches for an alliance and spurned any support of Napoleon III as acting against German interests. There was no discussion of military intervention on behalf of the Poles, despite Napoleon's support for the continuation of the insurgency. France, the United Kingdom and Austria agreed to a diplomatic intervention in defense of Polish rights and in April issued diplomatic notes that were intended to be no more than persuasive in tone. The Polish RN hoped that

17010-495: Was dependent on the occurrence of another international crisis which would compel the Habsburgs to initiate real reform and liberalize the constitution. This state of inaction proved to be a long struggle by the Czechs against the authoritarian Habsburg Empire. By 1863, two clearly defined factions within the Czech National Party had emerged: the Old Czechs and the Young Czechs. Their major areas of contention were:

17145-481: Was imposed in Warsaw, and brutally-repressive measures were taken against the organisers in Warsaw and Vilna by deporting them deep into Russia. In Vilna alone, 116 demonstrations were held in 1861. That autumn, Russians had introduced a state of emergency in Vilna Governorate , Kovno Governorate and Grodno Governorate . The events led to a speedier consolidation of the resistance. Future leaders of

17280-513: Was imposed on all estates as a war indemnity . Only in 1869 was the tax reduced to 5% on all incomes. It was the only time that peasants paid the market price for the redemption of the land (the average for the Russian Empire was 34% above the market price). All land taken from Polish peasants since 1864 was to be returned without rights of compensation. Former serfs could sell land only to other peasants, not to szlachta . Ninety percent of

17415-461: Was only countered when peasants, in turn, rose up against the nobles. The economic crisis of 1845–47 was marked by recession and food shortages throughout the continent. At the end of February 1848, demonstrations broke out in Paris . Louis Philippe of France abdicated the throne, prompting similar revolts throughout the continent. After news broke of the February victories in Paris, uprisings occurred throughout Europe, including in Vienna , where

17550-896: Was opened in Lviv University , and the first Ukrainian newspaper Zoria Halytska started publishing in Lviv on May 15, 1848. On July 1, serfdom was also abolished in Bukovina. By early summer, conservative regimes had been overthrown, new freedoms (including freedom of the press and freedom of association) had been introduced, and multiple nationalist claims had been exerted. New parliaments quickly held elections with broad franchise to create constituent assemblies, which would write new constitutions. The elections that were held produced unexpected results. The new voters, naïve and confused by their new political power, typically elected conservative or moderately liberal representatives. The radicals,

17685-514: Was pervasive in pre-1848 Europe. Tension came both from within Catholicism and between members of different confessions. These conflicts were often mixed with conflict with the state. Important for the revolutionaries were state conflicts including the armed forces and collection of taxes. As 1848 approached, the revolutions the Empire crushed to maintain longstanding conservative minister Klemens Wenzel von Metternich 's Concert of Europe left

17820-406: Was replaced by the majority Young Czech coalition party. Both Julius and Eduard were involved in the leadership of the Young Czech Party, which exerted influence in Bohemian politics in the later nineteenth century. Beginning in the early years of Dualism , the Young Czechs were ambitious and arrived on the scene with a striking political agenda of national demands. In the 1860s the Old Czech were

17955-478: Was the start of the first major military engagement of the uprising between Lithuanian peasants armed mostly with scythes and a squadron of Russian hussars outside Čysta Būda, near Marijampolė . It ended with the massacre of the unprepared peasants. While there was still hope of a short war, insurgent groups merged into larger formations and recruited new volunteers. The provisional government had counted on an insurgency erupting in Russia, where wide discontent with

18090-667: Was unable to keep his soldiers fighting Venetian and Milanese insurgents in Lombardy-Venetia , and instead had to order the remaining troops to evacuate. Social and political conflict as well as inter and intra confessional hostility momentarily subsided as much of the continent rejoiced in the liberal victories. Mass political organizations and public participation in government became widespread. However, liberal ministers were unable to establish central authority. Provisional governments in Venice and Milan quickly expressed

18225-536: Was vociferous support for the Poles, powers such as France, Britain and Austria were unwilling to disturb the international calm. The revolutionary leaders did not have sufficient means to arm and equip the groups of young men hiding in forests to escape Alexander Wielopolski's order of conscription into the Russian Army. Initially, about 10,000 men rallied around the revolutionary banner. The volunteers came chiefly from city working classes and minor clerks, but there

#422577