161-626: Henry the Young King (28 February 1155 – 11 June 1183) was the eldest son of Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine to survive childhood. In 1170, he became titular King of England , Duke of Normandy , Count of Anjou and Maine . Henry the Young King was the only English king since the Norman Conquest to be crowned during his father's reign , but he was frustrated by his father's refusal to grant him meaningful autonomous power. He died aged 28, six years before his father, during
322-407: A book rather than the entertainments of tournaments or troubadours. He also had concern for ordinary people, ordaining early in his reign that those shipwrecked should be well-treated and prescribing heavy penalties for anyone who plundered their goods. The chronicler Ralph of Diceto records that when famine struck Anjou and Maine in 1176, Henry emptied his private stores to relieve distress among
483-530: A break, and after he had placed garrisons at selected points along the border, [Charles] marched into Spain [in 778] with as large a force as he could mount. His army passed through the Pyrenees and [Charles] received the surrender of all the towns and fortified places he encountered. He was returning [to Francia] with his army safe and intact, but high in the Pyrenees on that return trip he briefly experienced
644-575: A campaign in Limousin against his father and his brother Richard. He had just finished pillaging local monasteries to raise money to pay his mercenaries. He contracted dysentery at the beginning of June. Weakening fast, he was taken to Martel in Quercy . It was clear to his household that he was dying on 7 June, when he was confessed and received the last rites. As a token of his penitence for his war against his father, he prostrated himself naked on
805-485: A chaotic and troubled period, with all these problems resulting from Stephen's usurpation of the throne. Henry was also careful to show that, unlike his mother, he would listen to the advice and counsel of others. Various measures were immediately carried out although, since Henry spent six and a half years out of the first eight years of his reign in France, much work had to be done at a distance. The process of demolishing
966-525: A clandestine affair with Queen Margaret. David Crouch , one of the Marshal's principal modern biographers, argues that the charge against William was actually one of lèse-majesté , brought on by Marshal's own arrogance and greed. By this account, the charge of adultery was only introduced in the History of William Marshal as a distraction from the real charges, of which he was most probably guilty. Though
1127-514: A final rebellion. Decisively defeated by Philip and Richard and suffering from a bleeding ulcer , Henry retreated to Chinon Castle in Anjou. He died soon afterwards and was succeeded by his son Richard I. Henry's empire quickly collapsed during the reign of his son John (who succeeded Richard in 1199), but many of the changes Henry introduced during his lengthy rule had long-term consequences. Henry's legal changes are generally considered to have laid
1288-598: A formidable party of Anglo-Norman , Norman , Angevin , Poitevin and Breton magnates joined him. The revolt of 1173–1174 came close to toppling the king; he was narrowly saved by the loyalty of a party of nobles with holdings on the English side of the Channel and by the defeat and capture of William I , the King of Scotland . Young Henry sought a reconciliation after the capture of his mother, Eleanor of Aquitaine , and
1449-515: A group of royal justices to visit all the counties in England over a given period of time, with authority to cover both civil and criminal cases. A local jury had been used occasionally in previous reigns, but Henry made much wider use of them. Juries were introduced in petty assizes from around 1176, where they were used to establish the answers to particular pre-established questions, and in grand assizes from 1179, where they were used to determine
1610-421: A heraldic design: a signet ring with either a leopard or a lion engraved on it. The design would be altered in later generations to form the royal arms of England . By the late 1140s, the active phase of the civil war was over, barring the occasional outbreak of fighting. Many of the barons were making individual peace agreements with one another to secure their war gains and it increasingly appeared as though
1771-602: A highly romanticized account of the Battle of Roncevaux Pass and Roland's death, setting the tone for later fantastical depiction of Charlemagne's court. It was adapted and modified throughout the Middle Ages, including an influential Latin prose version Historia Caroli Magni (latterly known as the Pseudo-Turpin Chronicle ), which also includes Roland's battle with a Saracen giant named Ferracutus who
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#17327727554491932-700: A key fortress loyal to Henry along the Thames Valley , under siege, possibly in an attempt to force a successful end to the English conflict while Henry was still fighting for his territories in France. Henry moved quickly in response, avoiding open battle with Louis in Aquitaine and stabilising the Norman border, pillaging the Vexin and then striking south into Anjou against Geoffrey, capturing one of his main castles, Montsoreau . Louis fell ill and withdrew from
2093-400: A leading role in the celebratory tournament held at Lagny-sur-Marne , to which he brought a retinue of over 500 knights at huge expense. The Young Henry's affairs took a turn for the worse in 1182. He fell out with William Marshal, the leader of his tournament mesnée . The unknown author of L'Histoire de Guillaume le Maréchal suggests that Marshal's disgrace was because he had indulged in
2254-565: A mighty giant, usually a heathen, capable of launching huge stones. The Basque word erraldoi (giant) stems from Errol(d)an , as pointed out by the linguist Koldo Mitxelena . Jean Lannes , a Marshal of the First French Empire, was given the nickname Roland de l'Armée d'Italie, which later became Roland de la Grande Armée , for his bravery and charisma. A statue of Roland stands in the city of Rolândia in Brazil. The city
2415-642: A policy, it was to generally resist papal influence, increasing his own local authority. The 12th century saw the continuation of the ongoing reform movement within the Catholic Church, advocating greater clerical autonomy from royal authority and more influence for the papacy. This trend had already caused tensions in England, for example when King Stephen forced Theobald of Bec , the Archbishop of Canterbury, into exile in 1152. There were also long-running concerns over royal jurisdiction over members of
2576-407: A possible future rival to Henry. Rumours of a plot to kill Henry were circulating and, possibly as a consequence, Henry returned to Normandy for a period. Stephen fell ill with a stomach disorder and died on 25 October 1154, allowing Henry to inherit the throne sooner than had been expected. On landing in England on 8 December 1154, Henry quickly took oaths of loyalty from some of the barons and
2737-700: A rather half-hearted fashion, while the English Church attempted to broker a permanent peace between the two sides. In November the two leaders ratified the terms of a permanent peace. Stephen announced the Treaty of Winchester in Winchester Cathedral : he recognised Henry as his adopted son and successor, in return for Henry paying homage to him; Stephen promised to listen to Henry's advice, but retained all his royal powers; Stephen's son William would pay homage to Henry and renounce his claim to
2898-411: A ring his father had sent instead as a sign of his forgiveness. After his death, his father is said to have exclaimed: "He cost me much, but I wish he had lived to cost me more." After Henry's death, there was an attempt by his mother and a faction of his friends to promote his sainthood . Thomas of Earley, Archdeacon of Wells , published a sermon not long afterward detailing miraculous events attending
3059-421: A siege. At the start of 1161 war seemed likely to spread across the region until a fresh peace was negotiated at Fréteval that autumn, followed by a second peace treaty in 1162, overseen by Pope Alexander III . Despite this temporary halt in hostilities, Henry's seizure of the Vexin started a second long-running dispute between him and the kings of France. Henry controlled more of France than any ruler since
3220-517: A term that described his ability to punish or financially destroy particular barons or clergy. In England, Henry initially relied on his father's former advisers whom he brought with him from Normandy and on some of Henry I's remaining officials, reinforced with some of Stephen's senior nobility who made their peace with Henry in 1153. During his reign, Henry, like his grandfather, increasingly promoted " new men ", minor nobles without independent wealth and lands, to positions of authority in England. By
3381-573: A trivial argument over how money destined for the Crusader states of the Levant should be collected. Louis allied himself with the Welsh, Scots, and Bretons, and attacked Normandy. Henry responded by attacking Chaumont-sur-Epte, where Louis kept his main military arsenal, burning the town to the ground and forcing Louis to abandon his allies and make a private truce. Henry was then free to move against
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#17327727554493542-410: A way of securing his other French territories and as a potential inheritance for one of his sons. Initially Henry's strategy was to rule indirectly through proxies, and accordingly, Henry supported Conan IV 's claims over most of the duchy, partly because Conan had strong English ties and could be easily influenced. Conan's uncle, Hoël , continued to control the county of Nantes in the east until he
3703-461: Is not supported by French chronicles. If the agreements at Montmirail had been followed up, the acts of homage could potentially have confirmed Louis's position as king while undermining the legitimacy of any rebellious barons within Henry's territories and the potential for an alliance between them and Louis. In practice, Louis perceived himself to have gained a temporary advantage. Immediately after
3864-527: Is often termed the Henrician phase of the civil war. This time, Henry planned to form a northern alliance with King David I of Scotland , his great-uncle, and Ranulf of Chester , a powerful regional leader who controlled most of the north-west of England. Under this alliance, Henry and Ranulf agreed to attack York , probably with the help of Scots. The planned attack disintegrated after Stephen marched north to York, and Henry returned to Normandy. Henry
4025-499: Is on the opposite side of the altar from the tomb of the heart of his younger brother, Richard I of England, with whom he was perpetually quarrelling. The tomb of the Archbishop of Rouen, who had married him to Margaret, lies nearby in the ambulatory. His brothers Richard and John each later became King of England. The physical appearance of Henry at his coronation in 1170 is given in a contemporary court poem written in Latin. It describes
4186-626: Is only vulnerable at his navel. The story was later adapted in the anonymous Franco-Venetian epic L'Entrée d'Espagne ( c. 1320) and in the 14th-century Italian epic La Spagna , attributed to the Florentine Sostegno di Zanobi and likely composed between 1350 and 1360. Other texts give further legendary accounts of Roland's life. His friendship with Olivier and his engagement with Olivier's sister Aude are told in Girart de Vienne by Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube . Roland's youth and
4347-697: Is partly because, to contemporaries, the differences between founding and patronizing a house was blurred; in the scholar Elizabeth Hallam 's words, "Henry II was 'patron and founder' of many houses where he had inherited this right from his ancestors and predecessors". In England, he provided steady patronage to the monastic houses, but established few new monasteries. Of those he did, three – Witham Charterhouse in Somerset, Waltham Abbey in Essex and Amesbury in Wiltshire – were founded as part of his penance for
4508-426: Is uncertain if Henry had a grand vision for his new legal system and the reforms seem to have proceeded in a steady, pragmatic fashion. Indeed, some scholars believe that in most cases he was probably not personally responsible for creating the new processes, but he was greatly interested in the law, seeing the delivery of justice as one of the key tasks for a king and carefully appointing good administrators to conduct
4669-514: The Basques . That place is so thoroughly covered with thick forest that it is the perfect spot for an ambush. [Charles's] army was forced by the narrow terrain to proceed in a long line and [it was at that spot], high on the mountain, that the Basques set their ambush. [...] The Basques had the advantage in this skirmish because of the lightness of their weapons and the nature of the terrain, whereas
4830-459: The Duchy of Brittany , which neighboured his lands and retained strong traditions of independence. The Breton dukes held little power across most of the duchy, which was mostly controlled by local lords. In 1148, Duke Conan III died and civil war broke out. Henry claimed to be the overlord of Brittany, on the basis that the duchy had owed loyalty to Henry I, and saw controlling the duchy both as
4991-754: The English Church led to conflict with his former friend Thomas Becket , the Archbishop of Canterbury . This controversy lasted for much of the 1160s and resulted in Becket's murder in 1170. Soon after his accession Henry came into conflict with Louis VII of France , his feudal overlord , and the two rulers fought, over several decades, what has been termed a " cold war ". Henry expanded his empire at Louis's expense, taking Brittany and pushing east into central France and south into Toulouse ; despite numerous peace conferences and treaties, no lasting agreement
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5152-797: The Matter of France . The historical Roland was military governor of the Breton March , responsible for defending Francia 's frontier against the Bretons . His only historical attestation is in Einhard 's Vita Karoli Magni , which notes he was part of the Frankish rearguard killed in retribution by the Basques in Iberia at the Battle of Roncevaux Pass . The story of Roland's death at Roncevaux Pass
5313-581: The River Avon , preventing Stephen from forcing a decisive battle. In the face of the increasingly wintry weather, the two men agreed to a temporary truce, leaving Henry to travel north through the Midlands , where the powerful Robert de Beaumont , Earl of Leicester, announced his support for the cause. Henry was then free to turn his forces south against the besiegers at Wallingford. Despite only modest military successes, he and his allies now controlled
5474-456: The Treaty of Wallingford , to leave England to Henry, and he inherited the kingdom at Stephen's death a year later. Henry was an energetic and ruthless ruler, driven by a desire to restore the royal lands and prerogatives of his grandfather Henry I. During the early years of his reign Henry restored the royal administration in England, which had almost collapsed during Stephen's reign, and re-established hegemony over Wales. Henry's desire to control
5635-609: The Young Henry , to Louis's daughter Margaret . The marriage deal would have involved Louis granting the disputed territory of the Vexin to Margaret on her marriage to the Young Henry: while this would ultimately give Henry the lands that he claimed, it also implied that the Vexin was Louis's to give away in the first place, in itself a political concession. For a short while, a permanent peace between Henry and Louis looked plausible. Meanwhile, Henry turned his attention to
5796-436: The shire courts , hundred courts and in particular seignorial courts — to deal with most of these cases, hearing only a few personally. This process was far from perfect, and in many cases claimants were unable to pursue their cases effectively. While interested in the law, during the first years of his reign Henry was preoccupied with other political issues, and even finding the King for a hearing could mean travelling across
5957-550: The "cult of personality" of Orlando the hero. The Orlando narrative inspired several composers, amongst whom were Claudio Monteverdi , Jean-Baptiste Lully , Antonio Vivaldi and George Frideric Handel , who composed an Italian-language opera with Orlando . In Germany , Roland gradually became a symbol of the independence of the growing cities from the local nobility. In the late Middle Ages many cities featured defiant statues of Roland in their marketplaces. The Roland in Wedel
6118-490: The 1180s this new class of royal administrators was predominant in England, supported by various illegitimate members of Henry's family. The links between the nobility in Normandy and England had weakened during the first half of the 12th century and continued to do so under Henry. Henry drew his close advisers from the ranks of the Norman bishops and, as in England, recruited many "new men" as Norman administrators: few of
6279-520: The 11th century and the county became largely autonomous. Henry's mother was the legitimate daughter of Henry I , King of England and Duke of Normandy . She was born into a powerful ruling class of Normans , who traditionally owned extensive estates in both England and Normandy, and her first husband had been Holy Roman Emperor Henry V . Henry I had during his own lifetime obtained pledges of fealty from his nobility, including from his nephew Stephen of Blois , promising to support Matilda's claim to
6440-497: The 12th century. Some of their income came from their private estates, called demesne ; other income came from imposing legal fines and arbitrary amercements , and from taxes, which at that time were raised only intermittently. Kings could also raise funds by borrowing; Henry did this far more than earlier English rulers, initially through moneylenders in Rouen , turning later in his reign to Jewish and Flemish lenders. Ready cash
6601-594: The 18th century, scholars argued that Henry was a driving force in the creation of a genuinely English monarchy and, ultimately, a unified Britain. During the Victorian expansion of the British Empire , historians were keenly interested in the formation of Henry's own empire, but they also criticised certain aspects of his private life and treatment of Becket. Henry was born in Maine at Le Mans on 5 March 1133,
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6762-604: The 9th century Carolingians ; these lands, combined with his possessions in England, Wales, Scotland and later parts of Ireland, produced a vast domain often referred to by historians as the Angevin Empire . The empire lacked a coherent structure or central control; instead, it consisted of a loose, flexible network of family connections and lands. Different local customs applied within each of Henry's different territories although common principles underpinned some of these local variations. Henry travelled constantly across
6923-583: The Abbey St Nicolas in Angers in the early 1140s. Henry founded houses in England and France; he had done this sporadically before Becket's death, but, in Hallam's words, they "accelerated dramatically" following it. As part of his penance following the death of Becket, he built and endowed various hospitals—particularly for lepers —in France, for example at Mont-Saint-Aignan , which was dedicated to
7084-525: The Anarchy by historians, dragged on and degenerated into a stalemate. Henry most likely spent part of his childhood in his mother's household. In the late 1130s, he accompanied Matilda to Normandy, which would only be fully taken by Geoffrey around 1144. Henry's later childhood, probably from the age of seven, was spent in Anjou, where he was educated by Peter of Saintes, a noted grammarian . In late 1142, Geoffrey sent his nine-year-old son to Bristol ,
7245-596: The Becket murder, and built at considerable cost. Cirencester was also a foundation of significance, and comparable to those of his forebears. He was relatively conservative in religion, and when he did intervene in monastic affairs, it usually regarded houses with established links to his family, such as Reading Abbey, founded by his grandfather Henry I. In the struggle with Becket, contemporaries believed that he could have been influenced by his mother. Before his accession several charters, including to religious institutions, were issued in their joint names, such as that to
7406-477: The Channel and locating his peripatetic court. Nonetheless, he was prepared to take action to improve the existing procedures, intervening in cases which he felt had been mishandled and creating legislation to improve both ecclesiastical and civil court processes. Meanwhile, in Normandy, Henry delivered justice through the courts run by his officials across the duchy, and occasionally these cases made their way to
7567-519: The Count in an attempt to secure his southern frontiers; nonetheless, when Henry and Louis discussed the matter of Toulouse, Henry left believing that he had the French king's support for military intervention. Henry invaded Toulouse, only to find Louis visiting Raymond in the city. Henry was not prepared to directly attack Louis, who was still his feudal lord, and withdrew, contenting himself with ravaging
7728-419: The Count of Champagne and Odo II, Duke of Burgundy . Three years later the new Count of Flanders, Philip , concerned about Henry's growing power, openly allied himself with the French king. Louis's wife Adèle gave birth to a male heir, Philip Augustus , in 1165, and Louis was more confident of his own position than for many years previously. As a result, relations between Henry and Louis deteriorated again in
7889-511: The Duchy of Aquitaine, had become increasingly independent and was now ruled by Count Raymond V . The rulers of Aquitaine had made tenuous claims on the county by hereditary right; Henry now hoped to claim it on Eleanor's behalf, and encouraged by her, Henry first allied himself with Raymond's enemy Raymond Berenguer of Barcelona and then in 1159 threatened to invade himself to depose the Count of Toulouse. Louis married his sister Constance to
8050-517: The English church was considering promoting a peace treaty. On Louis VII 's return from the Second Crusade in 1149, he became concerned about the growth of Geoffrey's power and the potential threat to his own possessions, especially if Henry could acquire the English crown. In 1150, Geoffrey made Henry the Duke of Normandy and Louis responded by putting forward King Stephen's son Eustace as
8211-472: The English king and publicly gave homage for Toulouse to Henry and his heirs. One of the major international events surrounding Henry during the 1160s was the Becket controversy. When the Archbishop of Canterbury, Theobald of Bec, died in 1161 Henry saw an opportunity to reassert his rights over the Church in England. Henry appointed Thomas Becket , his English Chancellor , as archbishop in 1162. According to
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#17327727554498372-484: The Franks were disadvantaged by the heaviness of their arms and the unevenness of the land. Eggihard, the overseer of the king's table, Anselm, the count of the palace, and Roland, the lord of the Breton March , along with many others died in that skirmish. But this deed could not be avenged at that time, because the enemy had so dispersed after the attack that there was no indication as to where they could be found. Roland
8533-749: The French throne in 1180. In 1173 Henry's heir apparent, "Young Henry", rebelled against his father; he was joined by his brothers Richard and Geoffrey and by their mother. Several European states allied themselves with the rebels, and the Great Revolt was only defeated by Henry's vigorous military action and talented local commanders, many of them " new men " appointed for their loyalty and administrative skills. Young Henry and Geoffrey led another revolt in 1183, during which Young Henry died of dysentery . Geoffrey died in 1186. The Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland provided lands for Henry's youngest son, John . By 1189, Philip swayed Richard to his side, leading to
8694-899: The Heaven of Mars together with others who fought for the faith. Roland appears in Entrée d'Espagne , a 14th-century Franco-Venetian chanson de geste (in which he is transformed into a knight errant , similar to heroes from the Arthurian romances ) and La Spagna , a 14th-century Italian epic. From the 15th century onwards, Roland appears as a central character in a sequence of Italian verse romances as "Orlando", including Morgante by Luigi Pulci , Orlando Innamorato by Matteo Maria Boiardo , and Orlando Furioso by Ludovico Ariosto . (See below for his later history in Italian verse.) The Orlandino of Pietro Aretino then waxed satirical about
8855-434: The King himself. He also operated an exchequer court at Caen that heard cases relating to royal revenues and maintained king's justices who travelled across the duchy. Between 1159 and 1163, Henry spent time in Normandy conducting reforms of royal and church courts, and some measures later introduced in England are recorded as existing in Normandy as early as 1159. In 1163 Henry returned to England, intent on reforming
9016-417: The King, and portrayed himself as a staunch protector of Church rights. Roland Roland ( French pronunciation: [ʁɔ.lɑ̃] ; Old Frankish : * Hrōþiland ; Medieval Latin : Hruodlandus or Rotholandus ; Italian : Orlando or Rolando ; died 15 August 778) was a Frankish military leader under Charlemagne who became one of the principal figures in the literary cycle known as
9177-694: The Loire and in western Touraine, but Henry had few officials elsewhere in the region. In Aquitaine, ducal authority remained very limited, despite increasing substantially during Henry's reign, largely owing to Richard's efforts in the late 1170s. Henry's wealth allowed him to maintain what was probably the largest curia regis , or royal court, in Europe. His court attracted huge attention from contemporary chroniclers, and typically comprised several major nobles and bishops, along with knights, domestic servants, prostitutes, clerks, horses and hunting dogs. Within
9338-410: The Young King sent his wife early in 1183 to the French court, it was done most likely to keep her safe in the impending war with his brother, Richard, rather than because she was in disgrace. Margaret gave birth to a baby boy named William, who may have been born prematurely on 19 June 1177, and died only three days later. Henry the Young King died, aged 28, in the summer of 1183, during the course of
9499-504: The Young King would not be crowned until 1170. Young Henry was finally crowned on Saturday 14 June 1170 on the feast of St Basil at Westminster Abbey , in the presence of most of the Anglo-Norman nobility and the overwhelming majority of the non-vacant English bishoprics. Matthew Strickland notes that the exiled Thomas Becket had few supporters left in the upper ranks of the English church after six years of dispute with Henry II. It
9660-594: The acquisition of his horse Veillantif and sword are described in Aspremont . Roland also appears in Quatre Fils Aymon , where he is contrasted with Renaud de Montauban against whom he occasionally fights. In Norway , the tales of Roland are part of the 13th-century Karlamagnús saga . In the Divine Comedy Dante sees Roland, named Orlando as is usual in Italian literature, in
9821-419: The age of fourteen. Taking his immediate household and a few mercenaries, he left Normandy and landed in England, striking into Wiltshire . Despite initially causing considerable panic, the expedition had little success, and Henry found himself unable to pay his forces and therefore unable to return to Normandy. Neither his mother nor his uncle was prepared to support him, implying that they had not approved of
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#17327727554499982-454: The average was around £22,000. One economic effect of these changes was a substantial increase in the amount of money in circulation in England and, post-1180, a long-term increase in both inflation and trade. Long-running tensions between Henry and Louis VII continued during the 1160s, the French king slowly becoming more vigorous in opposing Henry's increasing power in Europe. In 1160 Louis strengthened his alliances in central France with
10143-534: The basis for the English Common Law , while his intervention in Brittany, Wales, Ireland, and Scotland shaped the development of their societies, histories, and governmental systems. Historical interpretations of Henry's reign have changed considerably over time. Contemporary chroniclers such as Gerald of Wales and William of Newburgh , though sometimes unfavourable, generally laud his achievements. In
10304-531: The borders of Brittany"), indicating that he presided over the Breton March , Francia 's border territory against the Bretons . The passage, which appears in Chapter 9, mentions that Hroudlandus (a Latinization of the Frankish *Hrōþiland , from *hrōþi , "praise"/"fame" and * land , "country") was among those killed in the Battle of Roncevaux Pass: While he was vigorously pursuing the Saxon war , almost without
10465-654: The campaign, and Geoffrey was forced to come to terms with Henry. In response to Stephen's siege, Henry returned to England again at the start of 1153. Bringing only a small army of mercenaries, probably financed with borrowed money, Henry was supported in the north and east of England by the forces of Ranulf of Chester and Hugh Bigod , two local aristocrats, and had hopes of a military victory. A delegation of senior English clergy met with Henry and his advisers at Stockbridge, Hampshire , shortly before Easter in April. Details of their discussions are unclear, but it appears that
10626-491: The case, Louis was so enraged by this that he launched an immediate attack on the Norman border, forcing Henry to return to the duchy personally to oversee its defences. Mediation by Count Theobald of Blois, however, led to a meeting between the two monarchs at Vendôme and, following subsequent meetings at La Ferté and Fréteval, Henry was able to placate King Louis. Young Henry and Margaret were formally married on 27 August 1172 at Winchester Cathedral , when Henry, aged seventeen,
10787-458: The centre of Angevin opposition to Stephen in the south-west of England, accompanied by Robert of Gloucester. Although having children educated in relatives' households was common among noblemen of the period, sending Henry to England also had political benefits, as Geoffrey was coming under criticism by Matilda's supporters for refusing to join the war in England. For about a year, Henry lived alongside Roger of Worcester , one of Robert's sons, and
10948-467: The children being only five and three years old respectively—and promptly seized the Vexin. Now it was Louis's turn to be furious, as the move broke the spirit of the 1160 treaty. Military tensions between the two leaders immediately increased. Theobald mobilised his forces along the border with Touraine . Henry responded by attacking Chaumont in Blois in a surprise attack and took Theobald's castle in
11109-437: The churchmen emphasised that while they supported Stephen as king, they sought a negotiated peace; Henry reaffirmed that he would avoid the English cathedrals and would not expect the bishops to attend his court. To draw Stephen's forces away from Wallingford, Henry besieged Stephen's castle at Malmesbury , and the King responded by marching west with an army to relieve it. Henry successfully evaded Stephen's larger army along
11270-485: The clergy. By contrast with the tensions in England, in Normandy Henry had occasional disagreements with the Church but generally enjoyed very good relations with the bishops there. In Brittany, he had the support of the local Church hierarchy and rarely intervened in clerical matters, except occasionally to cause difficulties for his rival Louis of France. Further south, the power of the dukes of Aquitaine over
11431-486: The coinage in 1180, with royal officials taking direct control of the mints and passing the profits directly to the treasury. A new penny, called the Short Cross, was introduced, and the number of mints reduced substantially to ten across the country. Driven by the reforms, the royal revenues increased considerably; during the first part of the reign, Henry's average exchequer income was only around £18,000; after 1166,
11592-503: The conference, he began to encourage tensions between Henry's sons. Meanwhile, Henry's position in the south of France continued to improve, and by 1173 he had agreed to an alliance with Humbert III, Count of Savoy , which betrothed Henry's son John and Humbert's daughter Alicia. Henry's daughter Eleanor was married to Alfonso VIII of Castile in 1170, enlisting an additional ally in the south. In February 1173, after unremitting pressure from Henry since 1159, Raymond finally capitulated to
11753-433: The consent of Louis; accordingly the kings held fresh peace talks in 1169 at Montmirail . The talks were wide-ranging, culminating with Henry's sons giving homage to Louis for their future inheritances in France. Also at this time, Richard was betrothed to Louis's young daughter Alys . Alys came to England and was rumoured to have later become the mistress of King Henry, but the rumour originates from prejudiced sources and
11914-547: The coronation of Young Henry and the pipe rolls for 1162 record the allocation of funds for the commissioning of a golden circlet. This was not to be, however; Barlow suggests that the southern prelates dissuaded King Henry II from using the papal bull as the Archbishopric of Canterbury was now occupied. This greatly upset Roger of York, who wrote to Rome asking for confirmation of his right to crown kings; while ultimately unsuccessful, Roger's delays derailed Henry's plans and
12075-514: The cortège that took his body north to Normandy. Henry had left orders that his entrails and other body parts should be buried at the abbey of Charroux , but the rest of his body should rest in Rouen Cathedral . However, during the funeral procession, a member of Henry's household was seized by his mercenary captains for debts the late king had owed them. The knights accompanying his corpse were so penniless they had to be fed by charity at
12236-439: The course of a campaign in Limousin against his father and his brother Richard . Little is known of the young Henry before the events associated with his marriage and coronation. His mother's children by her first marriage to Louis VII of France were Marie and Alix . He had one elder brother, William (d. 1156), and his younger siblings included Matilda , Richard , Geoffrey , Eleanor , Joan and John . In June 1170,
12397-538: The court were his officials, ( ministeriales ); his friends ( amici ), and his small inner circle of confidants and trusted servants ( familiares regis ). Henry's familiares were particularly important to the operation of his household and government as they drove government initiatives and filled the gaps between the official structures and the King. Henry tried to maintain a sophisticated household that combined hunting and drinking with cosmopolitan literary discussion and courtly values. Nonetheless, Henry's passion
12558-417: The dead Archbishop. Since travel by sea during the period was dangerous, he would also take full confession before setting sail and use auguries to determine the best time to travel. The historian Nicholas Vincent argues that Henry's movements may also have been planned to take advantage of saints' days and other fortuitous occasions. Medieval rulers such as Henry enjoyed various sources of income during
12719-629: The efforts of his mother, Matilda (daughter of Henry I of England ), to claim the English throne, at that time held by Matilda's cousin Stephen of Blois . Henry's father, Geoffrey , made him Duke of Normandy in 1150, and upon Geoffrey's death in 1151, Henry inherited Anjou, Maine and Touraine . His marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine brought him control of the Duchy of Aquitaine. Thus, he controlled most of France. Henry's military expedition to England in 1153 resulted in King Stephen agreeing, by
12880-538: The eldest child of the Empress Matilda and her second husband, Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou . The French county of Anjou was formed in the 10th century and its Angevin rulers attempted for several centuries to extend their influence and power across France through careful marriages and political alliances. In theory, the county answered to the French king , but royal power over Anjou weakened during
13041-482: The empire, producing what the historian John Edward Austin Jolliffe describes as a "government of the roads and roadsides". His journeys coincided with regional governmental reforms and other local administrative business although messengers were able to connect him to all of his domains wherever he went. In his absence the lands were ruled by seneschals and justiciars , and beneath them, local officials in each of
13202-473: The expedition in the first place. Henry instead turned to King Stephen, who paid the outstanding wages and thereby allowed Henry to retire gracefully. Stephen's reasons for doing so are unclear. One potential explanation is his general courtesy to a member of his extended family; another is that he was starting to consider how to end the war peacefully, and saw this as a way of building a relationship with Henry. Henry intervened once again in 1149, commencing what
13363-477: The failure of Henry and Eleanor's parenting, have been put forward to explain Henry's family's bitter disputes. Other theories focus on the personalities of Henry and his children. Historians such as Matthew Strickland have argued that Henry made sensible attempts to manage the tensions within his family, and that had he died younger, the succession might have proved much smoother. Henry's reign saw important legal changes, particularly in England and Normandy. By
13524-405: The failure of the rebellion. His funds were much increased by the terms of the settlement and he apparently devoted most of the next seven years to the amusement of the tournament. In November 1179, he represented his father at the coronation of Philip Augustus as associate king of France at Reims . He acted as Steward of France and carried the crown in the coronation procession. Later, he played
13685-511: The fifteen-year-old Henry was crowned king during his father's lifetime, a traditional practice of the French Capetian dynasty which held formal overlordship of Henry II 's continental domains. King Stephen had previously attempted to have his son Eustace crowned as early as 1143 but was unable to secure papal support. On the latter's death in 1153, Stephen did not even attempt to have his second son William acknowledged as heir. He
13846-422: The fifteen-year-old prince as being very handsome, "tall but well proportioned, broad-shouldered with a long and elegant neck, pale and freckled skin, bright and wide blue eyes, and a thick mop of the reddish-gold hair". Henry and Richard were "both tall in stature, rather above the middle size, and of commanding aspect. In courage and magnanimity, they were nearly equal; but in the character of their virtues, there
14007-410: The first time and greatly reducing the number of moneyers licensed to produce coins. These measures were successful in improving Henry's income, but on his return to England in the 1160s he took further steps. New taxes were introduced and the existing accounts re-audited, and the reforms of the legal system brought in new streams of money from fines and amercements. There was a wholesale reform of
14168-554: The floor before a crucifix . He made a testament and, since he had taken a crusader 's vow, he gave his cloak to his friend William Marshal, with the plea that he should take the cloak (presumably with the crusader's cross-stitched to it) to the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem . On his deathbed, he reportedly asked to be reconciled to his father, but King Henry, fearing a trick, refused to see him. He died on 11 June, clasping
14329-719: The frequent face-to-face meetings to attempt to resolve them have led the historian Jean Dunbabin to liken the situation to the 20th-century Cold War in Europe. On his return to the Continent from England in the 1150s, Henry sought to secure his French lands and quash any potential rebellion. To this end, in 1154 Henry and Louis agreed to a peace treaty, under which Henry bought back Vernon and Neuf-Marché from Louis. The treaty appeared shaky, and tensions remained — in particular, Henry had not given homage to Louis for his French possessions. They met at Paris and Mont-Saint-Michel in 1158, agreeing to betroth Henry's eldest living son,
14490-451: The guilt of a defendant. Other methods of trial continued, including trial by combat and trial by ordeal . After the Assize of Clarendon in 1166, royal justice was extended into new areas through the use of new forms of assizes, in particular novel disseisin , mort d'ancestor and dower unde nichil habet , which dealt with the wrongful dispossession of land, inheritance rights, and
14651-466: The historian Thomas M. Jones, Henry probably believed that Becket, in addition to being an old friend, would be politically weakened within the Church because of his former role as Chancellor, and would therefore have to rely on his support. Both Henry's mother and wife appear to have had doubts about the appointment, but nevertheless, he went ahead. His plan did not achieve the desired result, as Becket promptly changed his lifestyle, abandoned his links to
14812-553: The inheritance of Louis and Eleanor's two daughters, Marie and Alix , who might otherwise have had claims to Aquitaine on Eleanor's death. With his new lands, Henry now possessed a much larger proportion of France than Louis. Louis organised a coalition against Henry, including King Stephen; his son Eustace; Henry I, Count of Champagne ; and Robert, Count of Perche . Louis's alliance was joined by Henry's younger brother Geoffrey , who rose in revolt, claiming that Henry had dispossessed him of his inheritance. Their father's plans for
14973-572: The inheritance of his lands had been ambiguous, making the veracity of Geoffrey's claims hard to assess. Contemporaneous accounts suggest he left the main castles in Poitou to Geoffrey, implying that he may have intended Henry to retain Normandy and Anjou but not Poitou. Fighting immediately broke out again along the Normandy borders, where Henry of Champagne and Robert captured the town of Neufmarché-sur-Epte . Louis's forces moved to attack Aquitaine. Stephen responded by placing Wallingford Castle ,
15134-451: The king. A great council was supposed to advise the King and give assent to royal decisions, yet it is unclear how much freedom they actually enjoyed to oppose Henry's intentions. Henry also appears to have consulted with his court when making legislation; the extent to which he then took their views into account is unclear. As a powerful ruler, Henry was able to provide either valuable patronage or impose devastating harm on his subjects. He
15295-406: The lands and the rights of his grandfather Henry I; it reaffirmed the betrothal of Young Henry and Margaret and the Vexin deal; and it involved Young Henry giving homage to Louis, a way of reinforcing the young boy's position as heir and Louis's position as king. Almost immediately after the peace conference, Louis shifted his position considerably. His wife Constance died and he married Adèle ,
15456-445: The larger landowners in Normandy benefited from the King's patronage. He frequently intervened with the Norman nobility through arranged marriages or the treatment of inheritances, either using his authority as duke or his influence as king of England over their lands there. Across the rest of France, local administration was less developed. Anjou was governed through a combination of officials called prévôts and seneschals based along
15617-595: The later Morgante by Luigi Pulci . Roland is poetically associated with his sword Durendal , his horse Veillantif , and his oliphant horn. In the late 17th century, French Baroque composer Jean-Baptiste Lully wrote an opera titled Roland , based on the story of the title character. The only historical mention of the actual Roland is in the Vita Karoli Magni by Charlemagne 's courtier and biographer Einhard . Einhard refers to him as Hruodlandus Brittannici limitis praefectus ("Roland, prefect of
15778-445: The local church was much less than in the north, and Henry's efforts to extend his influence over local appointments created tensions. During the disputed papal election of 1159, Henry, like Louis, supported Alexander III over his rival Victor IV . The contemporary chronicler Gerald of Wales promulgated the perception that Henry was a founder of monasteries, but overall, Henry's religious convictions are difficult to assess. This
15939-446: The mid-1160s. Meanwhile, Henry had begun to alter his policy of indirect rule in Brittany and started to exert more direct control. In 1164 he intervened to seize lands along the border of Brittany and Normandy and in 1166 invaded Brittany to punish the local barons. Henry then forced Conan III to abdicate as duke and to give Brittany to his daughter Constance, who was handed over and betrothed to Henry's son Geoffrey. This arrangement
16100-460: The middle of the 12th century, England had many different ecclesiastical and civil law courts, with overlapping jurisdictions resulting from the interaction of diverse legal traditions. Henry greatly expanded the role of royal justice in England, producing a more coherent legal system, summarised at the end of his reign in the Treatise of Glanvill , an early legal handbook. Despite these reforms it
16261-628: The monastery of Vigeois . There were large and emotional gatherings wherever his body rested. At Le Mans , the local bishop halted the procession and ordered the body buried in his cathedral, perhaps to help defuse the civil unrest Henry's death had caused. The dean of Rouen recovered the body from the chapter of Le Mans a month later by a lawsuit so that the Young Henry could be buried in Normandy as he had desired in his testament. Henry's remains are in Rouen Cathedral, where his tomb
16422-486: The most prominent of these were Geoffrey (later Archbishop of York ) and William (later Earl of Salisbury ). Henry was expected to provide for the future of his legitimate children by granting lands to his sons and marrying his daughters well. His family was divided by rivalries and violent hostilities, more so than many other royal families of the day, in particular the relatively cohesive French Capetians . Various suggestions, from their inherited family genetics to
16583-519: The mountain pass Roland's Breach and the rock formation Salto de Roldán . In Catalonia Roland (or Rotllà , as it is rendered in Catalan) became a legendary giant. Numerous places in Catalonia (both North and South) have a name related to Rotllà . In step with the trace left by the character in the whole Pyrenean area, Basque Errolan turns up in numerous legends and place-names associated with
16744-419: The next few years, leaving Henry's position secure. Nonetheless, Henry inherited a difficult situation in England, as the kingdom had suffered extensively during the civil war. In many parts of the country the fighting had caused serious devastation, although some other areas remained largely unaffected. Numerous " adulterine ", or unauthorised, castles had been built as bases for local lords. The authority of
16905-412: The opportunity to speak together privately about a potential end to the war; conveniently for Henry, Stephen's son Eustace fell ill and died shortly afterwards. This removed the most obvious other claimant to the throne, as while Stephen had another son, William, he was only a second son and appeared unenthusiastic about making a plausible claim on the throne. Fighting continued after Wallingford, but in
17066-578: The politics of his father's reign. On 2 November 1160, he was betrothed to Margaret of France , daughter of Louis VII of France and his second wife, Constance of Castile , when he was five years of age and she was at least two. The marriage was an attempt to finally settle the struggle between the counts of Anjou and the French kings over possession of the frontier district of the Norman Vexin , which Louis VII had acquired from Henry's grandfather, Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou , in around 1144. By
17227-407: The poor. Henry had a passionate desire to rebuild his control of the territories that his grandfather Henry I had once governed. He took back territories, regained estates and re-established influence over the smaller lords that had once provided what the historian John Gillingham describes as a "protective ring" around his core territories. He was probably the first king of England to use
17388-540: The pre-civil war borders. Henry had a difficult relationship with Louis VII of France throughout the 1150s. The two men had already clashed over Henry's succession to Normandy and the remarriage of Eleanor, and the relationship was not repaired. Louis invariably attempted to take the moral high ground in respect to Henry, capitalising on his own reputation as a crusader and circulating malicious rumours about his rival's ungovernable temper. Henry had greater resources than Louis, particularly after taking England, and Louis
17549-536: The present-day Gallo language and legends of local heroes such as Roland. Roland's successor in Brittania Nova was Guy of Nantes , who like Roland, was unable to exert Frankish expansion over Brittany and merely sustained a Breton presence in the Carolingian Empire . According to legend, Roland was laid to rest in the basilica at Blaye , near Bordeaux , on the site of the citadel. Roland
17710-406: The rebel barons in Brittany, where feelings about his seizure of the duchy were still running high. As the decade progressed, Henry increasingly desired to resolve the question of the inheritance. He decided that he would divide his empire after his death, with Young Henry receiving England and Normandy, Richard being given the Duchy of Aquitaine, and Geoffrey acquiring Brittany. This would require
17871-409: The rebellion of 1173. Henry did not appear to have been very interested in the day-to-day business of government, which distinguished him from his father and younger brothers. His father, however, is reputed to have failed to delegate authority to his son, retaining power in England. The majority opinion amongst historians is that of W. L. Warren : "The Young Henry was the only member of the family who
18032-412: The reforms. In the aftermath of the disorders of Stephen's reign in England there were many legal cases concerning land to be resolved: many religious houses had lost land during the conflict, while in other cases owners and heirs had been dispossessed of their property by local barons, which in some cases had since been sold or given to new owners. Henry relied on traditional, local courts — such as
18193-425: The regions carried on with the business of government. Nonetheless, many of the functions of government centred on Henry himself, and he was often surrounded by petitioners requesting decisions or favours. From time to time, Henry's royal court became a magnum concilium , a great council, which was sometimes used to take major decisions, but the term was loosely applied whenever many barons and bishops attended
18354-441: The restoration of royal finances in England, reviving Henry I's financial processes and institutions and attempting to improve the quality of the royal accounting. Revenue from the demesne formed the bulk of Henry's income in England during much of his reign, although taxes were relied upon heavily in the first 11 years. Aided by the capable Richard FitzNeal , he reformed the currency in 1158, putting his name on English coins for
18515-772: The rightful heir to the duchy and launching a military campaign to remove Henry from the province. Geoffrey advised Henry to come to terms with Louis and peace was made between them in August 1151 after mediation by Bernard of Clairvaux . Under the settlement Henry did homage to Louis for Normandy, accepting Louis as his feudal lord, and gave him the disputed lands of the Norman Vexin ; in return, Louis recognised him as duke. Geoffrey died in September 1151, and Henry postponed his plans to return to England, as he first needed to ensure that his succession, particularly in Anjou,
18676-442: The rights of widows respectively. In making these reforms Henry both challenged the traditional rights of barons in dispensing justice and reinforced key feudal principles, but over time they greatly increased royal power in England. Henry's relationship with the Church varied considerably across his lands and over time: as with other aspects of his rule, there was no attempt to form a common ecclesiastical policy. Insofar as he had
18837-578: The role of the royal courts. He cracked down on crime, seizing the belongings of thieves and fugitives, and travelling justices were dispatched to the north and the Midlands. After 1166 Henry's exchequer court in Westminster, which had previously only heard cases connected with royal revenues, began to take wider civil cases on behalf of the King. The reforms continued and Henry created the General Eyre , probably in 1176, which involved dispatching
18998-437: The royal forest law had collapsed in large parts of the country. The King's income had declined seriously and royal control over the coin mints remained limited. Henry presented himself as the legitimate heir to Henry I and began rebuilding the kingdom in his image. Although Stephen had tried to continue Henry I's method of government during his reign, the younger Henry's new government characterised those nineteen years as
19159-563: The siege, arriving with a small army and placing Stephen's besieging forces under siege themselves. Upon news of this, Stephen returned with a large army, and the two sides confronted each other across the River Thames at Wallingford in July. By this point in the war, the barons on both sides were eager to avoid an open battle, so members of the clergy brokered a truce , to the annoyance of both Henry and Stephen. Henry and Stephen took
19320-595: The sister of the Counts of Blois and Champagne. Louis also betrothed daughters by Eleanor to Adèle's brothers Theobald V, Count of Blois, and Henry I, Count of Champagne. This represented an aggressive containment strategy towards Henry rather than the agreed rapprochement and caused Theobald to abandon his alliance with Henry. Henry, who had custody of both Young Henry and Margaret, reacted angrily, and in November he bullied several papal legates into marrying them—despite
19481-534: The son of a count. He opposed the holding of tournaments , probably because of the security risk that such gatherings of armed knights posed in peacetime. The Angevin Empire and court were, as Gillingham describes it, "a family firm". His mother, Matilda, played an important role in his early life and exercised influence for many years later. Henry's relationship with his wife Eleanor was complex: Henry trusted Eleanor to manage England for several years after 1154 and
19642-421: The south-west, the Midlands and much of the north of England. Meanwhile, Henry was attempting to act the part of a legitimate king, witnessing marriages and settlements and holding court in a regal fashion. Stephen amassed troops over the following summer to renew the siege of Wallingford Castle in a final attempt to take the stronghold. The fall of Wallingford seemed imminent and Henry marched south to relieve
19803-466: The surrounding county, seizing castles and taking the province of Quercy . The episode proved to be a long-running point of dispute between the two kings and the chronicler William of Newburgh called the ensuing conflict with Toulouse a "forty years' war". In the aftermath of the Toulouse episode, Louis made an attempt to repair relations with Henry through an 1160 peace treaty. This promised Henry
19964-651: The terms of the settlement, Margaret would bring the castles of the Norman Vexin to her new husband. However, the marriage was pushed through by Henry II when Young Henry and Margaret were small children so that he could seize the castles. A bitter border war followed between the kings. Henry II had toyed with the idea of having Young Henry crowned king as early as 1162 and even procured a papal bull from Alexander III ordering Archbishop Roger of York to crown Young Henry whenever required. Thomas Becket, newly ordained as Archbishop of Canterbury, had been ordered to prepare for
20125-527: The throne, in exchange for promises of the security of his lands; key royal castles would be held on Henry's behalf by guarantors whilst Stephen would have access to Henry's castles, and the numerous foreign mercenaries would be demobilised and sent home. Henry and Stephen sealed the treaty with a kiss of peace in the cathedral. In early 1154 Stephen became more active. He attempted to exert his authority and started demolishing unauthorised castles. The peace remained precarious, and Stephen's son William remained
20286-465: The throne. After her father's death in 1135, Matilda hoped to claim the English throne, but instead, Stephen was crowned king and recognised as the Duke of Normandy, resulting in a civil war between their rival supporters. Geoffrey took advantage of the confusion to attack the Duchy of Normandy but played no direct role in the English conflict, leaving this to Matilda and her powerful illegitimate half-brother Robert, Earl of Gloucester . The war, termed
20447-560: The time when Roland was alive, and even before, never was seen a knight so skilled, so warlike, whose fame resounded so around the world – even if Roland did come back, or if the world were searched as far as the River Nile and the setting sun. There was a perception amongst his contemporaries, and the next generation, that his death in 1183 marked a decline both in the tournament and knightly endeavour. His one-time chaplain, Gervase of Tilbury , remarked on his passing: "Assuredly, as he
20608-469: The treasuries; and a team of royal officials called "the chamber" who followed the King's travels, spending money as necessary and collecting revenues along the way. The long civil war had caused considerable disruption to this system and calculations based on incomplete pipe rolls suggest that royal income fell by 46 per cent between 1129–30 and 1155–56. A new coin, called the Awbridge silver penny ,
20769-437: The unauthorised castles from the war continued. Efforts were made to restore the system of royal justice and the royal finances. Henry also invested heavily in the construction and renovation of prestigious new royal buildings. The King of Scotland and local Welsh rulers had taken advantage of the long civil war in England to seize disputed lands; Henry set about reversing these losses. In 1157 pressure from Henry resulted in
20930-444: The years went by he put increasing energy into judicial and administrative affairs and became more cautious, but throughout his life, he was energetic and frequently impulsive. Despite his surges of anger, he was not normally fiery or overbearing; he was witty in conversation and eloquent in an argument with an intellectual bent of mind and an astonishing memory, and much preferred the solitude of hunting or retiring to his chamber with
21091-514: The young Malcolm IV of Scotland returning the lands in the north of England he had taken during the war; Henry promptly began to refortify the northern frontier. Restoring Anglo-Norman supremacy in Wales proved harder, and Henry had to fight two campaigns in north and south Wales in 1157 and 1158 before the Welsh princes Owain Gwynedd and Rhys ap Gruffydd submitted to his rule, agreeing to
21252-418: Was King of England from 1154 until his death in 1189. During his reign he controlled England , substantial parts of Wales and Ireland , and much of France (including Normandy , Anjou , and Aquitaine ), an area that altogether was later called the Angevin Empire , and also held power over Scotland and the Duchy of Brittany . Henry became politically and militarily involved by the age of fourteen in
21413-415: Was a key patron of the sport. He brought 200 knights to the tournament of Lagny-sur-Marne in November 1179, paying each 20 shillings a day. Though he lacked political weight, his patronage brought him celebrity status throughout western Europe . The baron and troubadour Bertran de Born knew him, stating: [He was] the best king who ever took up a shield, the most daring and best of all tourneyers. From
21574-534: Was a solace to the world while he lived, so it was a blow to all chivalry when he died in the very glow of youth." The traditional view of Young Henry propagated into the modern era by Warren, has, however, been challenged in recent years. Matthew Strickland has argued in his compendium of the Young King's life and career that he was, in fact, an able and likeable individual who merely grew frustrated at his father's refusal to grant him any domains or responsibilities of his own. The young Henry played an important part in
21735-430: Was almost certainly a calculated insult to Louis VII that Margaret of France was not crowned alongside her husband in 1170. Robert of Torigny argues she simply arrived from Normandy too late to participate, but other sources reveal she was deliberately delayed at Caen. Warren believes that this was an ultimately fruitful attempt to prevent Louis VII from dissuading Thomas Becket from accepting his latest overtures. Whatever
21896-414: Was also infamous for his piercing stare, bullying, bursts of temper, and, on occasion, his sullen refusal to speak at all. Some of these outbursts may have been theatrical and for effect. Henry was said to have understood a wide range of languages, including English, but spoke only Latin and French. In his youth Henry enjoyed active participation in warfare, hunting and other adventurous pursuits; as
22057-438: Was crowned King of England a second time, this time together with Margaret, by Rotrou , the Archbishop of Rouen . Young Henry fell out with his father in 1173. Contemporary chroniclers allege that this was owing to the young man's frustration that his father had given him no realm to rule, and his feeling starved of funds. The rebellion seems, however, to have drawn strength from much deeper discontent with his father's rule, and
22218-419: Was deposed in 1156 by Henry's brother, Geoffrey, possibly with Henry's support. When Geoffrey died in 1158, Conan attempted to reclaim Nantes but was opposed by Henry who annexed it for himself. Louis took no action to intervene as Henry steadily increased his power in Brittany. Henry hoped to take a similar approach to regaining control of Toulouse in southern France. Toulouse, while traditionally tied to
22379-412: Was eleven years his senior, eight weeks later on 18 May. The marriage instantly revived Henry's tensions with Louis: it was considered an insult and ran counter to feudal practice because Eleanor, a holder of a French fiefdom , married without Louis's consent, and the marriage between Henry and Eleanor was just as consanguineous as that of her and Louis. Henry's acquisition of Aquitaine also threatened
22540-563: Was embellished in later medieval and Renaissance literature . The first and most famous of these epic treatments was the Old French Chanson de Roland of the 11th century. Two masterpieces of Italian Renaissance poetry, the Orlando Innamorato and Orlando Furioso (by Matteo Maria Boiardo and Ludovico Ariosto , respectively), are even further detached from history than the earlier Chansons , similarly to
22701-587: Was erected in 1450 as symbol of market and Hanseatic justice, and the Roland statue in front of Bremen City Hall (1404) has been listed together with the city hall itself on the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites since 2004. In the Faroe Islands , Roland appears in the ballad of "Runtsivalstríðið" (Battle of Roncevaux) . In Aragón there are several placenames related to Roldán or Rolando, including
22862-405: Was established by German immigrants, many of them refugees from Nazi Germany, who named their new home after Roland to represent freedom. Roland is a servant in the game Fate/Grand Order , portrayed as a faithful servant to God and a righteous paladin. The English expression "to give a Roland for an Oliver", meaning either to offer a quid pro quo or to give as good as one gets , recalls
23023-568: Was evidently the first official appointed to direct Frankish policy in Breton affairs, as local Franks under the Merovingian dynasty had not previously pursued any specific relationship with the Bretons. Their frontier castle districts such as Vitré, Ille-et-Vilaine , south of Mont Saint-Michel , are now divided between Normandy and Brittany. The distinctive culture of this region preserves
23184-482: Was far less dynamic in resisting Angevin power than he had been earlier in his reign. The disputes between the two drew in other powers across the region, including Thierry, Count of Flanders , who signed a military alliance with Henry, albeit with a clause that prevented the count from being forced to fight against Louis, his feudal lord. Further south, Theobald V, Count of Blois , an enemy of Louis, became another early ally of Henry. The resulting military tensions and
23345-447: Was for hunting, for which the court became famous. Henry had several preferred royal hunting lodges and apartments across his lands and invested heavily in his royal castles, both for their practical utility as fortresses, and as symbols of royal power and prestige. The court was relatively formal in its style and language, possibly because Henry was attempting to compensate for his own sudden rise to power and relatively humble origins as
23506-411: Was great disparity... [Henry] was admirable for gentleness and liberality... had a commendable suavity... commended for his easy temper... remarkable for his clemency... the vile and undeserving found their refuge in [Henry]... was the shield of bad men... was bent on martial sports... bestowed his favours on foreigners... [Henry's] ambition magnanimously compassed the world." Another description says "He
23667-488: Was increasingly important to rulers during the 12th century to pay mercenary forces and to build stone castles, both vital to successful military campaigns. Henry inherited a difficult situation in England in 1154. Henry I had established a system of royal finances that depended upon three key institutions: a central royal treasury in London, supported by treasuries in key castles; the exchequer that accounted for payments to
23828-465: Was instructed by a magister , Master Matthew; Robert's household was known for its education and learning. The canons of St Augustine's in Bristol also helped in Henry's education, and he remembered them with affection in later years. Henry returned to Anjou in either 1143 or 1144, resuming his education under William of Conches , another famous academic. Henry returned to England in 1147, at
23989-415: Was issued under Stephen in 1153 to try to stabilise the English currency after the war; it was effective in replacing the previously circulating currency. Less is known about how financial affairs were managed in Henry's Continental possessions, but a very similar system operated in Normandy, and a comparable system probably operated in both Anjou and Aquitaine. On taking power Henry gave a high priority to
24150-403: Was known in his own lifetime as "Henry the Young King" to distinguish him from his father. As he was not a reigning king, he is not counted in the numerical succession of kings of England. According to one of Thomas Becket 's correspondents, Henry was knighted by his father before the coronation, but the History of William Marshal asserts that the king was knighted by Marshal in the course of
24311-887: Was later content for her to govern Aquitaine. Indeed, Eleanor was believed to have influence over Henry during much of their marriage. Ultimately, their relationship disintegrated. Chroniclers and historians have speculated on what ultimately caused Eleanor to abandon Henry to support her older sons in the Revolt of 1173–1174 . Probable explanations include his persistent interference in Aquitaine; Henry's, rather than Eleanor's, acceptance of homage from Raymond of Toulouse in 1173; and his harsh temper. Henry had eight legitimate children by Eleanor: five sons, William , Young Henry, Richard , Geoffrey and John ; and three daughters, Matilda , Eleanor and Joan . He had several long-term mistresses, including Annabel de Balliol and Rosamund Clifford , and also several illegitimate children. Amongst
24472-425: Was popular in his own day ... also the only one who gave no evidence of political sagacity, military skill, or even ordinary intelligence...", and elaborated in a later book, "He was gracious, benign, affable, courteous, the soul of liberality and generosity. Unfortunately, he was also shallow, vain, careless, empty-headed, incompetent, improvident, and irresponsible." The Young King's contemporary reputation, however,
24633-424: Was positive. Likely this was due to the enthusiastic tournament culture of his time. In the History of William Marshal , the biography of the knight assigned to him as a tutor in 1170 and his tournament team leader until 1182, he is described as a constant competitor at tournaments across northern and central France between 1175 and 1182. With his cousins Counts Philip I of Flanders and Baldwin V of Hainaut , he
24794-687: Was quite unusual under medieval law as Conan might have had sons who could have legitimately inherited the duchy. Elsewhere in France, Henry attempted to seize the Auvergne , much to the anger of the French king. Further south, Henry continued to apply pressure on Raymond of Toulouse. He campaigned there personally in 1161 and sent his allies Alfonso II of Aragon and the Archbishop of Bordeaux against Raymond in 1164. In 1165, Raymond divorced Louis's sister and possibly pursued an alliance with Henry instead. These growing tensions between Henry and Louis finally spilled over into open war in 1167, triggered by
24955-426: Was reached. Henry and Eleanor had eight children. Three of their sons would rule as king, though Henry the Young King only as co-ruler rather than sole monarch, as he predeceased his father. As his sons grew up, Henry struggled to find ways to satisfy their desires for land and immediate power, and tensions rose over the future inheritance of the empire, encouraged by Louis VII and his son Philip II , who ascended to
25116-424: Was said by chroniclers to be good-looking, red-haired, freckled, with a large head. He had a short, stocky body and was bow-legged from riding. Often he was scruffily dressed. His preference for the short Angevin cloak earned him the nickname "Curtmantle". Henry was neither as reserved as his mother nor as charming as his father, but he was famous for his energy and drive. He was ruthless but not vindictive. He
25277-466: Was secure. At around this time, he was also probably secretly planning his marriage to Eleanor , then still the wife of Louis. Eleanor was the Duchess of Aquitaine , a land in the south of France, and was considered beautiful, lively and controversial, but had not borne Louis any sons. Louis had the marriage annulled on the grounds of consanguinity , and the nineteen year old Henry married Eleanor, who
25438-618: Was tall in stature and distinguished in appearance; his face expressed merriment and mature judgment in good measure; fair among the children of men, he was courteous and cheerful. Gracious to all, he was loved by all; amiable to all, he was incapable of making an enemy. He was matchless in warfare, and as he outstripped them all in valour, cordiality, and the outstanding graciousness of his manners, his true generosity, and true integrity..." Henry II of England Henry II ( ( 1133-March-05 ) ( 1189-July-06 ) 5 March 1133 – 6 July 1189 ), also known as Henry Fitzempress and Henry Curtmantle ,
25599-451: Was then crowned alongside Eleanor at Westminster Abbey on 19 December. At the coronation Henry wore one of the imperial crowns his mother brought back from Germany; they had once belonged to Emperor Henry V. The royal court was gathered in April 1155, where the barons swore fealty to the King and his sons. Several potential rivals still existed, including Stephen's son William and Henry's brothers Geoffrey and William , but they all died in
25760-530: Was turned into a popular and iconic figure of medieval Europe and its minstrel culture. Many tales made him a nephew of Charlemagne and turned his life into an epic tale of the noble Christian killed by hostile forces, which forms part of the medieval Matter of France . The tale of Roland's death is retold in the 11th-century poem The Song of Roland , where he is equipped with the olifant (a signaling horn) and an unbreakable sword, enchanted by various Christian relics, named Durendal . The Song contains
25921-527: Was very effective at finding and keeping competent officials, including within the Church, a key part of royal administration in the 12th century. Royal patronage within the Church provided an effective route to advancement under Henry, and most of his preferred clerics eventually became bishops and archbishops. By contrast, the number of earldoms in England shrank considerably, removing the potential for advancement for many traditional barons. Henry could also show his ira et malevolentia – "anger and ill-will" –
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