117-520: Yogasana may mean: an Asana , a posture in hatha yoga or modern postural yoga in medieval usage as in the Gheranda Samhita , a cross-legged seated posture like Sukhasana Competitive yoga , a sport Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Yogasana . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change
234-802: A 19th-century Scandinavian tradition of gymnastics dating back to Pehr Ling , and "found their way to India" by the early 20th century. Yoga asanas were brought to America in 1919 by Yogendra , sometimes called "the Father of the Modern Yoga Renaissance", his system influenced by the physical culture of Max Müller . In 1924, Swami Kuvalayananda founded the Kaivalyadhama Health and Yoga Research Center in Maharashtra . He combined asanas with Indian systems of exercise and modern European gymnastics, having according to
351-489: A Jain householder is the voluntary ritual practice of "assuming temporary ascetic status". There are many rituals in Jainism's various sects. According to Dundas, the ritualistic lay path among Śvētāmbara Jains is "heavily imbued with ascetic values", where the rituals either revere or celebrate the ascetic life of tirthankaras, or progressively approach the psychological and physical life of an ascetic. The ultimate ritual
468-567: A Jain mendicant for the period. Śvētāmbara Jains do similarly in the eight day paryusana with samvatsari-pratikramana . The practice is believed to remove karma from one's soul and provides merit ( punya ). A "one day" fast lasts about 36 hours, starting at sunset before the day of the fast and ending 48 minutes after sunrise the day after. Among laypeople, fasting is more commonly observed by women, as it shows their piety and religious purity, gains merit earning and helps ensure future well-being for their family. Some religious fasts are observed in
585-424: A body are called Siddhas (liberated souls). Only a soul with human body can attain enlightenment and liberation. The liberated beings are the supreme beings and are worshipped by all heavenly, earthly and hellish beings who aspire to attain liberation themselves. Purification of soul and liberation can be achieved through the path of three jewels: Samyak Darśana (Correct View), meaning faith, acceptance of
702-501: A central link between the manifest body and the unmanifest spirit. Therefore it should not be the sense-attached, bodily-involved consciousness that motivates yoga practice, but spiritual thoughts. According to Grill, this path from above to below is essential, because “the soul lives in the receptivity of giving and not in the receptivity of earthly taking.” For the practice he has written a book called The Souldimension of Yoga , which has already been translated into many languages. Since
819-411: A duty to rescue all creatures", but resulting from "continual self-discipline", a cleansing of the soul that leads to one's own spiritual development which ultimately affects one's salvation and release from rebirths. Jains believe that causing injury to any being in any form creates bad karma which affects one's rebirth, future well-being and causes suffering. Late medieval Jain scholars re-examined
936-506: A few being ancient, some being medieval, and a growing number recent. Some that appear traditional, such as Virabhadrasana I (Warrior Pose I), are relatively recent: that pose was probably devised by Krishnamacharya around 1940, and it was popularised by his pupil, Iyengar. A pose that is certainly younger than that is Parivritta Parsvakonasana (Revolved Side Angle Pose): it was not in the first edition of Pattabhi Jois's Yoga Mala in 1962. Viparita Virabhadrasana (Reversed Warrior Pose)
1053-414: A methodical way of freeing up the spine, limbs, and breathing so that the yogi can spend extended periods of time in a seated position." Iyengar observed that the practice of asanas "brings steadiness, health, and lightness of limb. A steady and pleasant posture produces mental equilibrium and prevents fickleness of mind." He adds that they bring agility, balance, endurance, and "great vitality", developing
1170-1021: A new system of asanas (incorporating systems of exercise as well as traditional hatha yoga). Among Krishnamacharya's pupils were influential Indian yoga teachers including Pattabhi Jois , founder of Ashtanga vinyasa yoga , and B.K.S. Iyengar , founder of Iyengar yoga . Together they described hundreds more asanas, revived the popularity of yoga, and brought it to the Western world. Many more asanas have been devised since Iyengar's 1966 Light on Yoga which described some 200 asanas. Hundreds more were illustrated by Dharma Mittra . Asanas were claimed to provide both spiritual and physical benefits in medieval hatha yoga texts. More recently, studies have provided evidence that they improve flexibility, strength, and balance; to reduce stress and conditions related to it; and specifically to alleviate some diseases such as asthma and diabetes. Asanas have appeared in culture for many centuries. Religious Indian art depicts figures of
1287-471: A predominantly lacto-vegetarian lifestyle. Parasparopagraho jīvānām (the function of souls is to help one another) is the faith's motto, and the Namokar Mantra is its most common and strongest prayer. Jainism is one of the oldest religions still practiced today. It has two major ancient sub-traditions, Digambaras and Śvētāmbaras , which hold different views on ascetic practices, gender, and
SECTION 10
#17327839872731404-627: A prototype of the god Shiva , recognised by being three-faced; in a yoga position as the Mahayogin, the god of yoga; having four animals as Pashupati , the Lord of Beasts; with deer beneath the throne, as in medieval depictions of Shiva; having a three-part headdress recalling Shiva's trident; and possibly being ithyphallic , again like Shiva. If correct, this would be the oldest record of an asana. However, with no proof anywhere of an Indus Valley origin for Shiva, with multiple competing interpretations of
1521-553: A secular context, the journalists Nell Frizzell and Reni Eddo-Lodge have debated (in The Guardian ) whether Western yoga classes represent "cultural appropriation". In Frizzell's view, yoga has become a new entity, a long way from the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, and while some practitioners are culturally insensitive, others treat it with more respect. Eddo-Lodge agrees that Western yoga is far from Patanjali, but argues that
1638-502: A single asana by name, merely specifying the characteristics of a good asana: स्थिरसुखमासनम् ॥४६॥ sthira sukham āsanam Asana means a steady and comfortable posture. Yoga Sutras 2:46 The Sutras are embedded in the Bhasya commentary, which scholars suggest may also be by Patanjali; it names 12 seated meditation asanas including Padmasana , Virasana , Bhadrasana , and Svastikasana . The 10th–11th century Vimanarcanakalpa
1755-528: A social and supportive female group. Long fasts are celebrated by friends and families with special ceremonies. Jainism considers meditation ( dhyana ) a necessary practice, but its goals are very different from those in Buddhism and Hinduism. In Jainism, meditation is concerned more with stopping karmic attachments and activity, not as a means to transformational insights or self-realization in other Indian religions. According to Padmanabh Jaini , Sāmāyika
1872-459: A stick, Chakrasana , Yogapattasana which requires the use of a strap , and a hand-standing inverted pose with a stick, as well as several unidentified poses. By the 17th century, asanas became an important component of Hatha yoga practice, and more non-seated poses appear. The Hatha Ratnavali by Srinivasa (17th century) is one of the few texts to attempt an actual listing of 84 asanas, although 4 out of its list cannot be translated from
1989-411: A stricter vow by eating only once a day. Jains fast particularly during festivals. This practice is called upavasa , tapasya or vrata , and may be practiced according to one's ability. Digambaras fast for Dasa-laksana-parvan , eating only one or two meals per day, drinking only boiled water for ten days, or fasting completely on the first and last days of the festival, mimicking the practices of
2106-665: A universal religious tolerance", and a teaching of "plurality" and "benign attitude to other [ethical, religious] positions". Dundas states this is a misreading of historical texts and Mahāvīra's teachings. According to him, the "many pointedness, multiple perspective" teachings of the Mahāvīra is about the nature of absolute reality and human existence. He claims that it is not about condoning activities such as killing animals for food, nor violence against disbelievers or any other living being as "perhaps right". The five vows for Jain monks and nuns, for example, are strict requirements and there
2223-445: A variety of claims for the benefits brought by the asanas, both spiritual and physical. The Hatha Yoga Pradipika (HYP) states that asanas in general, described as the first auxiliary of hatha yoga, give "steadiness, good health, and lightness of limb." (HYP 1.17) Specific asanas, it claims, bring additional benefits; for example, Matsyendrasana awakens Kundalini and makes the semen steady; (HYP 1.27) Paschimottanasana "stokes up
2340-400: Is anekāntavāda , from anekānta ("many-sidedness," etymologically " non -oneness" or "not being one") and vada ("doctrine"). The doctrine states that truth and reality are complex and always have multiple aspects. It further states that reality can be experienced, but cannot be fully expressed with language. It suggests that human attempts to communicate are Naya , "partial expression of
2457-440: Is sallekhana , a religious death through ascetic abandonment of food and drinks. The Digambara Jains follow the same theme, but the life cycle and religious rituals are closer to a Hindu liturgy. The overlap is mainly in the life cycle (rites-of-passage) rituals, and likely developed because Jain and Hindu societies overlapped, and rituals were viewed as necessary and secular. Jains ritually worship numerous deities, especially
SECTION 20
#17327839872732574-1022: Is a "religious death" ritual observed at the end of life, historically by Jain monks and nuns, but rare in the modern age. In this vow, there is voluntary and gradual reduction of food and liquid intake to end one's life by choice and with dispassion, This is believed to reduce negative karma that affects a soul's future rebirths. Of the major Indian religions, Jainism has had the strongest ascetic tradition. Ascetic life may include nakedness, symbolizing non-possession even of clothes, fasting, body mortification, and penance, to burn away past karma and stop producing new karma, both of which are believed essential for reaching siddha and moksha ("liberation from rebirths" and "salvation"). Jain texts like Tattvartha Sūtra and Uttaradhyayana Sūtra discuss austerities in detail. Six outer and six inner practices are oft-repeated in later Jain texts. Outer austerities include complete fasting, eating limited amounts, eating restricted items, abstaining from tasty foods, mortifying
2691-418: Is a body posture, originally and still a general term for a sitting meditation pose , and later extended in hatha yoga and modern yoga as exercise , to any type of position, adding reclining, standing , inverted, twisting, and balancing poses. The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali define "asana" as "[a position that] is steady and comfortable". Patanjali mentions the ability to sit for extended periods as one of
2808-985: Is a fundamental tenet of Jainism. It holds that one must abandon all violent activity and that without such a commitment to non-violence all religious behavior is worthless. In Jain theology, it does not matter how correct or defensible the violence may be, one must not kill or harm any being, and non-violence is the highest religious duty. Jain texts such as Ācārāṅga Sūtra and Tattvarthasūtra state that one must renounce all killing of living beings, whether tiny or large, movable or immovable. Its theology teaches that one must neither kill another living being, nor cause another to kill, nor consent to any killing directly or indirectly. Furthermore, Jainism emphasizes non-violence against all beings not only in action but also in speech and in thought. It states that instead of hate or violence against anyone, "all living creatures must help each other". Jains believe that violence negatively affects and destroys one's soul, particularly when
2925-478: Is a practice of "brief periods in meditation" in Jainism that is a part of siksavrata (ritual restraint). The goal of Sāmāyika is to achieve equanimity, and it is the second siksavrata . The samayika ritual is practiced at least three times a day by mendicants, while a layperson includes it with other ritual practices such as Puja in a Jain temple and doing charity work. According to Johnson, as well as Jaini, samayika connotes more than meditation, and for
3042-421: Is a sin in Jainism, with negative karmic effects. Jainism states that souls begin in a primordial state, and either evolve to a higher state or regress if driven by their karma. It further clarifies that abhavya (incapable) souls can never attain moksha (liberation). It explains that the abhavya state is entered after an intentional and shockingly evil act. Souls can be good or evil in Jainism, unlike
3159-570: Is a wandering mendicant in the Digambara tradition, or a resident mendicant in the Śvētāmbara tradition. For Jain laypersons, it recommends limited possession of property that has been honestly earned, and giving excess property to charity. According to Natubhai Shah, aparigraha applies to both the material and the psychic. Material possessions refer to various forms of property. Psychic possessions refer to emotions, likes and dislikes, and attachments of any form. Unchecked attachment to possessions
3276-518: Is accepted as a truth, as in Hinduism but not Buddhism. The cycle of rebirths has a definite beginning and end in Jainism. Jain theosophy asserts that each soul passes through 8,400,000 birth-situations as they circle through Saṃsāra , going through five types of bodies: earth bodies, water bodies, fire bodies, air bodies and vegetable lives, constantly changing with all human and non-human activities from rainfall to breathing. Harming any life form
3393-450: Is an Indian religion . Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankara s (supreme preachers of Dharma ), with the first in the current time cycle being Rishabhadeva , whom the tradition holds to have lived millions of years ago, the twenty-third tirthankara Parshvanatha , whom historians date to the 9th century BCE , and the twenty-fourth tirthankara Mahavira , around 600 BCE. Jainism
3510-543: Is called devapuja , and is found in all Jain sub-traditions. Typically, the Jain layperson enters the Derasar (Jain temple) inner sanctum in simple clothing and bare feet with a plate filled with offerings, bows down, says the namaskar , completes his or her litany and prayers, sometimes is assisted by the temple priest, leaves the offerings and then departs. Jain practices include performing abhisheka (ceremonial bath) of
3627-411: Is considered an eternal dharma with the tirthankaras guiding every time cycle of the cosmology . Central to understanding Jain philosophy is the concept of bhedvigyān , or the clear distinction in the nature of the soul and non-soul entities. This principle underscores the innate purity and potential for liberation within every soul , distinct from the physical and mental elements that bind it to
Yogasana - Misplaced Pages Continue
3744-426: Is considered as "faith in the tattvas ". The spiritual goal in Jainism is to reach moksha for ascetics, but for most Jain laypersons, it is to accumulate good karma that leads to better rebirth and a step closer to liberation. Jain philosophy accepts three reliable means of knowledge ( pramana ). It holds that correct knowledge is based on perception ( pratyaksa ), inference ( anumana ) and testimony ( sabda or
3861-446: Is encouraged if there are concerns about animal welfare. Jain monks, nuns and some followers avoid root vegetables such as potatoes, onions, and garlic because tiny organisms are injured when the plant is pulled up, and because a bulb or tuber's ability to sprout is seen as characteristic of a higher living being. Jain monks and advanced lay people avoid eating after sunset, observing a vow of ratri-bhojana-tyaga-vrata . Monks observe
3978-690: Is evidence that practice of asanas improves birth outcomes and physical health and quality of life measures in the elderly, and reduces sleep disturbances and hypertension . Iyengar yoga is effective at least in the short term for both neck pain and low back pain. The National Institutes of Health notes that yoga is generally safe "when performed properly", though people with some health conditions, older people, and pregnant woman may need to seek advice. For example, people with glaucoma are advised not to practise inverted postures. The Yoga Journal provides separate lists of asanas that it states are "inadvisable" and should be avoided or modified for each of
4095-455: Is inherently Hindu, making Christian yoga an evident contradiction or indeed "diametrically opposed to Christianity". A similar debate has taken place in a Muslim context; under Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman , yoga, formerly banned as a Hindu practice, has been legalised, while mainly-Hindu Bali has held a yoga competition in defiance of a ruling by Indonesia's Muslim Ulema Council. In
4212-481: Is no "perhaps" about them. Similarly, since ancient times, Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism according to Dundas, but Jainism disagreed, in specific areas, with the knowledge systems and beliefs of these traditions, and vice versa. The third main principle in Jainism is aparigraha which means non-attachment to worldly possessions. For monks and nuns, Jainism requires a vow of complete non-possession of any property, relations and emotions. The ascetic
4329-448: Is not" to metaphysical questions. The Mahāvīra, in contrast, taught his followers to accept both "it is", and "it is not", qualified with "perhaps", to understand Absolute Reality. The permanent being is conceptualized as jiva (soul) and ajiva (matter) within a dualistic anekāntavāda framework. According to Paul Dundas , in contemporary times the anekāntavāda doctrine has been interpreted by some Jains as intending to "promote
4446-458: Is observed by Jains as the anniversary of Mahāvīra's attainment of moksha . The Hindu festival of Diwali is also celebrated on the same date ( Kartika Amavasya ). Jain temples, homes, offices, and shops are decorated with lights and diyas (small oil lamps). The lights are symbolic of knowledge or removal of ignorance. Sweets are often distributed. On Diwali morning, Nirvan Ladoo is offered after praying to Mahāvīra in all Jain temples across
4563-429: Is said to result in direct harm to one's personality. Jainism teaches five ethical duties, which it calls five vows. These are called anuvratas (small vows) for Jain laypersons, and mahavratas (great vows) for Jain mendicants. For both, its moral precepts preface that the Jain has access to a guru (teacher, counsellor), deva (Jina, god), doctrine, and that the individual is free from five offences: doubts about
4680-530: Is still more recent, and may have been created after 2000. Several poses that are now commonly practised, such as Dog Pose and standing asanas including Trikonasana (triangle pose), first appeared in the 20th century, as did the sequence of asanas, Surya Namaskar (Salute to the Sun). A different sun salutation, the Aditya Hridayam , is certainly ancient, as it is described in the "Yuddha Kaanda" Canto 107 of
4797-418: Is symbolic rather than literal, indicating completeness and sacredness. The Hatha Yoga Pradipika (15th century) specifies that of these 84, the first four are important, namely the seated poses Siddhasana, Padmasana, Bhadrasana and Simhasana . The pillars of the 16th century Achyutaraya temple at Hampi are decorated with numerous relief statues of yogins in asanas including Siddhasana balanced on
Yogasana - Misplaced Pages Continue
4914-559: Is the first manuscript to describe a non-seated asana, in the form of Mayurasana (peacock) – a balancing pose. Such poses appear, according to the scholar James Mallinson , to have been created outside Shaivism , the home of the Nath yoga tradition, and to have been associated with asceticism ; they were later adopted by the Nath yogins. The Goraksha Sataka (10–11th century), or Goraksha Paddhathi , an early hatha yogic text, describes
5031-701: Is treated as absolute. The doctrine is ancient, found in Buddhist texts such as the Samaññaphala Sutta . The Jain Agamas suggest that Mahāvīra's approach to answering all metaphysical philosophical questions was a "qualified yes" ( syāt ). These texts identify anekāntavāda as a key difference from the Buddha 's teachings. The Buddha taught the Middle Way, rejecting extremes of the answer "it is" or "it
5148-531: The Jinas . In Jainism a Jina as deva is not an avatar (incarnation), but the highest state of omniscience that an ascetic tirthankara achieved. Out of the 24 tirthankaras, Jains predominantly worship four: Mahāvīra, Parshvanatha , Neminatha and Rishabhanatha . Among the non- tirthankara saints, devotional worship is common for Bahubali among the Digambaras. The Panch Kalyanaka rituals remember
5265-555: The Ramayana . Surya Namaskar in its modern form was created by the Raja of Aundh , Bhawanrao Shriniwasrao Pant Pratinidhi ; K. Pattabhi Jois defined the variant forms Surya Namaskar A and B for Ashtanga Yoga, possibly derived from Krishnamacharya. Surya Namaskar can be seen as "a modern, physical culture -oriented rendition" of the simple ancient practice of prostrating oneself to the sun. In 1966, Iyengar's classic Light on Yoga
5382-611: The Ahiṃsā doctrine when faced with external threat or violence. For example, they justified violence by monks to protect nuns. According to Dundas , the Jain scholar Jinadattasuri wrote during a time of destruction of temples and persecution that "anybody engaged in a religious activity who was forced to fight and kill somebody would not lose any spiritual merit but instead attain deliverance". However, examples in Jain texts that condone fighting and killing under certain circumstances are relatively rare. The second main principle of Jainism
5499-542: The Buddha , Jain tirthankaras , and Shiva in lotus position and other meditation seats, and in the "royal ease" position, lalitasana . With the popularity of yoga as exercise, asanas feature commonly in novels and films , and sometimes also in advertising . The central figure in the Pashupati seal from the Indus Valley civilization of c. 2500 BC was identified by Sir John Marshall in 1931 as
5616-691: The Rishi-mandala including the tirthankaras . The Jain tantric traditions use mantra and rituals that are believed to accrue merit for rebirth realms. The most important annual Jain festival is called the Paryushana by Svetambaras and Dasa lakshana parva by the Digambaras. It is celebrated from the 12th day of the waning moon in the traditional lunisolar month of Bhadrapada in the Indian calendar . This typically falls in August or September of
5733-414: The ajiva (non-living). Jains distinguish a substance from a complex body, or thing, by declaring the former a simple indestructible element, while the latter is a compound made of one or more substances that can be destroyed. Tattva connotes reality or truth in Jain philosophy and is the framework for salvation. According to Digambara Jains, there are seven tattvas : the sentient ( jiva or living),
5850-566: The eight limbs of his system . Asanas are also called yoga poses or yoga postures in English. The 10th or 11th century Goraksha Sataka and the 15th century Hatha Yoga Pradipika identify 84 asanas; the 17th century Hatha Ratnavali provides a different list of 84 asanas, describing some of them. In the 20th century, Indian nationalism favoured physical culture in response to colonialism . In that environment, pioneers such as Yogendra , Kuvalayananda , and Krishnamacharya taught
5967-458: The nondualism of some forms of Hinduism and Buddhism. According to Jainism, a Siddha (liberated soul) has gone beyond Saṃsāra , is at the apex, is omniscient, and remains there eternally. Jain texts propound that the universe consists of many eternal lokas (realms of existence). As in Buddhism and Hinduism, both time and the universe are eternal, but the universe is transient. The universe, body, matter and time are considered separate from
SECTION 50
#17327839872736084-430: The "tantric manipulation of the subtle body", and at a more physical level, destroying poisons. Singleton describes Hatha Yoga's purpose as "the transmutation of the human body into a vessel immune from mortal decay", citing the Gheranda Samhita 's metaphor of an earthenware pot that requires the fire of yoga to make it serviceable. Mallinson and Singleton note that the purposes of asana practice were, until around
6201-690: The 1930s, creating "a marriage of hatha yoga, wrestling exercises, and modern Western gymnastic movement, and unlike anything seen before in the yoga tradition." Sjoman argues that Krishnamacharya drew on the Vyayama Dipika gymnastic exercise manual to create the Mysore Palace system of yoga. Singleton argues that Krishnamacharya was familiar with the gymnastics culture of his time, which was influenced by Scandinavian gymnastics; his experimentation with asanas and innovative use of gymnastic jumping between poses may well explain, Singleton suggests,
6318-417: The 19th century, is from Sanskrit : आसन āsana "sitting down" (from आस् ās "to sit down"), a sitting posture, a meditation seat. The eight limbs are, in order, the yamas (codes of social conduct), niyamas (self-observances), asanas (postures), pranayama (breath work), pratyahara (sense withdrawal or non-attachment), dharana (concentration), dhyana (meditation), and samadhi (realization of
6435-534: The 2011 census. Outside India, some of the largest Jain communities can be found in Canada , Europe , and the United States . Japan is also home to a fast-growing community of converts. Major festivals include Paryushana and Das Lakshana , Ashtanika , Mahavir Janma Kalyanak , Akshaya Tritiya , and Dipawali . Jainism is transtheistic and forecasts that the universe evolves without violating
6552-834: The British, a belief reinforced by then-current ideas of Lamarckism and eugenics . This culture was taken up from the 1880s to the early 20th century by Indian nationalists such as Tiruka , who taught exercises and unarmed combat techniques under the guise of yoga. Meanwhile, proponents of Indian physical culture like K. V. Iyer consciously combined "hata yoga" [ sic ] with bodybuilding in his Bangalore gymnasium. Singleton notes that poses close to Parighasana , Parsvottanasana , Navasana and others were described in Niels Bukh 's 1924 Danish text Grundgymnastik eller primitiv gymnastik (known in English as Primary Gymnastics ). These in turn were derived from
6669-522: The Gregorian calendar. It lasts eight days for Svetambaras, and ten days among the Digambaras. It is a time when lay people fast and pray. The five vows are emphasized during this time. Svetambaras recite the Kalpasūtras , while Digambaras read their own texts. The festival is an occasion where Jains make active effort to stop cruelty towards other life forms, freeing animals in captivity and preventing
6786-478: The Jain text Tattvartha sūtra , the first two are indirect knowledge and the remaining three are direct knowledge. According to Jainism, the existence of "a bound and ever changing soul" is a self-evident truth, an axiom which does not need to be proven. It maintains that there are numerous souls, but every one of them has three qualities ( Guṇa ): consciousness ( chaitanya , the most important), bliss ( sukha ) and vibrational energy ( virya ). It further claims
6903-463: The Mahāvīra (Vardhamana) set an example by performing severe austerities for twelve years. Monastic organization, sangh , has a four-fold order consisting of sadhu (male ascetics, muni ), sadhvi (female ascetics, aryika ), śrāvaka (laymen), and śrāvikā (laywomen). The latter two support the ascetics and their monastic organizations called gacch or samuday , in autonomous regional Jain congregations. Jain monastic rules have encouraged
7020-574: The Pashupati seal and no obvious way of deciding between these, there is no reliable evidence that it is actually a yoga pose that is depicted in the seal. Asanas originated in India. In his Yoga Sutras , Patanjali (c. 2nd to 4th century CE) describes asana practice as the third of the eight limbs ( Sanskrit : अष्टाङ्ग, aṣṭāṅga , from अष्ट् aṣṭ , eight, and अङ्ग aṅga , limb) of classical, or raja yoga . The word asana, in use in English since
7137-468: The Sanskrit, and at least 11 are merely mentioned without any description, their appearance known from other texts. The Gheranda Samhita (late 17th century) again asserts that Shiva taught 84 lakh of asanas, out of which 84 are preeminent, and "32 are useful in the world of mortals." The yoga teacher and scholar Mark Singleton notes from study of the primary texts that "asana was rarely, if ever,
SECTION 60
#17327839872737254-577: The West, yoga is practiced mainly by women. For example, in Britain in the 1970s, women formed between 70 and 90 percent of most yoga classes, as well as most of the yoga teachers. It has been suggested that yoga was seen as a support for women in the face of male-dominated medicine, offering an alternative approach for chronic medical conditions, as well as to beauty and ageing, and it offered a way of meeting other women. Singleton notes that women in yoga are in
7371-403: The asanas, Iyengar states, dualities like gain and loss, or fame and shame disappear. Sjoman argues that the concept of stretching in yoga can be looked at through one of Patanjali's Yoga Sutras , 2.47, which says that [asanas are achieved] by loosening ( śaithilya ) the effort ( prayatna ) and meditating on the endless ( ananta ). Sjoman points out that this physical loosening is to do with
7488-517: The asanas. The graph shows the rapid growth in number of asanas in the 20th century. The asanas of hatha yoga originally had a spiritual purpose within Hinduism , the attainment of samadhi , a state of meditative consciousness. The scholar of religion Andrea Jain notes that medieval Hatha Yoga was shared among yoga traditions, from Shaivite Naths to Vaishnavas, Jains and Sufis ; in her view, its aims too varied, including spiritual goals involving
7605-456: The body of a heavenly celestial do so because of their positive karma. It is further stated that they possess a more transcendent knowledge about material things and can anticipate events in the human realms. However, once their past karmic merit is exhausted, it is explained that their souls are reborn again as humans, animals or other beings. The perfect enlightened souls with a body are called Arihants (victors) and perfect souls without
7722-492: The body to a "fine physique which is strong and elastic without being muscle-bound". But, Iyengar states, their real importance is the way they train the mind, "conquer[ing]" the body and making it "a fit vehicle for the spirit". Iyengar saw it as significant that asanas are named after plants, insects, fish and amphibians, reptiles, birds, and quadrupeds; as well as "legendary heroes", sages, and avatars of Hindu gods, in his view "illustrating spiritual evolution". For instance,
7839-445: The body's position (like Utthita Parsvakonasana , "Extended Side Angle Pose"); these are, he suggests, the ones "that have been developed later". A name following this pattern is Shatkonasana, "Six Triangles Pose", described in 2015. Mittra illustrated 908 poses and variations in his 1984 Master Yoga Chart , and many more have been created since then. The number of asanas has thus grown increasingly rapidly with time, as summarised in
7956-547: The changes cannot be undone, whether people use it "as a holier-than-thou tool, as a tactic to balance out excessive drug use, or practised similarly to its origins with the spirituality that comes with it". From a Hindu perspective, the practice of asanas in the Western world as physical exercise is sometimes seen as yoga that has lost its way. In 2012, the Hindu American Foundation ran a "Take Back Yoga" campaign to emphasise yoga's roots in Hinduism. In
8073-634: The cycle of birth and rebirth . Recognizing and internalizing this separation is essential for spiritual progress and the attainment of samyak darshan or self realization , which marks the beginning of the aspirant's journey towards liberation . The three main pillars of Jainism are ahiṃsā (non-violence), anekāntavāda (non-absolutism), and aparigraha (asceticism). Jain monks take five main vows: ahiṃsā (non-violence), satya (truth), asteya (not stealing), brahmacharya (chastity), and aparigraha (non-possessiveness). These principles have affected Jain culture in many ways, such as leading to
8190-604: The digestive fire, slims the belly and gives good health"; (HYP 1.29) Shavasana "takes away fatigue and relaxes the mind"; (HYP 1.32) Siddhasana "bursts open the door to liberation"; (HYP 1.35) while Padmasana "destroys all diseases" (HYP 1.47) and if done together with retention of the breath in pranayama confers liberation. (HYP 1.44–49) These claims lie within a tradition across all forms of yoga that practitioners can gain supernatural powers , but with ambivalence about their usefulness, since they may obstruct progress towards liberation. Hemachandra 's Yogashastra (1.8–9) lists
8307-634: The effects of the set of asanas on 25 healthy women who were between 35 and 37 weeks pregnant. The authors noted that apart from their experimental findings, they had been unable to find any scientific evidence that supported the previously published concerns, and that on the contrary there was evidence including from systematic review that yoga was suitable for pregnant women, with a variety of possible benefits. Jain Jainism ( / ˈ dʒ eɪ n ɪ z əm / JAY -niz-əm ), also known as Jain Dharma ,
8424-413: The faith, indecisiveness about the truths of Jainism, insincerity of desire for Jain teachings, non-recognition of fellow Jains, and insufficient admiration of fellow Jains' spiritual endeavors. Such a person undertakes the following Five vows of Jainism: Jainism prescribes seven supplementary vows, including three guņa vratas (merit vows) and four śikşā vratas . The Sallekhana (or Santhara ) vow
8541-452: The first eon the universe generates, and in the next it degenerates. Thus, it divides the worldly cycle of time into two half-cycles, utsarpiṇī (ascending, progressive prosperity and happiness) and avasarpiṇī (descending, increasing sorrow and immorality). It states that the world is currently in the fifth ara of avasarpiṇī , full of sorrow and religious decline, where the height of living beings shrinks. According to Jainism, after
8658-543: The five life events of the tirthankaras , including the Panch Kalyanaka Pratishtha Mahotsava , Panch Kalyanaka Puja and Snatrapuja . The basic ritual is darsana (seeing) of deva , which includes Jina, or other yaksas , gods and goddesses such as Brahmadeva, 52 Viras, Padmavati , Ambika and 16 Vidyadevis (including Sarasvati and Lakshmi ). Terapanthi Digambaras limit their ritual worship to tirthankaras. The worship ritual
8775-445: The flesh, and guarding the flesh (avoiding anything that is a source of temptation). Inner austerities include expiation, confession, respecting and assisting mendicants , studying, meditation, and ignoring bodily wants in order to abandon the body. Lists of internal and external austerities vary with the text and tradition. Asceticism is viewed as a means to control desires, and to purify the jiva (soul). The tirthankaras such as
8892-480: The following medical conditions: asthma ; back injury ; carpal tunnel syndrome ; diarrhoea ; headache ; heart problems ; high blood pressure ; insomnia ; knee injury ; low blood pressure ; menstruation ; neck injury ; pregnancy ; and shoulder injury . The practice of asanas has sometimes been advised against during pregnancy , but that advice has been contested by a 2015 study which found no ill-effects from any of 26 asanas investigated. The study examined
9009-673: The fourteenth century, firstly to form a stable platform for pranayama, mantra repetition ( japa ), and meditation, practices that in turn had spiritual goals; and secondly to stop the accumulation of karma and instead acquire ascetic power, tapas , something that conferred " supernatural abilities ". Hatha Yoga added the ability to cure diseases to this list. Not all Hindu scriptures agreed that asanas were beneficial. The 10th century Garuda Purana stated that "the techniques of posture do not promote yoga. Though called essentials, they all retard one's progress," while early yogis often practised extreme austerities (tapas) to overcome what they saw as
9126-403: The images. Some Jain sects employ a pujari (also called upadhye ), who may be a Hindu, to perform priestly duties at the temple. More elaborate worship includes offerings such as rice, fresh and dry fruits, flowers, coconut, sweets, and money. Some may light up a lamp with camphor and make auspicious marks with sandalwood paste. Devotees also recite Jain texts, particularly the life stories of
9243-454: The insentient ( ajiva or non-living), the karmic influx to the soul ( Āsrava , which is a mix of living and non-living), the bondage of karmic particles to the soul ( Bandha ), the stoppage of karmic particles ( Saṃvara ), the wiping away of past karmic particles ( Nirjarā ), and the liberation ( Moksha ). Śvētāmbaras add two further tattvas , namely good karma ( Punya ) and bad karma ( Paapa ). The true insight in Jain philosophy
9360-558: The law of substance dualism , and the actual realization of this principle plays out through the phenomena of both parallelism and interactionism . Dravya means substances or entity in Sanskrit . Jains believe the universe is made up of six eternal substances: sentient beings or souls ( jīva ), non-sentient substance or matter ( pudgala ), the principle of motion ( dharma ), the principle of rest ( adharma ), space ( ākāśa ), and time ( kāla ). The last five are united as
9477-402: The link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yogasana&oldid=1161446764 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Asana Traditional An āsana ( Sanskrit : आसन )
9594-499: The lion pose, Simhasana , recalls the myth of Narasimha , half man, half lion, and an avatar of Vishnu , as told in the Bhagavata Purana . The message is, Iyengar explains, that while performing asanas, the yogi takes the form of different creatures, from the lowest to the highest , not despising any "for he knows that throughout the whole gamut of creation ... there breathes the same Universal Spirit." Through mastery of
9711-508: The lunisolar month of Chaitra in the traditional Indian calendar. This typically falls in March or April of the Gregorian calendar. The festivities include visiting Jain temples, pilgrimages to shrines, reading Jain texts and processions of Mahāvīra by the community. At his legendary birthplace of Kundagrama in Bihar , north of Patna, special events are held by Jains. The next day of Dipawali
9828-428: The magical powers, which include healing, the destruction of poisons, the ability to become as small as an atom or to go wherever one wishes, invisibility, and shape-shifting. The asanas have been popularised in the Western world by claims about their health benefits, attained not by medieval hatha yoga magic but by the physical and psychological effects of exercise and stretching on the body. The history of such claims
9945-482: The mid-20th century, asanas have been used, especially in the Western world , as physical exercise . In this context, their "overtly Hindu" purpose is masked but its "ecstatic ... transcendent ... possibly subversive" elements remain. That context has led to a division of opinion among Christians , some asserting that it is acceptable as long as they are aware of yoga's origins, others stating that hatha yoga's purpose
10062-435: The mind's letting go of restrictions, allowing the natural state of "unhindered perfect balance" to emerge; he notes that one can only relax through effort, "as only a muscle that is worked is able to relax (that is, there is a distinction between dormancy and relaxation)." Thus asanas had a spiritual purpose, serving to explore the conscious and unconscious mind. Heinz Grill considers the soul in our human existence to be
10179-422: The obstacle of the body in the way of liberation. The yoga scholar and practitioner Theos Bernard , in his 1944 Hatha Yoga: The Report of a Personal Experience , stated that he was "prescribed ... a group of asanas calculated to bring a rich supply of blood to the brain and to various parts of the spinal cord .. [and] a series of reconditioning asanas to stretch, bend, and twist the spinal cord" followed when he
10296-470: The origin of the 84 classic asanas said to have been revealed by the Hindu deity Lord Shiva . Observing that there are as many postures as there are beings and asserting that there are 84 lakh or 8,400,000 species in all, the text states that Lord Shiva fashioned an asana for each lakh, thus giving 84 in all, although it mentions and describes only two in detail: Siddhasana and Padmasana . The number 84
10413-520: The other hand, wear seamless white clothes. During Chandragupta Maurya's reign, Jain tradition states that Acharya Bhadrabahu predicted a twelve-year-long famine and moved to Karnataka with his disciples. Sthulabhadra , a pupil of Acharya Bhadrabahu, is believed to have stayed in Magadha. Later, as stated in tradition, when followers of Acharya Bhadrabahu returned, they found those who had remained at Magadha had started wearing white clothes, which
10530-506: The physical practice of asanas. It became a bestseller, selling three million copies, and was translated into some 17 languages. In 1984, Dharma Mittra compiled a list of about 1,300 asanas and their variations, derived from ancient and modern sources, illustrating them with photographs of himself in each posture; the Dharma Yoga website suggests that he created some 300 of these. The asanas have been created at different times,
10647-566: The popularity of yoga and brought it to the Western world. In 1960, Vishnudevananda Saraswati , in the Sivananda yoga school, published a compilation of sixty-six basic postures and 136 variations of those postures in The Complete Illustrated Book of Yoga . In 1966, Iyengar published Light on Yoga : Yoga Dipika , illustrated with some 600 photographs of Iyengar demonstrating around 200 asanas; it systematised
10764-493: The presence of known contraindications. A 2014 study indicated that different asanas activated particular groups of muscles, varying with the skill of the practitioners, from beginner to instructor. The eleven asanas in the Surya Namaskar sequences A and B (of Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga ) were performed by beginners, advanced practitioners and instructors. The activation of 14 groups of muscles was measured with electrodes on
10881-426: The primary feature of the significant yoga traditions in India." The scholar Norman Sjoman comments that a continuous tradition running all the way back to the medieval yoga texts cannot be traced, either in the practice of asanas or in a history of scholarship. From the 1850s onwards, a culture of physical exercise developed in India to counter the colonial stereotype of supposed "degeneracy" of Indians compared to
10998-634: The resemblances between modern standing asanas and Scandinavian gymnastics. Krishnamacharya, known as the father of modern yoga, had among his pupils people who became influential yoga teachers themselves: the Russian Eugenie V. Peterson, known as Indra Devi ; Pattabhi Jois , who founded Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga in 1948; B.K.S. Iyengar , his brother-in-law, who founded Iyengar Yoga ; T.K.V. Desikachar , his son, who continued his Viniyoga tradition; Srivatsa Ramaswami ; and A. G. Mohan , co-founder of Svastha Yoga & Ayurveda. Together they revived
11115-577: The scholar Joseph Alter a "profound" effect on the evolution of yoga. In 1925, Paramahansa Yogananda , having moved from India to America, set up the Self-Realization Fellowship in Los Angeles, and taught yoga, including asanas, breathing, chanting and meditation, to tens of thousands of Americans, as described in his 1946 Autobiography of a Yogi . Tirumalai Krishnamacharya (1888–1989) studied under Kuvalayananda in
11232-575: The sixth ara , the universe will be reawakened in a new cycle. Jainism is a transtheistic religion, holding that the universe was not created , and will exist forever. It is independent, having no creator, governor, judge, or destroyer. In this, it is unlike the Abrahamic religions and the theistic strands of Hinduism , but similar to Buddhism. However, Jainism believes in the world of heavenly and hellish beings who are born, die and are reborn like earthly beings. The souls who live happily in
11349-500: The skin over the muscles. Among the findings, beginners used pectoral muscles more than instructors, whereas instructors used deltoid muscles more than other practitioners, as well as the vastus medialis (which stabilises the knee). The yoga instructor Grace Bullock writes that such patterns of activation suggest that asana practice increases awareness of the body and the patterns in which muscles are engaged, making exercise more beneficial and safer. Medieval hatha yoga texts make
11466-500: The slaughter of animals. Forgiveness I forgive all living beings, may all living beings forgive me. All in this world are my friends, I have no enemies. — Jain festival prayer on the last day The last day involves a focused prayer and meditation session known as Samvatsari . Jains consider this a day of atonement, granting forgiveness to others, seeking forgiveness from all living beings, physically or mentally asking for forgiveness and resolving to treat everyone in
11583-461: The soul ( jiva ). Their interaction explains life, living, death and rebirth in Jain philosophy. The Jain cosmic universe has three parts, the upper, middle, and lower worlds ( urdhva loka , madhya loka , and adho loka ). Jainism states that Kāla (time) is without beginning and eternal; the cosmic wheel of time, kālachakra , rotates ceaselessly. In this part of the universe, it explains, there are six periods of time within two eons ( ara ), and in
11700-454: The soul, travel with the soul in bound form between rebirths, and affect the suffering and happiness experienced by the jiva in the lokas . Karma is believed to obscure and obstruct the innate nature and striving of the soul, as well as its spiritual potential in the next rebirth. The conceptual framework of the Saṃsāra doctrine differs between Jainism and other Indian religions. Soul ( jiva )
11817-434: The table. Sjoman notes that the names of asanas have been used "promiscuous[ly]", in a tradition of "amalgamation and borrowing" over the centuries, making their history difficult to trace. The presence of matching names is not proof of continuity, since the same name may mean a different pose, and a pose may have been known by multiple names at different times. The estimates here are therefore based on actual descriptions of
11934-451: The texts considered canonical. Both sub-traditions have mendicants supported by laypersons ( śrāvakas and śrāvikas ). The Śvētāmbara tradition in turn has two sub-traditions: Deravasi, also known as Mandirmargis, and Sthānakavasī. The religion has between four and five million followers, known as Jains or Jainas , who reside mostly in India , where they numbered around 4.5 million at
12051-465: The tirthankaras. Traditional Jains, like Buddhists and Hindus, believe in the efficacy of mantras and that certain sounds and words are inherently auspicious, powerful and spiritual. The most famous of the mantras, broadly accepted in various sects of Jainism, is the "five homage" ( panca namaskara ) mantra which is believed to be eternal and existent since the first tirthankara's time. Medieval worship practices included making tantric diagrams of
12168-416: The tradition of Mollie Bagot Stack 's 1930 League of Health and Beauty, influenced by Stack's visit to India in 1912 when she learnt some asanas, and in turn of Genevieve Stebbins 's Harmonic Gymnastics. Asanas have, or are claimed to have, multiple effects on the body, both beneficial and harmful. These include the conscious usage of groups of muscles, effects on health, and possible injury especially in
12285-452: The true Self or Atman , and unity with Brahman , ultimate reality). Asanas, along with the breathing exercises of pranayama , are the physical movements of hatha yoga and of modern yoga . Patanjali describes asanas as a "steady and comfortable posture", referring to the seated postures used for pranayama and for meditation , where meditation is the path to samadhi, transpersonal self-realization. The Yoga Sutras do not mention
12402-542: The truth of soul ( jīva ); Samyak Gyana (Correct Knowledge), meaning undoubting knowledge of the tattvas ; and Samyak Charitra (Correct Conduct), meaning behavior consistent with the Five vows. Jain texts often add samyak tapas (Correct Asceticism) as a fourth jewel, emphasizing belief in ascetic practices as the means to liberation ( moksha ). The four jewels are called Moksha Marga (the path of liberation). The principle of ahimsa (non-violence or non-injury)
12519-459: The truth". According to it, one can experience the taste of truth, but cannot fully express that taste through language. It holds that attempts to express experience are syāt , or valid "in some respect", but remain "perhaps, just one perspective, incomplete". It concludes that in the same way, spiritual truths can be experienced but not fully expressed. It suggests that the great error is belief in ekānta (one-sidedness), where some relative truth
12636-485: The use of mouth cover, as well as the Dandasan – a long stick with woolen threads – to gently remove ants and insects that may come in their path. The practice of non-violence towards all living beings has led to Jain culture being vegetarian . Devout Jains practice lacto-vegetarianism , meaning that they eat no eggs, but accept dairy products if there is no violence against animals during their production. Veganism
12753-406: The vibration draws karmic particles to the soul and creates bondages, but is also what adds merit or demerit to the soul. Jain texts state that souls exist as "clothed with material bodies", where it entirely fills up the body. Karma, as in other Indian religions, connotes in Jainism the universal cause and effect law. However, it is envisioned as a material substance (subtle matter) that can bind to
12870-433: The violence is done with intent, hate or carelessness, or when one indirectly causes or consents to the killing of a human or non-human living being. The doctrine exists in Hinduism and Buddhism, but is most highly developed in Jainism. The theological basis of non-violence as the highest religious duty has been interpreted by some Jain scholars not to "be driven by merit from giving or compassion to other creatures, nor
12987-559: The word of scriptures). These ideas are elaborated in Jain texts such as Tattvarthasūtra , Parvacanasara , Nandi and Anuyogadvarini . Some Jain texts add analogy ( upamana ) as the fourth reliable means, in a manner similar to epistemological theories found in other Indian religions. In Jainism, jnāna (knowledge) is said to be of five kinds – mati jñāna (sensory knowledge), śrutu jñāna (scriptural knowledge), avadhi jñāna ( clairvoyance ), manah prayāya Jñāna ( telepathy ) and kevala jnana ( omniscience ). According to
13104-411: The world as friends. Forgiveness is asked by saying " Micchami Dukkadam " or " Khamat khamna " to others. This means, "If I have offended you in any way, knowingly or unknowingly, in thought, word or action, then I seek your forgiveness." The literal meaning of Paryushana is "abiding" or "coming together". Mahavir Janma Kalyanak celebrates the birth of Mahāvīra. It is celebrated on the 13th day of
13221-547: The world. The Jain new year starts right after Diwali. Some other festivals celebrated by Jains are Akshaya Tritiya and Raksha Bandhan , similar to those in the Hindu communities. The Jain community is divided into two major denominations , Digambara and Śvētāmbara . Monks of the Digambara (sky-clad) tradition do not wear clothes. Female monastics of the Digambara sect wear unstitched plain white sarees and are referred to as Aryikas . Śvētāmbara (white-clad) monastics, on
13338-407: Was able to describe some 200 asanas, consisting of about 50 main poses with their variations. Sjoman observes that whereas many traditional asanas are named for objects (like Vrikshasana , tree pose), legendary figures (like Matsyendrasana , the sage Matsyendra 's pose), or animals (like Kurmasana , tortoise pose), "an overwhelming eighty-three" of Iyengar's asanas have names that simply describe
13455-571: Was reviewed by William J. Broad in his 2012 book The Science of Yoga . Broad argues that while the health claims for yoga began as Hindu nationalist posturing, it turns out that there is ironically "a wealth of real benefits". Physically, the practice of asanas has been claimed to improve flexibility, strength, and balance; to alleviate stress and anxiety, and to reduce the symptoms of lower back pain . Claims have been made about beneficial effects on specific conditions such as asthma , chronic obstructive pulmonary disease , and diabetes . There
13572-602: Was strong enough by the meditation asanas. Bernard named the purpose of Hatha Yoga as "to gain control of the breath" to enable pranayama to work, something that in his view required thorough use of the six purifications . Asanas work in different ways from conventional physical exercises, according to Satyananda Saraswati "placing the physical body in positions that cultivate awareness, relaxation and concentration". Leslie Kaminoff writes in Yoga Anatomy that from one point of view, "all of asana practice can be viewed as
13689-512: Was unacceptable to the others who remained naked. This is how Jains believe the Digambara and Śvētāmbara schism began, with the former being naked while the latter wore white clothes. Digambara saw this as being opposed to the Jain tenet of aparigraha which, according to them, required not even possession of clothes, i.e. complete nudity. In the fifth-century CE, the Council of Valabhi was organized by Śvētāmbara, which Digambara did not attend. At
#272727