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78-697: Yaupi is a primarily Shuar village with a few hundred residents in the province of Morona Santiago , Logroño Canton , Yaupi Parish , Ecuador . This Ecuador location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Shuar The Shuar language belongs to the Jivaroan linguistic family and is spoken by over 50,000 people in the region. The Shuar are known for their skill in warfare, both in defending their territories and in offensive actions against external enemies. Currently, many Shuar live in communities organized around agriculture and hunting, although there are also some who work in mining and

156-488: A self-sufficient farmer . The Shuar are popularly depicted in a wide variety of travelogue and adventure literature because of Western fascination with their former practice of shrinking human heads ( tsantsa ). From the time of first contact with Europeans in the 16th century, to the formation of the Shuar Federation in the 1950s and 1960s, Shuar were semi- nomadic and lived in separate households dispersed in

234-555: A cassava plant is the root. This is long and tapered, with an easily detached rough brown rind. The white or yellowish flesh is firm and even in texture. Commercial cultivars can be 5 to 10 centimetres (2 to 4 in) wide at the top, and some 15 to 30 cm (6 to 12 in) long, with a woody vascular bundle running down the middle. The tuberous roots are largely starch , with small amounts of calcium (16 milligrams per 100 grams), phosphorus (27 mg/100 g), and vitamin C (20.6 mg/100 g). Cassava roots contains little protein , whereas

312-425: A famine reserve and is invaluable in managing labor schedules. It offers flexibility to resource-poor farmers because it serves as either a subsistence or a cash crop. Worldwide, 800 million people depend on cassava as their primary food staple. Cassava roots, peels and leaves are dangerous to eat raw because they contain linamarin and lotaustralin , which are toxic cyanogenic glycosides . These are decomposed by

390-408: A fine powder and used to make tapioca, a popular starch used to make bubbles, a chewy topping in bubble tea . Alcoholic beverages made from cassava include cauim (Brazil), kasiri (Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname), parakari or kari (Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam), and nihamanchi (South America), A safe processing method known as the "wetting method" is to mix the cassava flour with water into

468-560: A fungicide, then wrapping in plastic, freezing, or applying a wax coating. While alternative methods for controlling post-harvest deterioration have been proposed, such as preventing reactive oxygen species effects by using plastic bags during storage and transport, coating the roots with wax, or freezing roots, such strategies have proved to be economically or technically impractical, leading to breeding of cassava varieties with improved durability after harvest, achieved by different mechanisms. One approach used gamma rays to try to silence

546-522: A gene involved in triggering deterioration; another strategy selected for plentiful carotenoids , antioxidants which may help to reduce oxidization after harvest. Cassava is subject to pests from multiple taxonomic groups, including nematodes, and insects, as well as diseases caused by viruses, bacteria, and fungi. All cause reductions in yield, and some cause serious losses of crops. Several viruses cause enough damage to cassava crops to be of economic importance. The African cassava mosaic virus causes

624-788: A high-yielding form of shifting agriculture by the time of European contact in 1492. Cassava was a staple food of pre-Columbian peoples in the Americas and is often portrayed in indigenous art . The Moche people often depicted cassava in their ceramics. Spaniards in their early occupation of Caribbean islands did not want to eat cassava or maize, which they considered insubstantial, dangerous, and not nutritious. They much preferred foods from Spain, specifically wheat bread, olive oil, red wine, and meat, and considered maize and cassava damaging to Europeans. The cultivation and consumption of cassava were nonetheless continued in both Portuguese and Spanish America. Mass production of cassava bread became

702-498: A higher effective yield. The use of tolerant and resistant cultivars is the most practical management method in most locales. Insects such as stem borers and other beetles, moths including Chilomima clarkei , scale insects, fruit flies, shootflies, burrower bugs , grasshoppers, leafhoppers, gall midges, leafcutter ants, and termites contribute to losses of cassava in the field, while others contribute to serious losses, between 19% and 30%, of dried cassava in storage. In Africa ,

780-927: A legend that cassava was introduced in 1880–1885 CE to the South Indian state of Kerala by the King of Travancore , Vishakham Thirunal Maharaja, after a great famine hit the kingdom, as a substitute for rice. However, there are documented cases of cassava cultivation in parts of the state before the time of Vishakham Thirunal Maharaja. Cassava is called kappa or maricheeni in Malayalam , and tapioca in Indian English usage. Optimal conditions for cassava cultivation are mean annual temperatures between 20 and 29 °C (68 and 84 °F), annual precipitation between 1,000 and 2,500 mm (39 and 98 in), and an annual growth period of no less than 240 days. Cassava

858-676: A means to defend Shuar land claims against those of non-indigenous settlers. In 1964 representatives of Shuar centros formed a political Federation to represent their interests to the Ecuadorian state, non-governmental organizations, and transnational corporations. In the 19th century muraiya Shuar became famous among Europeans and Euro-Americans for their elaborate process of shrinking the heads of slain Achuar . Although non-Shuar characterized these shrunken heads ( tsantsa ) as trophies of warfare , Shuar insisted that they were not interested in

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936-399: A myth relates that food derives from the body of Dewi Teknowati, who killed herself rather than accept the advances of the god Batara Guru . She was buried, and her lower leg grew into a cassava plant. In Trinidad, folk stories tell of a saapina or snake-woman; the word is related to sabada , meaning to pound, for what is traditionally a woman's work of pounding cassava. The identity of

1014-478: A previous issue was the cassava mealybug ( Phenacoccus manihoti ) and cassava green mite ( Mononychellus tanajoa ). These pests can cause up to 80 percent crop loss, which is extremely detrimental to the production of subsistence farmers. These pests were rampant in the 1970s and 1980s but were brought under control following the establishment of the Biological Control Centre for Africa of

1092-622: A rate of 80 kilometres (50 miles) per year, and as of 2005 was found throughout Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Republic of the Congo. Viruses are a severe production limitation in the tropics. They are the primary reason for the complete lack of yield increases in the 25 years up to 2021 . Cassava brown streak virus disease is a major threat to cultivation worldwide. Cassava mosaic virus (CMV)

1170-738: A thick paste, spread it in a thin layer over a basket and then let it stand for five hours at 30 °C in the shade. In that time, about 83% of the cyanogenic glycosides are broken down by linamarase ; the resulting hydrogen cyanide escapes to the atmosphere, making the flour safe for consumption the same evening. The traditional method used in West Africa is to peel the roots and put them into water for three days to ferment. The roots are then dried or cooked. In Nigeria and several other west African countries, including Ghana, Cameroon, Benin, Togo, Ivory Coast, and Burkina Faso, they are usually grated and lightly fried in palm oil to preserve them. The result

1248-520: A variety of ailments. The discovery of oil in the upper Amazon has motivated Ecuadorian and Peruvian interest in the region. In the 20th century Ecuadorian Shuar and Peruvian groups like the Achuar have had significantly different histories. There are at least 40,000 Shuar, 5,000 Achuars and 700 Shiwiars in Ecuador. At the end of the 19th century Catholic Jesuits re-established missions among

1326-511: Is a foodstuff called garri . Fermentation is also used in other places such as Indonesia, such as Tapai . The fermentation process also reduces the level of antinutrients, making the cassava a more nutritious food. The reliance on cassava as a food source and the resulting exposure to the goitrogenic effects of thiocyanate has been responsible for the endemic goiters seen in the Akoko area of southwestern Nigeria. A traditional method used by

1404-512: Is available on the US market in bottled form. Raw cassava is 60% water, 38% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and has negligible fat (table). In a 100-gram ( 3 + 1 ⁄ 2 -ounce) reference serving, raw cassava provides 670 kilojoules (160 kilocalories) of food energy and 23% of the Daily Value (DV) of vitamin C, but otherwise has no micronutrients in significant content (i.e., above 10% of

1482-567: Is democratic and hierarchically organized, most of its leaders are salaried by the Ecuadorian state. In 1969 the Federation signed an accord with the Ecuadorian government in which the Federation assumed administrative jurisdiction over the Shuar reserve. The Federation assumed the duties of educating children, administering civil registration and land-tenure, and promoting cattle-production and other programs meant to further incorporate Shuar into

1560-434: Is harvested at three to four month, when it reaches about 30 to 45 cm (12 to 18 in) above ground; it is dried in the sun until its dry matter content approaches 85 percent. The hay contains 20–27 percent protein and 1.5–4 percent tannin . It is valued as a source of roughage for ruminants such as cattle. Cassava is used in laundry products, especially as starch to stiffen shirts and other garments. In Java,

1638-414: Is propagated by cutting the stem into sections of approximately 15 cm (5.9 in), these being planted prior to the wet season. Cassava growth is favorable under temperatures ranging from 25 to 29 °C (77 to 84 °F), but it can tolerate temperatures as low as 12 °C (54 °F) and as high as 40 °C (104 °F). These conditions are found, among other places, in the northern part of

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1716-560: Is sometimes described as the "bread of the tropics" but should not be confused with the tropical and equatorial bread tree (Encephalartos) , the breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis) or the African breadfruit (Treculia africana) . This description definitely holds in Africa and parts of South America; in Asian countries such as Vietnam fresh cassava barely features in human diets. There is

1794-476: Is sufficient to eliminate all toxicity. The cyanide is carried away in the processing water and the amounts produced in domestic consumption are too small to have environmental impact. The larger-rooted, bitter varieties used for production of flour or starch must be processed to remove the cyanogenic glucosides. The large roots are peeled and then ground into flour, which is then soaked in water, squeezed dry several times, and toasted. The starch grains that flow with

1872-633: Is sufficient to kill a rat. Excess cyanide residue from improper preparation causes goiters and acute cyanide poisoning, and is linked to ataxia (a neurological disorder affecting the ability to walk, also known as konzo ). It has also been linked to tropical fibrocalcific pancreatitis in humans, leading to chronic pancreatitis. Symptoms of acute cyanide intoxication appear four or more hours after ingesting raw or poorly processed cassava: vertigo, vomiting, goiter , ataxia , partial paralysis, collapse, and death. It can be treated easily with an injection of thiosulfate (which makes sulfur available for

1950-532: Is the entity in charge of training indigenous people from the Amazon region. Located in Shell , Pastaza Province , around 35 Iwia soldiers graduate from this school annually. Manioc Manihot esculenta , commonly called cassava , manioc , or yuca (among numerous regional names), is a woody shrub of the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae , native to South America, from Brazil, Paraguay and parts of

2028-483: Is vital when productivity has declined due to pests and diseases , and smallholders tend to retain less productive but more diverse gene pools . MeFT1 (FT) is a gene producing FT proteins which affect the formation of storage roots in many plants, including this one. Alleles in cassava include MeFT1 and MeFT2 . MeFT1 expression in leaves seems to not be photoperiodic , while MeFT2 clearly is. MeFT1 expression encourages motivation of sucrose towards

2106-410: Is widespread in Africa, causing cassava mosaic disease (CMD). Bredeson et al. 2016 find the M. esculenta cultivars most widely used on that continent have M. carthaginensis subsp. glaziovii genes of which some appear to be CMD resistance genes . Although the ongoing CMD pandemic affects both East and Central Africa, Legg et al. found that these two areas have two distinct subpopulations of

2184-614: The Gulf Coastal Plain in Mexico. In this part of Mexico the following soil types have been shown to be good for cassava cultivation: phaeozem , regosol , arenosol , andosol and luvisol . Before harvest, the leafy stems are removed. The harvest is gathered by pulling up the base of the stem and cutting off the tuberous roots. Cassava deteriorates after harvest, when the tuberous roots are first cut. The healing mechanism produces coumaric acid , which oxidizes and blackens

2262-513: The International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) under the leadership of Hans Rudolf Herren . The Centre investigated biological control for cassava pests; two South American natural enemies Anagyrus lopezi (a parasitoid wasp) and Typhlodromalus aripo (a predatory mite) were found to effectively control the cassava mealybug and the cassava green mite, respectively. In 2022, world production of cassava root

2340-510: The Lucayans to detoxify cassava is by peeling, grinding, and mashing; filtering the mash through a basket tube to remove the hydrogen cyanide; and drying and sieving the mash for flour. The poisonous filtrate water was boiled to release the hydrogen cyanide, and used as a base for stews. Bioengineering has been applied to grow cassava with lower cyanogenic glycosides combined with fortification of vitamin A , iron and protein to improve

2418-480: The Macushi people of Guyana is closely bound up with the growth and processing of cassava in their slash-and-burn subsistence lifestyle. A story tells that the great spirit Makunaima climbed a tree, cutting off pieces with his axe; when they landed on the ground, each piece became a type of animal. The opossum brought the people to the tree, where they found all the types of food, including bitter cassava. A bird told

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2496-647: The achu (swamp-palm) Shuar (or Achuar ) are people who live in the wetter lowlands east of the Andes (Ecuador). Shuar refer to Spanish-speakers as apach , and to non-Spanish and non-Shuar speakers as inkis . Europeans and European Americans used to refer to Shuar as " jívaros " or " jíbaros "; this word probably derives from the 16th century Spanish spelling of shuar (see Gnerre 1973), but has taken other meanings including "savage"; outside of Ecuador, jibaro has come to mean "rustic", and in Puerto Rico to describe

2574-657: The vector , Bemisia tabaci whiteflies. Genetically engineered cassava offers opportunities for the improvement of virus resistance, including CMV and CBSD resistance. Among the most serious bacterial pests is Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis , which causes bacterial blight of cassava . This disease originated in South America and has followed cassava around the world. Bacterial blight has been responsible for near catastrophic losses and famine in past decades, and its mitigation requires active management practices. Several other bacteria attack cassava, including

2652-676: The 16th century. Around the same period, it was introduced to Asia through Columbian Exchange by Portuguese and Spanish traders, who planted it in their colonies in Goa, Malacca, Eastern Indonesia, Timor and the Philippines. Cassava has also become an important crop in Asia. While it is a valued food staple in parts of eastern Indonesia, it is primarily cultivated for starch extraction and bio-fuel production in Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam. Cassava

2730-502: The 1995 Cenepa War between Ecuador and Peru. The name Iwia means "Jungle Demon"; it comes from the Shuar mythology: the Iwia is a feared demon that devours people. According to its culture, young men become soldiers when they shrink the head of their enemies. The motto of IWIAS is "Never defeated"; this marks his warrior history defeating intruders e.g. Incas led by Huayna Capac . in 1527. EWIAS ( Escuela de Iwias Crnl. Gonzalo Barragán )

2808-403: The Andes. Although a perennial plant, cassava is extensively cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions as an annual crop for its edible starchy tuberous root. Cassava is predominantly consumed in boiled form, but substantial quantities are processed to extract cassava starch, called tapioca , which is used for food, animal feed, and industrial purposes. The Brazilian farofa , and

2886-581: The Caribbean when temperature and rainfall are high. Nematode pests of cassava are thought to cause harms ranging from negligible to seriously damaging, making the choice of management methods difficult. A wide range of plant parasitic nematodes have been reported associated with cassava worldwide. These include Pratylenchus brachyurus , Rotylenchulus reniformis , Helicotylenchus spp., Scutellonema spp. and Meloidogyne spp., of which Meloidogyne incognita and Meloidogyne javanica are

2964-474: The HiFi genome assembly revealed extensive chromosome rearrangements and abundant intra-genomic and inter-genomic divergent sequences, with significant structural variations mostly related to long terminal repeat retrotransposons. Although smallholders are otherwise economically inefficient producers, they are vital to productivity at particular times. Small cassava farmers are no exception. Genetic diversity

3042-527: The Shuar defeated an incursion by the Inca armies of Huayna Capac . When Shuar first made contact with Spaniards in the 16th century, they entered into peaceful trade relations. They violently resisted taxation, and drove Spaniards away in 1599. Colonization and missionization in the 20th century have led Shuar to reorganize themselves into nucleated settlements called centros . Centros initially facilitated evangelization by Catholic missionaries but also became

3120-416: The Shuar diet, women's labor was crucial to Shuar biological and social life. In the late 19th century and early 20th century Europeans and Euro-Americans began trading manufactured goods, including shotguns, asking in return for shrunken heads. The result was an increase in local warfare, including head hunting , that has contributed to the perception of the Shuar as violent. In 1961 Edmundo Bielawski made

3198-441: The Shuar, and poor and landless Euro-Ecuadorians from the highlands ( colonos ) began to settle among Shuar. Shuar entered into peaceful trade relations, exchanged land for manufactured goods, and began sending their children to mission boarding schools to learn Spanish. In 1935 the Ecuadorian government created a Shuar reserve, in part to regulate Euro-Ecuadorian access to land, and gave Salesian (Catholic) missionaries charge over

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3276-686: The advantage of being exceptionally drought-tolerant , and able to grow productively on poor soil. The largest producer is Nigeria, while Thailand is the largest exporter of cassava starch. Cassava is grown in sweet and bitter varieties; both contain toxins, but the bitter varieties have them in much larger amounts. Cassava has to be prepared carefully for consumption, as improperly prepared material can contain sufficient cyanide to cause poisoning . The more toxic varieties of cassava have been used in some places as famine food during times of food insecurity . Farmers may however choose bitter cultivars to minimise crop losses. The generic name Manihot and

3354-469: The bitter varieties containing much larger amounts. The more toxic varieties of cassava have been used in some places as famine food during times of food insecurity . For example, during the shortages in Venezuela in the late 2010s, dozens of deaths were reported due to Venezuelans resorting to eating bitter cassava in order to curb starvation. Cases of cassava poisoning were also documented during

3432-538: The cassava enzyme linamarase , releasing poisonous hydrogen cyanide . Cassava varieties are often categorized as either bitter (high in cyanogenic glycosides) or sweet (low in those bitter compounds). Sweet cultivars can contain as little as 20 milligrams of cyanide per kilogram of fresh roots, whereas bitter cultivars may contain as much as 1000 milligrams per kilogram. Cassavas grown during drought are especially high in these toxins. A dose of 25 mg of pure cassava cyanogenic glucoside, which contains 2.5 mg of cyanide,

3510-512: The common name "manioc" both derive from the Guarani (Tupi) name mandioca or manioca for the plant. The specific name esculenta is Latin for 'edible'. The common name "cassava" is a 16th century word from the French or Portuguese cassave , in turn from Taíno caçabi . The common name "yuca" or "yucca" is most likely also from Taíno, via Spanish yuca or juca . The harvested part of

3588-671: The equator, where it can be produced at up to 2,000 m (7,000 ft) above sea level, and with 50 to 5,000 mm (2 to 200 in) of rain per year. These environmental tolerances suit it to conditions across much of South America and Africa. Cassava yields a large amount of food energy per unit area of land per day – 1,000,000 kJ/ha (250,000 kcal/ha), as compared with 650,000 kJ/ha (156,000 kcal/ha) for rice, 460,000 kJ/ha (110,000 kcal/ha) for wheat and 840,000 kJ/ha (200,000 kcal/ha) for maize. Cassava, yams ( Dioscorea spp.), and sweet potatoes ( Ipomoea batatas ) are important sources of food in

3666-626: The famine accompanying the Great Leap Forward (1958–1962) in China. Farmers may select bitter cultivars to reduce crop losses. Societies that traditionally eat cassava generally understand that processing (soaking, cooking, fermentation, etc.) is necessary to avoid getting sick. Brief soaking (four hours) of cassava is not sufficient, but soaking for 18–24 hours can remove up to half the level of cyanide. Drying may not be sufficient, either. For some smaller-rooted, sweet varieties, cooking

3744-524: The first Cuban industry established by the Spanish. Ships departing to Europe from Cuban ports such as Havana , Santiago , Bayamo , and Baracoa carried goods to Spain, but sailors needed to be provisioned for the voyage. The Spanish also needed to replenish their boats with dried meat, water, fruit, and large amounts of cassava bread. Sailors complained that it caused them digestive problems. Portuguese traders introduced cassava to Africa from Brazil in

3822-422: The flavors and also impart them (even if dry) to foods such as rice and chicken cooked in it. The poisonous but volatile hydrogen cyanide is evaporated by heating. Nevertheless, improperly cooked cassava has been blamed for a number of deaths. Amerindians from Guyana reportedly made an antidote by steeping chili peppers in rum . The natives of Guyana traditionally brought the product to town in bottles, and it

3900-544: The government provided loans for Shuar to purchase cattle which they would raise for market. In the 1960s Salesian missionaries encouraged leaders of the centros to meet and form a new organization. In 1964 they formed the Federación Interprovincial de Centros Shuar-Achuar ("Interprovincial Federation of Shuar and Achuar Centros"; many Achuar live in Ecuador, although most live in Peru). The Federation

3978-418: The heads themselves and did not value them as trophies. Instead, they sought the muisak , or soul of the victim, which was contained in and by the shrunken head. Shuar men believed that control of the muisak would enable them to control their wives' and daughters' labor. Since women cultivated manioc and made chicha (manioc beer), which together provided the bulk of calories and carbohydrates in

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4056-516: The hope that he would then see momentary visions, or arútam . These visions were believed to be produced by a wakaní or ancestral spirit. If the boy was brave enough he could touch the arútam , and acquire the arútam wakaní . This would make the boy very strong, and possession of several arútam wakaní would make the boy invincible. Shuar, however, believed that they could easily lose their arútam wakaní , and thus repeated this ritual several times. A Shuar warrior who had lived to kill many people

4134-715: The leaves are rich in it, except for being low in methionine , an essential amino acid . The complete and haplotype-resolved African cassava (TME204) genome has been reconstructed and made available using the Hi-C technology. The genome shows abundant novel gene loci with enriched functionality related to chromatin organization, meristem development, and cell responses. Differentially expressed transcripts of different haplotype origins were enriched for different functionality during tissue development. In each tissue, 20–30% of transcripts showed allele-specific expression differences with <2% of direction-shifting. Despite high gene synteny,

4212-463: The leaves of the cassava plant to wither, limiting the growth of the root. An outbreak of the virus in Africa in the 1920s led to a major famine. The virus is spread by the whitefly and by the transplanting of diseased plants into new fields. Sometime in the late-1980s, a mutation occurred in Uganda that made the virus even more harmful, causing the complete loss of leaves. This mutated virus spread at

4290-442: The market economy. Since that time the Federation has splintered into several groups, including a separate Achuar Federation, although the various groups maintain cordial relations. Thanks to the work of the Federation, Shuar identity is very strong. Most Shuar also identify strongly to the Ecuadorian nation-state and have entered Ecuadorian electoral politics. In the last few years, conflict emerged as result of mining projects in

4368-497: The most widely reported and economically important. Meloidogyne spp. feeding produces physically damaging galls with eggs inside them. Galls later merge as the females grow and enlarge, and they interfere with water and nutrient supply. Cassava roots become tough with age and restrict the movement of the juveniles and the egg release. It is therefore possible that extensive galling can be observed even at low densities following infection. Other pests and diseases can gain entry through

4446-650: The north and east. To control tsentsak , Shuar must ingest natem ( Ayahuasca ). Many Shuar believe that illness is caused when someone hires a shaman to shoot tsentsak into the body of an enemy. This attack occurs in secret and few if any shamans admit to doing this. If someone takes ill they may go to a shaman for diagnosis and treatment. They have many plants that they use for common everyday illnesses. Most people know these plants and how to prepare and use them. Occasionally, an older woman will be asked for advice or help especially with fertility control, childbirth and new infants. Piripiri (Cyperus species) are used for

4524-412: The nutrition of people in sub-Saharan Africa. In Guyana the traditional cassareep is made from bitter cassava juice. The juice is boiled until it is reduced by half in volume, to the consistency of molasses and flavored with spices —including cloves , cinnamon , salt , sugar , and cayenne pepper . Traditionally, cassareep was boiled in a soft pot, the actual "pepper pot", which would absorb

4602-462: The only footage showing what appears to be their head-shrinking process. Prior to missionization in the 1940s and 1950s Shuar culture functioned to organize and promote a warrior society. Boys of about eight years would be taken by their fathers or uncles on a three- to five-day journey to a nearby waterfall, during which time the boy would drink only tobacco water. At some point the child would be given maikua ( Datura arborea , Solanaceae ), in

4680-457: The patient's body to detoxify by converting the poisonous cyanide into thiocyanate). Chronic, low-level exposure to cyanide may contribute to both goiter and tropical ataxic neuropathy , also called konzo , which can be fatal. The risk is highest in famines, when as many as 3 percent of the population may be affected. Like many other roots and tubers, both bitter and sweet varieties of cassava contain antinutritional factors and toxins, with

4758-548: The physical damage caused by gall formation, leading to rots. They have not been shown to cause direct damage to the enlarged tuberous roots, but plant height can be reduced if the root system is reduced. Nematicides reduce the numbers of galls per feeder root, along with fewer rots in the tuberous roots. The organophosphorus nematicide femaniphos does not reduce crop growth or harvest yield. Nematicide use in cassava does not increase harvested yield significantly, but lower infestation at harvest and lower subsequent storage loss provide

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4836-503: The practice of shamanism. By the 1950s Shuar had lost a considerable amount of land to settlers. At this time they abandoned their semi-nomadic and dispersed settlement pattern and began to form nucleated settlements of five to thirty families, called centros (Spanish for "centers"). These centros facilitated missionary access to Shuar. They also provided a basis for Shuar petitions to the Ecuadorian government for land; in return Shuar promised to clear rainforest to convert to pasture, and

4914-627: The provinces of Morona Santiago and Zamora Chinchipe On 20 November 2018, Diana Atamaint , a Shuar woman, became the president of the National Electoral Council . Many Shuar also serve in the Ecuadorian Army , and the Army has appropriated the perception of Shuar as "fierce warriors", forming elite "Iwia" units of Shuar soldiers (although all commissioned officers are non-Shuar). These units distinguished themselves in

4992-470: The rainforest, linked by the loosest of kin and political ties, and lacking corporate kin-groups or centralized or institutionalized political leadership. The center of Shuar life was a relatively autonomous household consisting of a husband, his wives (usually two), unmarried sons, and daughters. Upon marriage sons would leave their natal household, and sons-in-law would move in (see matrilocal residence ). Men hunted and wove clothes; women gardened. In 1527,

5070-430: The region—also believed that they could be killed by tsentsak , invisible darts. Any unexplained death was attributed to such tsentsak . Although tsentsak are animate, they do not act on their own. Shamans (in Shuar, uwishin ) are people who possess and control tsentsak . To possess tsentsak they must purchase them from other shamans; Shuar believe that the most powerful shamans are Quichua -speakers, who live to

5148-630: The related Xanthomonas campestris pv. cassavae , which causes bacterial angular leaf spot. Several fungi bring about significant crop losses, one of the most serious being cassava root rot; the pathogens involved are species of Phytophthora , the genus which causes potato blight. Cassava root rot can result in losses of as much as 80 percent of the crop. A major pest is a rust caused by Uromyces manihotis . Superelongation disease, caused by Elsinoë brasiliensis , can cause losses of over 80 percent of young cassava in Latin America and

5226-419: The related garri of West Africa, is an edible coarse flour obtained by grating cassava roots, pressing moisture off the obtained grated pulp, and finally drying it (and roasting in the case of both farofa and garri ). Cassava is the third-largest source of carbohydrates in food in the tropics, after rice and maize , making it an important staple ; more than 500 million people depend on it. It offers

5304-442: The relevant DV). Cassava has been studied as a feedstock to produce ethanol as a biofuel , including to improve the efficiency of conversion from cassava flour, and to convert crop residues such as stems and leaves as well as the more easily processed roots. China has created facilities to produce substantial amounts of ethanol fuel from cassava roots. Cassava tubers and hay are used worldwide as animal feed. Young cassava hay

5382-410: The reproductive organs, as shown by experimental overexpression reducing storage root accumulation. Wild populations of M. esculenta subspecies flabellifolia , shown to be the progenitor of domesticated cassava, are centered in west-central Brazil, where it was likely first domesticated no more than 10,000 years ago. Forms of the modern domesticated species can also be found growing in the wild in

5460-537: The reserve. Missionaries were largely successful in the acculturation process, teaching Shuar Spanish, converting Shuar to Christianity , encouraging the Shuar to abandon warfare and the production of shrunken heads, encouraging Shuar to abandon the puberty rites through which Shuar acquired an arútam wakaní , and encouraging Shuar to participate in the market economy . They were largely but not completely successful in encouraging Shuar to abandon polygyny for monogamy . They were relatively unsuccessful in discouraging

5538-488: The roots, making them inedible after a few days. This deterioration is related to the accumulation of reactive oxygen species initiated by cyanide release during mechanical harvesting. Cassava shelf life may be increased up to three weeks by overexpressing a cyanide-insensitive alternative oxidase, which suppressed ROS by 10-fold. Post-harvest deterioration is a major obstacle to the export of cassava. Fresh cassava can be preserved like potato, using thiabendazole or bleach as

5616-702: The south of Brazil. By 4600 BC, cassava pollen appears in the Gulf of Mexico lowlands, at the San Andrés archaeological site. The oldest direct evidence of cassava cultivation comes from a 1,400-year-old Maya site, Joya de Cerén , in El Salvador . It became a staple food of the native populations of northern South America, southern Mesoamerica, and the Taino people in the Caribbean islands , who grew it using

5694-465: The sweet variety is mild to the taste, like potatoes; Jewish households sometimes use it in cholent . It can be made into a flour that is used in breads, cakes and cookies. In Brazil, farofa , a dry meal made from cooked powdered cassava, is roasted in butter, eaten as a side dish, or sprinkled on other food. In Taiwanese culture, now spread to the United States, cassava "juices" are dried to

5772-611: The timber industry. Shuar, in the Shuar language , means "people". The people who speak the Shuar language live in tropical rainforest between the upper mountains of the Andes , and in the tropical rainforests and savannas of the Amazonian lowlands, in Ecuador . Shuar live in various places — thus, the muraiya (hill) Shuar are people who live in the foothills of the Andes;

5850-446: The tropics. The cassava plant gives the third-highest yield of carbohydrates per cultivated area among crop plants, after sugarcane and sugar beets . Cassava plays a particularly important role in agriculture in developing countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa , because it does well on poor soils and with low rainfall, and because it is a perennial that can be harvested as required. Its wide harvesting window allows it to act as

5928-419: The water during the soaking process are also used in cooking. The flour is used throughout South America and the Caribbean . Industrial production of cassava flour, even at the cottage level, may generate enough cyanide and cyanogenic glycosides in the effluents to have a severe environmental impact. There are many ways of cooking cassava . It has to be prepared correctly to remove its toxicity. The root of

6006-469: Was 330 million tonnes, led by Nigeria with 18% of the total (table). Other major growers were Democratic Republic of the Congo and Thailand. Cassava is the third-largest source of carbohydrates in food in the tropics, after rice and maize . making it an important staple; more than 500 million people depend on it. It offers the advantage of being exceptionally drought-tolerant , and able to grow productively on poor soil. Cassava grows well within 30° of

6084-538: Was called a kakáram . Shuar believed that if a person in possession of an arútam wakaní died a peaceful death, they would give birth to a new wakaní ; if someone in possession of an arútam wakaní were killed, they would give birth to a muísak . Shuar generally do not believe in natural death, although they recognize that certain epidemics such as measles and scarlet fever are diseases introduced through contact with Europeans or Euro-Americans. They fought primarily with spears and blowguns , but—like many other groups in

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