This is an accepted version of this page
120-460: Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan (4 February 1917 – 10 August 1980), widely known as Yahya Khan , was a Pakistani army officer, who was the third president of Pakistan from 1969 to 1971. He also served as the fifth commander-in-chief of the Pakistan Army from 1966 to 1971. Along with General Tikka Khan , he was considered the chief architect of the 1971 Bangladesh genocide . Khan
240-550: A formal alliance with the Soviet Union in August 1971. Nixon urged President Yahya Khan multiple times to exercise restraint. His objective was to prevent a war and safeguard Pakistan's interests, though he feared an Indian invasion of Pakistan that would lead to Indian domination of the subcontinent and strengthen the position of the Soviet Union. Similarly, President Yahya feared that an independent Bangladesh could lead to
360-445: A coping mechanism to deal with stress, and that when he was a soldier he was known for being morally upright, abstaining from partying unlike other officers and instead preferring to spend time with his family and also practicing Islamic rituals such as the fast of Ramadan , eventually quoting Ayub Khan who said that "Give me half a dozen officers of the calibre and moral standards of Yahya Khan and I can show you what can Pakistan do as
480-690: A crackdown by the Pakistan Armed Forces to suppress Bengali dissent and the Bengali nationalist movement. It was seen as the sequel to Operation Blitz, which had been launched in November 1970. The Pakistani government's view was that it had to launch a campaign to neutralise a rebellion in East Pakistan to save the unity of Pakistan. As a result of Operation Searchlight, agitation turned into full-scale civil war as Bengali members of
600-599: A devout Buddhist, the emperor built the grand Kanishka Mahavihara monastery. After his death, the magnificent Kanishka stupa was built in Peshawar to house Buddhist relics. The golden age of Kushan empire in Peshawar ended in 232 CE with the death of the last great Kushan king, Vasudeva I . Around 260 CE, the armies of the Sasanid Emperor Shapur I launched an attack against Peshawar, and severely damaged Buddhist monuments and monasteries throughout
720-801: A further rise in anti-West Wing sentiment in the East Wing. By 28 July 1969, President Yahya Khan had set a framework for elections that were to be held in December 1970, with Judge Abdus Sattar appointed as Chief Election Commissioner of the Election Commission of Pakistan . On 7 December, the general elections were held all over the country. In East Pakistan, the Awami League , led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman , held almost all seats but no seat in any of four provinces of West Pakistan. The socialist Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) had won
840-700: A great nation of the Islamic world ." During his rule from 1969 to 1971, Mian Tufail Mohammad , a prominent leader of the Jamaat-e-Islami , the country's main Islamist party, hailed Yahya as "the champion of Islam", as there was a general view among Islamists that he would fight leftist elements of the country (the Pakistan People's Party in West Pakistan and the Awami League in what
960-409: A letter to Yahya inviting him to deal with the crisis, as it was "beyond the capacity of [civil] government to deal with the... complex situation." Some sources claim Yahya accepted Ayub's proposal on 25 March. On 26 March 1969, General Yahya appeared on national television and announced a state of martial law throughout the entirety of the country. The 1962 constitution was abrogated, the parliament
1080-621: A lieutenant and later captain in the 4th Infantry Division (India) . He served in Iraq , Italy and North Africa. He was a POW in Italy before returning to India. After the partition of India , he decided to join the Pakistan Army in 1947, he had already reached to the rank of major (acting lieutenant-colonel). In this year he was instrumental in not letting the Indian officers shift books from
1200-425: A pivotal role in sustaining the support for President Ayub Khan's campaign in the 1965 presidential elections against Fatima Jinnah . He was made GOC of the 7th Infantry Division of the Pakistan Army, which he commanded during the 1965 war with India and in the same war he also commanded the 12th Infantry Division . During these years, Yahya was also tasked in civil and administrative matters, including being
1320-475: A productive agricultural region that provided much of north India's dried fruit. Timur Shah's grandson, Mahmud Shah Durrani , became king, and quickly seized Peshawar from his half-brother, Shah Shujah Durrani . Shah Shujah was then himself proclaimed king in 1803, and recaptured Peshawar while Mahmud Shah was imprisoned at Bala Hissar fort until his eventual escape. In 1809, the British sent an emissary to
SECTION 10
#17327799155781440-454: A punitive tax levied on merchants by Ranjit Singh's forces. Singh's government also required Peshawar to forfeit much of its leftover agricultural output to the Sikhs as tribute, while agriculture was further decimated by a collapse of the dried fruit market in north India. Singh appointed Neapolitan mercenary Paolo Avitabile as administrator of Peshawar, who is remembered for having unleashed
1560-622: A reign of terror. His time in Peshawar is known as a time of "gallows and gibbets". The city's famous Mahabat Khan, built in 1630 in the Jeweler's Bazaar, was badly damaged and desecrated by the Sikh conquerors. The Sikh Empire formally annexed Peshawar in 1834 following advances from the armies of Hari Singh Nalwa —bringing the city under direct control of the Sikh Empire's Lahore Durbar . An 1835 attempt by Dost Muhammad Khan to re-occupy
1680-656: A solution for the crisis, some of which she heard for the first time, including a mutual withdrawal of troops from the Indo-East Pakistan borders. Nixon also expressed a wish to fix a time limit with Yahya for political accommodation in East Pakistan. Nixon asserted that India could count on US endeavors to ease the crisis within a short time. But, both Kissinger and Gandhi's aide Jayakar maintained, Gandhi did not respond to these proposals. Kissinger noted that she "listened to what was, in fact, one of Nixon's better presentations with aloof indifference" but "took up none of
1800-508: A statement blaming Pakistan for starting the conflict and blaming India for escalating it. He favored a cease-fire. The United States was secretly encouraging the shipment of military equipment from Iran, Turkey , and Jordan to Pakistan, offering to replenish those countries' weapons stocks later despite Congressional objections. The US used the threat of an aid cut-off to force Pakistan to back down, while its continued military aid to Islamabad prevented India from launching incursions deeper into
1920-454: A summer capital and Peshawar as a winter capital was reintroduced, with the practice maintained until the Sikh invasion. Peshawar's Bala Hissar Fort served as the residence of Afghan kings during their winter stay in Peshawar, and it was noted to be the main centre of trade between Bukhara and India by British explorer William Moorcroft during the late 1700s. Peshawar was at the centre of
2040-516: A total of 451 damaged shops and homes, primarily belonging to members of the Hindu community, while at least 4 Muslims and 6 Hindus were killed, alongside hundreds of injuries. Peshawar emerged as a centre for both Hindkowan and Pashtun intellectuals during the British era. Hindko speakers, also referred to as xāryān ("city dwellers" in Pashto), were responsible for the dominant culture for most of
2160-455: A trade centre is highlighted by the destruction of over one thousand camel-loads of merchandise following an accidental fire at Bala Hissar fort in 1586. Mughal rule in the area was tenuous, as Mughal suzerainty was only firmly exercised in the Peshawar valley, while the neighbouring valley of Swat was under Mughal rule only during the reign of Akbar . In July 1526, Emperor Babur captured Peshawar from Daulat Khan Lodi . During Babur's rule,
2280-652: Is also on the record that he did not act alone.... All the major actors of the period were creatures of a historic legacy and a psycho-political milieu which did not lend itself to accommodation and compromise, to bargaining and a reasoned settlement. Nurtured on conspiracy theories, they were all conditioned to act in a manner that neglected agreeable solutions and promoted violent judgments. Yahya Khan attempted to solve Pakistan's constitutional and inter-provincial rivalry problems once he took over power from Ayub Khan in March 1969. His earlier initiatives were directed at establishing
2400-606: Is said to have had a relationship with Akleem Akhtar , nicknamed General Rani, but they never married. His name was linked with the singer and actress Noor Jehan as well. He also had a brief relationship with a Bengali woman called Shamim K. Hussain, also known as Black Beauty . The wife of a police officer, Yahya appreciated her company not so much for her looks but mainly because she was fluent in English and could talk about Shakespeare and Lord Byron , among his favourite poets, and she eventually became influential enough to shape
2520-521: Is the capital and largest city of the Pakistani province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa . It is the sixth most populous city of Pakistan , with a district population of over 4.7 million in the 2023 census. It is situated in the north-west of the country, lying in the Valley of Peshawar . Peshawar is primarily populated by Pashtuns , who comprise the second-largest ethnic group in the country. Situated in
SECTION 20
#17327799155782640-626: The Bangladesh Liberation War in March 1971. Yahya Khan was central to the perpetration of Bangladesh genocide , in which around 300,000–3,000,000 Bengalis were killed, and between 200,000 to 400,000 women were raped. In December 1971, Pakistan carried out pre-emptive strikes against the Bengali-allied Indian Army, culminating in the start of the Third India–Pakistan War . The wars resulted in
2760-637: The British Army . The supreme military commander's appointment was known as Commander-in-Chief, India who directly reported to the Governor-General of India who was also under the British monarchy . Field Marshal Sir Claude Auchinleck was the last Commander-in-Chief of the undivided British Indian Army who became the supreme commander of India and Pakistan on 15 August 1947 serving till November 30 of that year. Dominion of Pakistan
2880-521: The Durrani Empire . Before that, the fort of Peshawar was being guarded by Durrani troops under Timur Shah Durrani and Jahan Khan. When Raghunathrao , Malhar Rao Holkar and Sikh alliance of Charat Singh and Jassa Singh Ahluwalia left Peshawar, Tukoji Rao Holkar was appointed as the representative in this area of the sub-continent. Ranjit Singh invaded Peshawar in 1818, but handed its rule to Peshawar Sardars as vassals. Following
3000-739: The General Headquarters . The C-in-Cs were assisted by Chiefs of Staff (COS), as prior to the birth of Pakistan, the GHQ Pakistan was an army command's HQ of the British Indian Army (the Northern Command, India ) and there had been the appointment of the Chief of Staff under the command's commander, this trend continued in independent Pakistan's newly created army headquarters (GHQ). The last Chief of Staff
3120-693: The Greco-Bactrian Kingdom based in modern Afghanistan declared its independence from the Seleucid Empire, and quickly seized ancient Peshawar around 190 BCE. The city was then captured by Gondophares , founder of the Indo-Parthian Kingdom . Gondophares established the nearby Takht-i-Bahi monastery in 46 CE. In the first century of the Common era , Purushapura came under control of Kujula Kadphises , founder of
3240-704: The Hindu Shahis under their king, Anandpal. On 28 November 1001, Sabuktigin's son Mahmud Ghazni decisively defeated the army of Raja Jayapala , son of Anandpal, at the Battle of Peshawar , and established rule of the Ghaznavid Empire in the Peshawar region. During the Ghaznavid era, Peshawar served as an important stop between the Afghan plateau, and the Ghaznavid garrison city of Lahore . During
3360-691: The International Monetary Fund after foreign reserves fell to $ 160 million. In 1969, President Yahya also promulgated the Legal Framework Order, 1970 , which disestablished the One Unit Scheme that had formed West Pakistan and returned the provinces of West Pakistan to their pre-1955 configuration. The decree had no effect on East Pakistan . However, the dissolution of the One Unit policy did not lead to
3480-466: The Kushan Empire . The city was made the empire's winter capital. The Kushan's summer capital at Kapisi (modern Bagram , Afghanistan ) was seen as the secondary capital of the empire, while Puruṣapura was considered to be the empire's primary capital. Ancient Peshawar's population was estimated to be 120,000, which would make it the seventh-most populous city in the world at the time. As
3600-583: The National Security Council (NSC), with Major-General Ghulam Omar as its first advisor. It was formed to analyse and prepare assessments towards issues of political and national security. M.M. Ahmad , then Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commission of Pakistan told Henry Kissinger that the state "had now realized that it would have to sacrifice some of its economic growth rate for the sake of social reform and of meeting
3720-558: The Pakistan Armed Forces and the police mutinied, forming the Mukti Bahini along with members of the general public, with the goal of launching unconventional and hit-and-run operations. A government-in-exile formed across the border in India and proclaimed the independent state of Bangladesh, appointing Sheikh Mujibur Rahman as its head despite him being in a West Pakistan prison at the time. Violent disorder and chaos accompanied
Yahya Khan - Misplaced Pages Continue
3840-613: The Peshawar Museum ) in memory of Queen Victoria . The British introduced Western-style education into Peshawar with the establishment of Edwardes College and Islamia College in 1901 and 1913, along with several schools run by the Anglican Church . For better administration of the region, Peshawar and the adjoining districts were separated from the Punjab Province in 1901, The North-West Frontier Province
3960-631: The Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849, some of their territories were captured by the British East India Company . The British re-established stability in the wake of ruinous Sikh rule. During the Sepoy Rebellion of 1857 , the 4,000 members of the native garrison were disarmed without bloodshed; the absence of conflict during the rebellion meant that Peshawar was not affected by the widespread devastation that
4080-573: The Seleucid–Mauryan war , the region was ceded to the Mauryan Empire in 303 BCE. Around 300 BCE, the Greek diplomat and historian Megasthenes noted that Purushapura (ancient Peshawar) was the western terminus of a Mauryan road that connected the city to the empire's capital at Pataliputra , near the city of Patna in the modern-day Indian state of Bihar . As Mauryan power declined,
4200-525: The exclusive mandate in four provinces of West Pakistan but none in East Pakistan. The Pakistan Muslim League (PML), led by Nurul Amin , was the only party to have representation from all over the country, but it failed to gain the mandate to run the government. The Awami League had 160 seats in the National Assembly , all won from East Pakistan; the socialist PPP had 81, and the conservative PML had 10. The general elections 's results reflected
4320-484: The house arrest of Yahya, the man who imprisoned Mujib in the first place. Both actions made news headlines around the world. He was nominally a Shia Muslim , but was non-practising and was known to have indulged in activities prohibited in Islam such as womanizing and the consumption of alcoholic beverages . Indian journalist Dewan Berindranath argued that Yahya turned to alcohol and womanizing when he gained power, as
4440-581: The surrender of the Pakistani armed forces in East Pakistan , and East Pakistan seceded as Bangladesh . After the surrender, Khan resigned from the military command and transferred the presidency to Zulfikar Ali Bhutto . Khan remained under house surveillance prior to 1979 when he was released by Fazle Haq . Khan died the following year in Rawalpindi and was buried in Peshawar . Khan's short regime
4560-470: The 18th day of September when President Ayub promoted him to full General. At the age of 40, he was the youngest General of Pakistan at the time. At promotion, Yahya Khan superseded two of his seniors: Lieutenant-General Altaf Qadir and Lieutenant-General Bakhtiar Rana . After becoming the commander-in-chief of the army, Yahya energetically started reorganizing the Pakistan Army in 1966. The post-1965 situation saw major organizational and technical changes in
4680-437: The 1971 Bangladesh War , Sarmila Bose said between 50,000 and 100,000 combatants and civilians were killed by both sides during the war. A 2008 British Medical Journal study by Ziad Obermeyer, Christopher J. L. Murray, and Emmanuela Gakidou estimated that up to 269,000 civilians died as a result of the conflict; the authors note that this is far higher than a previous estimate of 58,000 put forward by Uppsala University and
4800-612: The 1980s, Peshawar served as a political centre for the CIA and the Inter-Services Intelligence -trained mujahideen groups based in the camps of Afghan refugees . It also served as the primary destination for large numbers of Afghan refugees. By 1980, 100,000 refugees a month were entering the province, with 25% of all refugees living in Peshawar district in 1981. The arrival of large numbers of Afghan refugees strained Peshawar's infrastructure, and drastically altered
4920-608: The 400s CE, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Faxian visited the structure and described it as "the highest of all the towers" in the "terrestrial world" , which ancient travelers claimed was up to 560 ft (170 m) tall, though modern estimates suggest a height of 400 ft (120 m). In 520 CE the Chinese monk Song Yun visited Gandhara and ancient Peshawar during the White Hun era, and noted that it
Yahya Khan - Misplaced Pages Continue
5040-721: The 4th/10th Baluch Regiment ( 4th Battalion of 10th Baluch Regiment , later amalgamated with the modern and current form of Baloch Regiment , 'Baloch' was spelled as 'Baluch' in Yahya's time), Yahya saw action during World War II in North Africa where he was captured by the Axis Forces in June 1942 and interned in a prisoner of war camp in Italy from where he escaped in the third attempt. Yahya Khan served in World War II as
5160-635: The Administrator of the Islamabad Capital Project, "the job for major execution" being given to him. After the '65 war, Maj. Gen. Yahya Khan was appointed in the GHQ, Pakistan as the chief of staff of the army (at that time this appointment was the deputy to the commander-in-chief of the army) and was promoted to lieutenant general. Soon he was appointed as the commander-in-chief of the Pakistan Army in March 1966 and took command on
5280-555: The Afridi Revolt of the 1670s. The Afridis massacred a Mughal battalion in the nearby Khyber Pass in 1672 and shut the pass to lucrative trade routes. Mughal armies led by Emperor Aurangzeb himself regained control of the entire area in 1674. Following Aurangzeb's death in 1707, his son Bahadur Shah I , former Governor of Peshawar and Kabul, was selected to be the Mughal Emperor. As Mughal power declined following
5400-569: The Asamai Gate, when the Holi procession was en route to Dargah Pir Ratan Nath Jee , with a Hindu procession member stabbing a Muslim individual in the mob. Riots ensued for the following three days, involved individuals from outlying tribal regions who had entered the city, with a mob at Bara Bazar allegedly chanting " Maro Hindu Ko " (Kill the Hindus). Estimates detail the riots resulted in
5520-762: The Bangladeshis against Pakistan; the war would later extend into the Indo-Pakistani war of 1971 . The consequences of the war were mainly that East Pakistan became independent as Bangladesh, and that India captured approximately 15,000 square kilometres (5,800 sq mi) of land previously in West Pakistan. However, the captured territory was given back to Pakistan in the Simla Agreement signed on 2 July 1972 between Indira Gandhi and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto . The 1971 war led to increased tensions between Pakistan and India, although Pakistan recognised
5640-454: The Chinese equivalent of the Sanskrit name of the city, Purushapura. An ancient inscription from the Shapur era identifies a city in the Gandhara valley by the name pskbvr, which may be a reference to Peshawar. The Arab historian and geographer Al-Masudi noted that by the mid-tenth century, the city was known as Parashāwar . The name was noted to be Purshawar and Purushavar by Al-Biruni . The city began to be known as Peshāwar by
5760-425: The Chinese tank T-59 started replacing the US M-47/48 tanks as the Pakistan Army's MBT (Main Battle Tank) from 1966. 80 tanks, the first batch of T-59s, a low-grade version of the Russian T-54/55 series were delivered to Pakistan in 1965–66. The first batch was displayed in the Joint Services Day Parade on 23 March 1966. The 1965 War had proved that Pakistan Army's tank-infantry ratio was lopsided and more infantry
5880-400: The Gandhara Plains in the broad Valley of Peshawar in 100 CE. It may have been named after a Hindu raja who ruled the city who was known as Purush. The city likely first existed as a small village in the fifth century BCE, within the cultural sphere of ancient India . Puruṣapura was founded near the ancient Gandharan capital city of Pushkalavati , near present-day Charsadda . In
6000-432: The Pakistan Army's systematic and deliberate campaign of killing and raping the populace of East Pakistan. The original plan for Operation Searchlight envisioned taking control of the major cities on 26 March 1971 and then eliminating all opposition, political or military within one month. The prolonged Bengali resistance had not been anticipated by Pakistani planners, however. The main phase of Operation Searchlight ended with
6120-461: The Pakistan Army. Until 1965, it was thought that army divisions could function effectively while getting orders directly from the army's GHQ. This idea failed miserably in the 1965 war, and the need to have intermediate corps headquarters in between the GHQ and the fighting combat divisions was recognized as a foremost operational necessity after the 1965 war. In the 1965 war, the Pakistan Army had only one corps headquarters (the 1 Corps ). Soon after
SECTION 50
#17327799155786240-486: The Peace Research Institute in Oslo. General Yahya Khan arrested Sheikh Mujibur Rahman on charges of sedition and appointed Brigadier (later General) Rahimuddin Khan to preside over a special tribunal dealing with Mujib's case. Rahimuddin gave Mujib the death sentence , but President Yahya put the verdict into abeyance. Yahya's crackdown, however, had led to the Bangladesh Liberation War within Pakistan. India would eventually be drawn into said war, fighting on behalf of
6360-410: The Sanskrit name for "City of Flowers," Poshapura, a name found in an ancient Kharosthi inscription that may refer to Peshawar . Chinese Buddhist monk Xuanzang 's seventh-century account of a city in Gandhara called the city Po-la-sha-pu-lo ( Chinese : 布路沙布邏, bùlùshābùló ) , and an earlier fifth-century account by Fa-Hien records the city's name as Fou-lou-sha ( Chinese : 弗樓沙, fùlóshā ) ,
6480-480: The Sikh victory against Azim Khan at the Battle of Nowshera in March 1823, Ranjit Singh captured Peshawar again and reinstated Yar Mohammed as the governor. By 1830, Peshawar's economy was noted by Scottish explorer Alexander Burnes to have sharply declined, with Ranjit Singh's forces having destroyed the city's palace and agricultural fields. Much of Peshawar's caravan trade from Kabul ceased on account of skirmishes between Afghan and Sikh forces, as well as
6600-420: The Sikhs. British suzerainty over regions west of Peshawar was cemented in 1893 by Sir Mortimer Durand , foreign secretary of the British Indian government, who collaboratively demarcated the border between British controlled territories in India and Afghanistan. The British built Cunningham clock tower in celebration of the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria , and in 1906 built the Victoria Hall (now home of
6720-427: The Valley of Peshawar, a broad area situated east of the historic Khyber Pass , Peshawar's recorded history dates back to at least 539 BCE, making it one of the oldest cities in South Asia. The area encompassing modern-day Peshawar is mentioned in the Vedic scriptures; it was one of the principal cities of the ancient Gāndhāra . Peshawar served as the capital of the Kushan Empire during the rule of Kanishka and
6840-413: The Valley of Peshawar. Shapur's campaign also resulted in damage to the city's monumental stupa and monastery. The Kushans were made subordinate to the Sasanids and their power rapidly dwindled, as the Sasanids blocked lucrative trade routes westward out of the city. Kushan Emperor Kanishka III was able to temporarily reestablish control over the entire Valley of Peshawar after Shapur's invasion, but
6960-417: The appointment holder had main operational command authority over the army. Direct appointments to the command of the Pakistan Army came from the British Army Council until 1951, when the first native Pakistani commander-in-chief (General Ayub Khan ) was nominated and appointed by the Government of Pakistan . The C-in-C designation was changed to ' Chief of Army Staff ' in 1972; General Tikka Khan
7080-458: The army command in 1966, Khan succeeded to the presidency from Ayub Khan , who resigned in March 1969. Yahya Khan's presidency oversaw martial law by suspending the constitution in 1969. Holding the country's first general election in 1970, he blocked the power transition to the victorious Sheikh Mujibur Rahman from East Pakistan . In March 1971, Khan ordered Operation Searchlight in an effort to suppress Bengali nationalism . This led to
7200-613: The basis of the six-point programme . West Pakistan politicians generally felt that the proposed six-point programme was a step towards East Pakistan's full secession. While the political deadlock continued between the Awami League, the PPP, and the military government after the general elections in 1970, Yahya Khan began coordinating with his military strategists concerning ongoing dissent in East Pakistan. Both Yahya Khan and Bhutto flew to Dhaka and tried negotiations one more time in mid-March 1971, but they ultimately yielded no results. On 25 March 1971, Yahya initiated Operation Searchlight ,
7320-479: The capture of the city by the Sikh Empire in 1823. In 1849, the city was captured by the East India Company and subsequently became part of British Raj , under whose rule it remained until the Partition of British India and subsequent independence of Pakistan in 1947. The modern name of the city "Peshawar" is possibly derived from the [reconstructed] Sanskrit word "Purushapura" ( Sanskrit : पुरूषपुर Puruṣapura , meaning "City of Men" or "City of Purusha"). It
SECTION 60
#17327799155787440-484: The city was known as Begram , and he rebuilt the city's fort. Babur used the city as a base for expeditions to other nearby towns in Pashtunistan . Under the reign of Babur's son, Humayun , direct Mughal rule over the city was briefly challenged with the rise of the Pashtun king, Sher Shah Suri , who began construction of the famous Grand Trunk Road in the 16th century. Peshawar was an important trading centre on Sher Shah Suri's Grand Trunk Road. During Akbar's rule,
7560-433: The city was then captured by the Central Asian Kidarite kingdom in the early 400s CE. The White Huns devastated ancient Peshawar in the 460s CE, and ravaged the entire region of Gandhara, destroying its numerous monasteries. The Kanishka stupa was rebuilt during the White Hun era with the construction of a tall wooden superstructure, built atop a stone base, and crowned with a 13-layer copper- gilded chatra . In
7680-429: The city was unsuccessful after being unable to breach the Peshawar fort's defenses. Sikh settlers from Punjab were settled in the city during Sikh rule. The city's only remaining Gurdwaras were built by Hari Singh Nalwa to accommodate the newly settled Sikhs. The Sikhs also rebuilt the Bala Hissar fort during their occupation of the city. Following the defeat of the Sikhs in the First Anglo-Sikh War in 1845–46 and
7800-514: The city's demography. Like much of northwest Pakistan, Peshawar has been severely affected by violence from the attacks by the terrorist group, Tehrik-i-Taliban . Local poets' shrines have been targeted by the Pakistani Taliban , a suicide bomb attack targeted the historic All Saints Church in 2013, and most notably the 2014 Peshawar school massacre in which Taliban militants killed 132 school children. Peshawar suffered 111 acts of terror in 2010, which had declined to 18 in 2014, before
7920-423: The city, notably in Andar Shehr and Karim Pura. On 21 March 1910, however, rumors of musicians from Amritsar and a dancing boy from Haripur being brought into the city for Holi celebrations, led to a group of individuals who were marking Barawafat into forming a mob with the intention of stopping the procession . Despite Muslim and Hindu community leaders calling for calm, both parties ultimately clashed at
8040-424: The communication channel between the United States and China , which would be used to set up the Nixon's trip in 1972. Since 1960, Pakistan was perceived in the United States as an integral bulwark against global Communism in the Cold War . The United States cautiously supported Pakistan during the 1971 conflict, although Congress kept an arms embargo in place. The economically-socialist India entered into
8160-548: The country. Pakistan forces in East Pakistan surrendered in Dhaka on 16 December 1971, leading to the creation of the independent state of Bangladesh. When the news of Pakistan's surrender was broadcast by West Pakistani media, the spontaneous and overwhelming public anger over the nation's defeat by Bangladeshi rebels and the Indian Army, and over the breakup of Pakistan into two parts, boiled into street demonstrations throughout Pakistan. Rumors of an impending coup d'état by junior military officers against President Yahya Khan swept
8280-566: The country. To forestall further unrest, on 20 December 1971, he handed over the presidency and government to Zulfikar Ali Bhutto , the ambitious leader of the (at that time) powerful and popular People's Party . Yahya became the highest-ranking official in what remained of Pakistan to be forced out due to the war. Within hours of Yahya Khan stepping down, President Bhutto reversed the Judge Advocate General Branch 's verdict against Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and instead released him, allowing him to fly to London. President Bhutto also issued orders for
8400-402: The court of Shah Shujah in Peshawar, marking the first diplomatic meeting between the British and Afghans. His half-brother Mahmud Shah then allied himself with the Barakzai Pashtuns, and captured Peshawar once again and reigned until the Battle of Nowshera in March 1823. The Capture of Peshawar took place in spring of 1758 when Maratha Confederacy in alliance with the Sikhs , defeated
8520-429: The death of Emperor Aurangzeb, the empire's defenses were weakened. On 18 November 1738, Peshawar was captured from the Mughal governor Nawab Nasir Khan by the Afsharid armies during the Persian invasion of the Mughal Empire under Nader Shah . In 1747, Peshawar was taken by Ahmad Shah Durrani , founder of the Afghan Durrani Empire . Under the reign of his son Timur Shah , the Mughal practice of using Kabul as
8640-566: The decisions of the foreign office. Yahya and his wife had a son, Ali Yahya Khan, and a daughter. Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army The Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army (abbreviation: C-in-C of the Pakistan Army) was the professional head of the Pakistan Army from 1947 to 1972. The C-in-C was directly responsible for commanding the army. It was an administrative position and
8760-430: The demonstrators . In 1947, Peshawar became part of the newly created state of Pakistan, and emerged as a cultural centre in the country's northwest. The partition of India saw the departure of many Hindko-speaking Hindus and Sikhs who held key positions in the economy of Peshawar. The University of Peshawar was established in the city in 1950, and augmented by the amalgamation of nearby British-era institutions into
8880-503: The disintegration of Pakistan, and said publicly in August 1971 that Indian military support for Bengali guerrillas could lead to war between India and Pakistan. In November 1971, Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi met Nixon in Washington. She assured him that she didn't want war with Pakistan, but he did not believe her. Witness accounts presented by Kissinger pointed out that Nixon made specific proposals to Prime Minister Gandhi on
9000-511: The era of Emperor Akbar . The current name is said by some to have been based upon the Persian for "frontier town" or, more literally, "forward city", though transcription errors and linguistic shifts may account for the city's new name. One theory suggests that the city's name is derived from the Persian name "Pesh Awardan", meaning "place of first arrival" or "frontier city", as Peshawar was
9120-501: The fall of the last major town in Bengali hands in mid-May. The total number of people killed in East Pakistan is not known with any degree of accuracy. Bangladeshi authorities claim that 3 million people were killed, while the Hamoodur Rahman Commission , an official Pakistani Government investigation, put the figure as low as 26,000 civilian casualties. In her widely discredited book Dead Reckoning: Memories of
9240-500: The famous library of the Pakistan Army Staff College (now Command and Staff College ) at Quetta , where Yahya was posted as an instructor at the time of the partition of India. He renamed the 'Command and Staff College' from 'Army Staff College'. At the age of 34, he was promoted to Brigadier , then the youngest Brigadier of Pakistan. And then he was appointed as commander of the 105th Independent Brigade that
9360-526: The first city in the Indian subcontinent after crossing the Khyber Pass . Akbar's bibliographer, Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak , lists the city's name as both Parashāwar , transcribed in Persian as پَرَشَاوَر , and Peshāwar ( پشاور ). Peshawar alongside the modern day Ghandara region were found in the Vedic Scripture as Pushkalavati. Peshawar was founded as the city of Puruṣapura , on
9480-431: The governor of Punjab was Lt Gen Attiqur Rahman , the governor of Sindh was Lt Gen Rakhman Gul, the governor of NWFP was Lt Gen K.M. Azhar , and the governor of Balochistan was Lt Gen Riaz Hussain . Peshawar Peshawar ( / p ə ˈ ʃ ɑː w ər / ; Pashto : پېښور [peˈχəwər] ; Hindko : پشور ; [pɪˈʃɔːɾ] ; Urdu : پشاور [pɪˈʃɑːʋər] )
9600-582: The independence of Bangladesh following severe pressure from the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation . The United States had been a major sponsor of President Yahya's military government. American journalist Gary Bass notes in The Blood Telegram: Nixon, Kissinger, and a Forgotten Genocide , "Nixon liked very few people, but he did like General Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan." Personal initiatives of President Yahya had helped to establish
9720-531: The late 15th and 16th centuries. The Ghoryakhel and Khashi Khel tribe pushed the Dilazak Pashtun tribes east of the Indus River following a battle in 1515 near the city of Mardan . Peshawar remained an important centre on trade routes between India and Central Asia. The Peshawar region was a cosmopolitan region in which goods, peoples, and ideas would pass along trade routes. Its importance as
9840-413: The launch of Operation Zarb-e-Azb , which further reduced acts of violence throughout Pakistan. A large attack on a Shiite mosque in the city killed dozens and injured 200 people on 4 March 2022. In January 2023, another terrorist attack occurred at Peshawar in which 100 people were killed. Peshawar is located in the broad Valley of Peshawar, which is surrounded by mountain ranges on three sides, with
9960-544: The name of the city changed from Begram to Peshawar . In 1586, Pashtuns rose against Mughal rule during the Roshani Revolt under the leadership of Bayazid Pir Roshan , founder of the egalitarian Roshani movement , who assembled Pashtun armies in an attempted rebellion against the Mughals. The Roshani followers laid siege to the city until 1587. Peshawar was bestowed with its own set of Shalimar Gardens during
10080-853: The number of Lt Gens reached 13; four were posted at the GHQ/CMLA HQ, one at the CENTO HQ in Ankara, Turkey, four were corps commanders, four were governors under martial law. General Yahya Khan was the President of Pakistan, General Abdul Hamid Khan was the de facto Commander-in-Chief of the Army, Lt Gen S.G.M.M. Peerzada was the PSO CMLA HQ in Rawalpindi, Lt Gen Gul Hassan Khan was the Chief of General Staff (CGS), and Lt Gen Khwaja Wasiuddin
10200-542: The office of the Commander-in-Chief since the independence of Pakistan to 1972. The responsibility of the C-in-C was to perform as the chief commander of the army, he was responsible to make army and war policies along with other senior generals. He had the main command authority over the army. It was also the responsibility of the general to preside over the formation commanders meeting and any other meeting in
10320-531: The points." Jayakar pointed out that Gandhi listened to Nixon "without a single comment, creating an impregnable space so that no real contact was possible." She also refrained from assuring Nixon that India would follow Pakistan's suit if it withdrew from India's borders. As a result, the main agenda was "dropped altogether." On 3 December 1971, Yahya preemptively attacked the Indian Air Force and Gandhi retaliated, pushing into East Pakistan. Nixon issued
10440-520: The positive results that it might have yielded if withdrawn earlier. Yahya also made an attempt to accommodate the East Pakistanis by abolishing the principle of parity, in the hope that a greater share in the assembly would redress their wounded ethnic regional pride and ensure the integrity of Pakistan. Instead of satisfying the Bengalis , it intensified their vocalness for separatism, causing
10560-459: The problem of disparity in the allocation of resources" between the two wings, and noted that the loss of direct US military aid meant "Pakistan had had to cut back resources devoted to the development budget in order to finance the procurement of military equipment." In 1971, Yahya conceded that he had failed to improve the national economy, “I inherited a bad economy, and I am going to pass it on,” he noted. The military government-initiated talks with
10680-585: The region, the Dilazak Pashtuns began settling in the Valley of Peshawar, and are believed to have settled regions up to the Indus River by the 11th century. The Arab historian and geographer Al-Masudi noted that by the mid tenth century, the city had become known as Parashāwar . In 986–87 CE, Peshawar's first encounter with Muslim armies occurred when Sabuktigin invaded the area and fought
10800-589: The reign of Shah Jahan , which no longer exist. Emperor Aurangzeb 's Governor of Kabul, Mohabbat Khan bin Ali Mardan Khan used Peshawar as his winter capital during the 17th century, and bestowed the city with its famous Mohabbat Khan Mosque in 1630. Yusufzai tribes rose against Mughal rule during the Yusufzai Revolt of 1667, and engaged in pitched-battles with Mughal battalions nearby Attock . Afridi tribes resisted Mughal rule during
10920-501: The revolt by making concessions to opposition groups including the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) and the Awami League (AL), but demonstrations continued. Rather than resigning and allowing a constitutional transfer of power, Ayub Khan requested that Yahya Khan, Commander-in-Chief of the Army, utilize the military's supra-constitutional authority to declare martial law and take power. On 24 March 1969, Ayub directed
11040-468: The ruins of the former grand capital. Until the mid seventh century, the residents of ancient Peshawar had a ruling elite of Central Asian Scythian descent, who were then displaced by the Hindu Shahis of Kabul. Islam is believed to have been first introduced to the Buddhist , Hindu and other indigenous inhabitants of Puruṣapura in the later seventh century. As the first Pashtun tribe to settle
11160-712: The tenth–12th century, Peshawar served as a headquarters for Hindu Nath Panthi Yogis, who in turn are believed to have extensively interacted with Muslim Sufi mystics. In 1179–80, Muhammad Ghori captured Peshawar, though the city was then destroyed in the early 1200s at the hands of the Mongols . Peshawar was an important regional centre under the Lodi dynasty of Delhi Sultanate . The Ghoryakhel Pashtuns Khalil, Muhmands, Daudzai, Chamkani tribes and some Khashi Khel Pashtuns , ancestors of modern-day Yusufzai and Gigyani Pashtuns, began settling rural regions around Peshawar in
11280-489: The time that Peshawar was under British rule. Peshawar was also home to a non-violent resistance movement led by Ghaffar Khan , a disciple of Mahatma Gandhi . In April 1930, Khan, leading a large group of his followers, protested in Qissa Khwani Bazaar against discriminatory laws that had been enacted by the colonial government; hundreds were killed when a detachment of the British Indian Army opened fire on
11400-464: The ugly political reality: the Pakistani electorate was deeply polarized along regional lines, particularly between East Pakistan and West Pakistan. As a result, Pakistan stood politically divided. A series of bilateral talks between the PPP and Mujibur Rahman produced no results and were unable to come to an agreement regarding any transfer of power from West Pakistan's representatives to East Pakistan's, on
11520-591: The university. Until the mid-1950s, Peshawar was enclosed within a city wall and sixteen gates. In the 1960s, Peshawar was a base for a CIA operation to spy on the Soviet Union , with the 1960 U-2 incident resulting in an aircraft shot down by the Soviets that flew from Peshawar. From the 1960s until the late 1970s, Peshawar was a major stop on the famous Hippie trail . During the Soviet–Afghan War in
11640-553: The war had started, the United States had imposed an embargo on military aid to both India and Pakistan. This embargo did not affect the Indian Army but produced major changes in the Pakistan Army's technical composition. US Secretary of State Dean Rusk well summed it up when he said, "Well if you are going to fight, go ahead and fight, but we're not going to pay for it". Pakistan now turned to China for military aid, and
11760-616: The winter of 327–26 BCE , Alexander the Great subdued the Valley of Peshawar during his invasion of the Indus Valley , as well as the nearby Swat and Buner valleys. Following Alexander's conquest, the Valley of Peshawar came under the suzerainty of Seleucus I Nicator , founder of the Seleucid Empire . A locally-made vase fragment that was found in Peshawar depicts a scene from Sophocles ' play Antigone . Following
11880-788: Was East Pakistan and now Bangladesh) and also push for the Islamization of the Constitution . More generally, Yahya used the intelligence services (the ISI and the IB ) "to keep secular political parties under check", mobilizing the Information Ministry for propaganda and pushing the idea that they put "Islam and Pakistan in danger." Towards the end of his life, during and following his imprisonment, Yahya slowly abandoned drinking altogether as he "turned extremely religious." Yahya
12000-476: Was General Abdul Hamid Khan , who served till 1971. Another noted chief of staff was Lieutenant General Nasir Ali Khan in 1950s. During the 1965 Indo-Pakistani War , there were only two Lt. Gens in the Army; Bakhtiar Rana , the Commander I Corps , and Altaf Qadri, who was on deputation to CENTO , Turkey , and a handful of Maj. Gens. During the 1971 Indo-Pakistani War , there were two full generals and
12120-509: Was almost exclusively Muslim and was dominated by the Punjabi - Pashtun - Mohajir peoples, and East Pakistan , whose population was largely ethnically Bengali and approximately three-fourths Muslim (as of the 1961 Census). In addition, Yahya also inherited the challenge of transforming a country essentially ruled by one man into a democratic country, which was the ideological basis of the anti-Ayub movement of 1968–69. Once in office, Yahya Khan
12240-474: Was born on 14 August 1947 and its army was known as 'Royal Pakistan Army'; on 15 August British Indian Army 's General Frank Messervy became the first C-in-C of the newly created Pakistan Army. General Ayub Khan was the first native Pakistani to hold the appointment on 17 January 1951. However, Ayub didn't hold the substantive rank of full general till 1957. In 1969, when General Yahya Khan became President of Pakistan , Lieutenant General Abdul Hamid Khan
12360-714: Was commissioned into the British Indian Army in 1939. He fought in the Second World War in the Mediterranean theatre and was promoted to major (acting lieutenant-colonel). Following the creation of Pakistan in 1947, he advanced in the Pakistan Army . During the Second India–Pakistan War of 1965, Khan helped in executing the covert infiltration in Indian-administered Kashmir . After being controversially appointed to assume
12480-503: Was deployed in LoC ceasefire region in Jammu and Kashmir in 1951–1952. Later Yahya Khan, as Vice Chief of General Staff, was selected to head of the army's planning board set up by Ayub Khan to modernize the Pakistan Army in 1954–57. Yahya also performed the duties of Chief of General Staff from 1958 to 1962 from where he went on to command two infantry divisions from 1962 to 1965. He played
12600-431: Was dissolved, and Ayub's civilian officials were dismissed. In his first nationwide address, Yahya maintained, "I will not tolerate disorder. Let everyone remain at his post." Yahya Khan's new military government featured several active duty military officials: When Yahya Khan assumed the office on 25 March, he inherited a two-decade constitutional problem of inter-provincial ethnic rivalry between West Pakistan , which
12720-513: Was experienced throughout the rest of British India and local chieftains sided with the British after the incident. The British laid out the vast Peshawar Cantonment to the west of the city in 1868, and made the city its frontier headquarters. Additionally, several projects were initiated in Peshawar, including linkage of the city by railway to the rest of British India and renovation of the Mohabbat Khan mosque that had been desecrated by
12840-654: Was home to the Kanishka Stupa , which was among the tallest buildings in the ancient world. Peshawar was then ruled by the Hephthalites , followed by the Hindu Shahis , before the arrival of a variety of Muslim empires . The city was an important trading Centre of the Mughal Empire before becoming part of the Durrani Empire in 1747, after which it served as the Durrani winter capital from 1776 until
12960-415: Was in conflict with nearby Kapisa . The Chinese monk and traveler Xuanzang visited ancient Peshawar around 630 CE, after Kapisa victory, and expressed lament that the city and its great Buddhist monuments had decayed to ruin —although some monks studying Theravada Buddhism continued to study at the monastery's ruins. Xuanzang estimated that only about 1,000 families continued in a small quarter among
13080-581: Was named so by Mughal Emperor Akbar from its old name Parashawar , the meaning of which Akbar did not understand. The ruler of the city during its founding may have been a Hindu raja (king) named Purush; the word pur means "city" in Sanskrit. Sanskrit, written in the Kharosthi script, was the literary language employed by the Buddhist kingdoms which ruled over the area during its earliest recorded period. The city's name may also be derived from
13200-755: Was originally from Peshawar . Yahya studied in the prestigious Colonel Brown Cambridge School in Dehradun and later enrolled at the University of the Punjab in Lahore , from where he graduated with a B.A. degree, finishing first in his class. Yahya Khan was commissioned into the British Indian Army from the Indian Military Academy , Dehradun on 15 July 1939, his date of commission was later antedated to 28 August 1938. An infantry officer from
13320-459: Was posted in Chakwal, Punjab, British India, when Yahya Khan was born. He was rewarded with the title of Khan Sahib for having removed the bodies of many freedom fighters, including Bhaghat Singh , as they were executed in secrecy and the British needed to get rid of the corpses without attracting much attention, operations Saadat Ali Khan carried out "efficiently and faithfully." Yahya's father
13440-406: Was promoted to full General and was appointed as the 'Chief of Staff of the Army'. On 20 March 1972, the commander-in-chief post was renamed as " Chief of Army Staff (COAS) " with Lieutenant-General Tikka Khan elevated to four star rank to be appointed as army's first chief of army staff; this renaming was done copying India's COAS appointment. The following table chronicles the appointees to
13560-676: Was regarded as the leading cause of the breakup of Pakistan. He is viewed negatively in both Bangladesh, being considered the chief-architect of the genocide, and in Pakistan. Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan was born in Chakwal , Punjab , British India , in a Qizilbash family on 4 February 1917, according to the references written by Russian sources. His family descended from the elite soldier class of Iranian conqueror Nader Shah . Yahya Khan spoke Persian . He and his family were of Pashtun origin. Few Pakistanis knew anything about Yahya Khan when he
13680-481: Was required. Three more infantry divisions (9, 16 and 17 Divisions) largely equipped with Chinese equipment and popularly referred to by the rank and file as "The China Divisions" were raised by the beginning of 1968. Two more corps headquarters: the 2 Corps Headquarters (Jhelum-Ravi Corridor) and the 4 Corps Headquarters (Ravi-Sutlej Corridor) were raised, also in East Pakistan a corps-sized formation (which
13800-628: Was separated from Punjab Province in 1901, after which Peshawar became capital of the new province. Communal riots broke out in the old city of Peshawar during the spring of 1910, when the annual Hindu festival of Holi coincided with Barawafat , the annual Muslim day of mourning, resulting in a considerable loss of life along with hundreds of looted businesses and injuries. A month prior, in February 1910, prominent community religious leaders met with officials and agreed that Holi would be solely celebrated in predominantly Hindu neighbourhoods of
13920-546: Was tasked with leading the country, drafting of a provisional constitution, resolving the One Unit question, and satisfying the frustrations and the sense of exploitation stirring in the "East Wing" (East Pakistan) by government policies since 1948. The American political scientist Lawrence Ziring observed: Yahya Khan has been widely portrayed as a ruthless uncompromising insensitive and grossly inept leader.... While Yahya cannot escape responsibility for these tragic events, it
14040-602: Was the Master-General of Ordnance (MGO).The GHQ posts of QMG and AG were under the rank of Major-Generals. Lt Gen Muhammad Shariff was sent as the Permanent Representative to the CENTO HQ in Turkey. Army's Eastern Command was under Lt Gen A.A.K. Niazi , I Corps was under Lt Gen Irshad Ahmad Khan, II Corps was under Lt Gen Tikka Khan , IV Corps was under Lt Gen Bahadur Sher. On the other hand,
14160-659: Was the first person to hold the new title. Six generals have served as C-in-C, the first two of them were native British and the post's name was derived from the post of Commander-in-Chief of the British Indian Army . Prior to the Creation of Pakistan from the Partition of India on 14 August 1947 , the senior generals of the British Indian Army were appointments made by the Army Council (1904) of
14280-475: Was titled as the Eastern Command ) was created. A sustained anti-regime mass movement began in the fall of 1968 in West Pakistan. The uprising spread to East Pakistan and gathered strength, adding to a tense political climate that had worsened following President Ayub Khan 's implementation of the 1966 Tashkent Agreement and sacking of Foreign Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto . Ayub Khan tried to quell
14400-477: Was vaulted into the presidency two years ago. The stocky, bushy–browed Pathan had been the army chief of staff since 1966... According to Indian journalist Dewan Barindranath's book Private Life of Yahya Khan (published in 1974), Yahya's father, Saadat Ali Khan, worked in the Indian Imperial Police , in the Punjab province. He joined as a head constable and retired as a deputy superintendent. He
#577422