Misplaced Pages

#812187

108-465: Among the many communities in Yamethin Township are: North and South Pyar Si, Upper and Lower Warpyutaung (Wapyudaung), and Yebyu. Yamethin is known for its fried Tofu, grape plantation, and high production of several crops and paddy. It was dug by King Kyawswa of Bagan in 1303 A.D. It was restored in 2015 to irrigate 8129 acres of monsoon and summer paddy plantations and provide water to

216-465: A "merely conceptualized" ( parikappa-siddha ) "product of the mind's synthesizing function", and "exists only by virtue of conceptual thought." There are two kinds of mutually interdependent conceptualizations: Names can be assigned to everything, including dhammas, however, unlike with everyday objects, names given to dhammas do not have a corresponding attha - paññatti, because dhammas are "profound." According to Karunadasa, " what this seems to mean

324-411: A Ceylonese stupa had a hemispheric body ( Pali : anda "the egg"), on which a rectangular box surrounded by a stone balustrade ( harmika ) was set. Extending up from the top of the stupa was a shaft supporting several ceremonial umbrellas. The stupa Buddhist cosmos : its shape symbolizes Mount Meru while the umbrella mounted on the brickwork represents the world's axis. The brickwork pediment

432-656: A World Heritage Site by the UNESCO, 24 years after its first nomination, during the 43rd session of the World Heritage Committee. Bagan became the second World Heritage Site in Myanmar, after the Ancient Cities of Pyu . As part of the criteria for the inscription of Bagan, the government had pledged to relocate existing hotels in the archaeological zone to a dedicated hotel zone by 2020. Bagan today

540-412: A denomination, the assigning of a name, an interpretation, a distinctive mark of discourse on this or that dhamma." The pali commentary adds that this means "the process of predicating", and that things such as "I", "mine", "another", "a person", "a monastery" and "a chair" are all predications. These conceptual designations depend on the mind and are not themselves the dhammas, the ultimate realities, that

648-510: A few international standard hotels and many family-run guesthouses. Bagan is also the center of Burmese lacquerware industry, which to a large degree depends on tourist demand. Much of the lacquerware is destined for souvenir shops in Yangon, and to the world markets. Moreover, the lacquerware-making process itself has become a tourist draw. The population of Bagan in its heyday is estimated to be anywhere between 50,000 and 200,000 people. Until

756-453: A fuller ontological account of nibbāna. The Theravada position is first found in the Dhammasaṅgaṇī , which describes nibbāna as the unconditioned element ( asankhata-dhatu ), completely outside of the five aggregates. It is a dhamma which "is neither skilful nor unskilful, associated neither with feeling nor with cognition, neither resultant nor giving result, does not require any object,

864-561: A living tradition in Theravāda nations today and modern Abhidhamma works continue to be written in modern languages such as Burmese and Sinhala . Abhidhamma studies are particularly stressed in Myanmar , where it has been the primary subject of study since around the 17th century. One of the most important figures in modern Myanmar Buddhism , Ledi Sayadaw (1846–1923), was well known for his writings on Abhidhamma (especially his commentary on

972-399: A more likely explanation is that the provincial governors tasked with defending against Mongol incursions were so successful that they became "the new power elite", and their capitals became the new political centers while Bagan itself became a backwater. In any case, something during this period caused Bagan to decline. The city, once home to some 50,000 to 200,000 people, had been reduced to

1080-757: A number of Abhidhamma type texts not found in the Abhidhamma Piṭaka. One of these is the Paṭisambhidāmagga . Others include the Niddessa , the Nettipakaraṇa and the Peṭakopadesa . The Sri Lankan branch of the Theravāda school later developed further Abhidhamma texts, including commentaries ( Aṭṭhakathā ) on the books of the Abhidhamma and special introductory manuals. Major commentaries include

1188-558: A pagoda or chedi, is a massive structure, typically with a relic chamber inside. The Bagan stupas or pagodas evolved from earlier Pyu designs, which in turn were based on the stupa designs of the Andhra region , particularly Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda in present-day south-eastern India, and to a smaller extent to Ceylon . The Bagan-era stupas in turn were the prototypes for later Burmese stupas in terms of symbolism, form and design, building techniques and even materials. Originally,

SECTION 10

#1732791456813

1296-477: A plurality of conditions gives rise to a plurality of effects. Applied to the dhamma theory this means that a multiplicity of dhammas brings about a multiplicity of other dhammas." According to the Atthasalini : "Dhammas bear their own particular natures ( sabhāva ). Alternatively, dhammas are borne by conditions, or according to particular natures." The use of the term sabhāva (own nature, own being) in

1404-460: A population of 258,091. The population density was 119.1 people per km. The census reported that the median age was 28.4 years, and a sex ratio of 95 males per 100 females. There were 57,259 households; the mean household size was 4.1. This Mandalay Region location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Bagan Bagan ( Burmese : ပုဂံ ; MLCTS : pu.gam , IPA: [bəɡàɰ̃] ; formerly Pagan )

1512-589: A pottery production site, then it would have had good access to natural clay resources: the Bagan area has clayey subsoil that is "still mined today for brickmaking". There are four tanks within 500 m of Otein Taung that may have originated as clay pits. The Zamani Project from the University of Cape Town , South Africa, offered its services towards the spatial documentation of monuments in Bagan in response to

1620-544: A scholastic systematization of the Theravāda school's understanding of the highest Buddhist teachings ( Abhidhamma ). These teachings are traditionally believed to have been taught by the Buddha , though modern scholars date the texts of the Abhidhamma Piṭaka to the 3rd century BCE. Theravāda traditionally sees itself as the vibhajjavāda ("the teaching of analysis"), which reflects the analytical ( vibhajjati ) method used by

1728-536: A self ( attā ) and conditioned. This is spelled out in the Patisambhidhamagga , which states that dhammas are empty of sabhāva ( sabhavena suññam ). According to Ronkin, the canonical Pāli Abhidhamma remains pragmatic and psychological, and "does not take much interest in ontology " in contrast with the Sarvastivada tradition. Paul Williams also notes that the Abhidhamma remains focused on

1836-642: A small town, never to regain its preeminence. The city formally ceased to be the capital of Burma in December 1297 when the Myinsaing Kingdom became the new power in Upper Burma. Bagan survived into the 15th century as a human settlement, and as a pilgrimage destination throughout the imperial period. A smaller number of "new and impressive" religious monuments still went up to the mid-15th century but afterward, new temple constructions slowed to

1944-452: A stoneware kiln, [or] any large brick or earth structures suggesting a pottery kiln", but several "earthenware anvils" were found at the site, as well as a 10-cm-long clay tube that may have been used as a stamp for decorating pots. The anvils are common potters' tools in South and Southeast Asia: they are held inside a pot while the outside is beaten with a paddle. If Otein Taung was used as

2052-405: A substantial mode of being, since dhammas are not permanent, or totally discrete entities. They are always in dependently conditioned relationships with other dhammas and always changing. Therefore, it is only for the sake of description that they are said to have their "own nature" ( sabhāva ). According to Karunadasa, this usage of sabhāva is only of provisional validity, "an attribution made for

2160-751: A trickle with fewer than 200 temples built between the 15th and 20th centuries. The old capital remained a pilgrimage destination but pilgrimage was focused only on "a score or so" most prominent temples out of the thousands such as the Ananda , the Shwezigon , the Sulamani , the Htilominlo , the Dhammayazika , and a few other temples along an ancient road. The rest—thousands of less famous, out-of-the-way temples—fell into disrepair, and most did not survive

2268-480: Is analyzable further due to being dependent on the mind's synthesizing function (i.e. paññatti ), that explanation is sammuti-sacca (truth by convention), which exists in a relative or conventional sense due to mental conception ( attha-paññatti ) and linguistic construction ( nama-paññatti ). However, even these ultimate components (i.e. dhammas ) are dependently originated , "necessarily co-existent and positionally inseparable ( padesato avinibhoga )". Unlike in

SECTION 20

#1732791456813

2376-477: Is "only for the purposes of description" that they are postulated. They are also said to be not-self ( anatta ) and thus empty ( suññā ). After all, dhammas are interconnected and interdependent in various relationships. Thus, the Pali Abhidhamma is not a type of pluralism, since it relies on both analysis ( bheda ) and synthesis ( sangaha ). According to Karunadasa, this "has enabled it to transcend

2484-553: Is a doctrinal innovation of the Abhidhamma, but it has its origins in some statements from the early Pāli Nikayas . This can mainly be seen in the distinction made in the Aṅguttara-nikāya between statements (not truths) that are nītattha (explicit, definitive) and neyyattha (requiring further explanation). Karunadasa notes that in the Nikayas, "no preferential value judgment is made between nītattha and neyyattha . All that

2592-556: Is a main tourist destination in the country's nascent tourism industry. The Bagan Archaeological Zone , defined as the 13 km × 8 km (8.1 mi × 5.0 mi) area centred around Old Bagan, consisting of Nyaung U in the north and New Bagan in the south, lies in the vast expanse of plains in Upper Burma on the bend of the Irrawaddy river . It is located 290 km (180 mi) south-west of Mandalay and 700 km (430 mi) north of Yangon . Bagan lies in

2700-405: Is absolutely no implication here that one dialect is either higher or lower than another." The suttas do not define the nature of nibbāna in a technical and philosophical sense, but focus on explaining it psychologically and through metaphor as the 'blowing out' of greed, hatred and delusion and remain ambiguous about its metaphysical status. The various Abhidharma systems attempted to provide

2808-530: Is an ancient city and a UNESCO World Heritage Site in the Mandalay Region of Myanmar . From the 9th to 13th centuries, the city was the capital of the Pagan Kingdom , the first kingdom that unified the regions that would later constitute Myanmar. During the kingdom's height between the 11th and 13th centuries, more than 10,000 Buddhist temples , pagodas and monasteries were constructed in

2916-556: Is at Otein Taung, 2 km south of the Ananda temple in the walled city of Old Bagan. The name "Otein Taung" is a descriptive name meaning "pottery hill"; there is another Otein Taung on the north side of Beikthano. The site of Otein Taung at Bagan actually consists of two different mounds separated by 500 meters. Both are "covered with dense layers of fragmented pottery, and with scatters of potsherds visible around and between them". Local farm fields for crops like maize come right up to

3024-521: Is because it is uncreated ( appabhava ) that it is free from ageing and death. It is because of the absence of its creation and of its ageing and death that it is permanent. He argues against the view that nibbana is unreal or non-existent and quotes a famous verse found in the Itivuttaka and the Udana which states "There is an unborn, an unbecome, an unmade, an unconditioned..." Thus, the commentary to

3132-409: Is called consensual reality, and the second is called paramattha because it represents the absolute truth or ultimate reality. Therefore, in Abhidhamma, when a situation is explained in terms of what cannot be empirically analyzed further into smaller components with different characteristics ( lakkhana ) that explanation is paramattha-sacca (ultimate truth), and when it is explained in terms of what

3240-537: Is emphasized is that the two kinds of statement should not be confused." Another early source of this doctrine is the Saṅgīti-sutta of the Dīgha-nikāya , which lists four kinds of knowledge: (a) the direct knowledge of the doctrine ( dhamme ñāna ), (b) the inductive knowledge of the doctrine ( anvaye ñana ), (c) knowledge of analysis ( paricchede ñana ), and knowledge of (linguistic) conventions ( sammuti-ñana ). In

3348-883: Is located on the outskirts of Nyaung U and it takes about 20 minutes by taxi to reach Bagan. The city is on a spur from the Yangon–Mandalay Railway . Myanmar Railways operates a daily overnight train service each way between Yangon and Bagan (Train Nos 61 & 62), which takes at least 18 hours. The trains have a sleeper car and also 1st Class and Ordinary Class seating. Between Mandalay and Bagan there are two daily services each way (Train Nos 117,118,119 & 120) that take at least 8 hours. The trains have 1st Class and Ordinary Class seating. Overnight buses and cars also operate to and from Yangon and Mandalay taking approximately 9 and 6 hours respectively. An 'express' ferry service runs between Bagan and Mandalay . Following

Yamethin Township - Misplaced Pages Continue

3456-441: Is not classified as past, present or future." Though it is not accessible by discursive or conceptual thought, it is a dhamma that can be cognized or attained by the mind. The Theravāda commentarial literature also further developed their view of nibbāna , where it is seen as a real dhamma with a specific own nature or characteristic as well as being completely devoid of any conditioned characteristic. According to Buddhaghosa: "it

3564-761: Is superior or inferior to the other. Nor do they represent two parallel truths. Because of this, in Abhidhamma, even paramattha-sacca is explained through concepts, though the ultimate itself is not a product of the mind's conceptual function ( paññatti ), it cannot be explained without the medium of paññatti . Furthermore, according to Tse Fu Kuan, the Dhammasaṅgaṇi , "does not appear to uphold that dhammas are ultimate realities as against conventional constructs like persons." This text also states that “all dhammas are ways of designation ( paññatti )”, that “all dhammas are ways of interpretation ( nirutti )” and that “all dhammas are ways of expression ( adhivacana )”. Therefore,

3672-435: Is that objects of conceptual thought like tables and chairs are easily recognizable, whereas the dhammas are difficult to be grasped." It is only in deep meditation that one is said to transcend conceptuality and gain direct insight into the dhammas themselves, seeing them as empty ( suñña ) and impersonal ( nissatta, nijjīva ). It is not only everyday objects that are conceptual, but also persons ( pudgala ), time ( kala ), and

3780-549: Is the central theory or cornerstone of the Pāli Abhidhamma . According to various scholars of Abhidhamma, the main point of this theory is to provide a useful schema for meditative contemplation and insight into the nature of phenomena. "Dhammā" has been translated as "factors" (Collett Cox), "psychic characteristics" (Bronkhorst), "psycho-physical events" (Noa Ronkin) and "phenomena" ( Nyanaponika Thera ). Noa Ronkin defines dhammas as "the constituents of sentient experience;

3888-499: Is to say, they are not the ultimate truth ( paramattha ). Together, the conceptual and the ultimate reality constitute the whole of the knowable ( ñeyya-dhamma ). Paññattis are seen as without sabhāva ( asabhāva ), are "distinct from both mind and matter," do not arise and fall like dhammas do and "are not brought about by conditions", are “not positively produced” ( aparinipphanna ) and are neither conditioned ( sankhata ) nor unconditioned ( asankhata ). In Abhidhamma, paññattis are

3996-406: Is unconditioned. These dhammas are divided into four main categories: Since no dhamma exists independently, every single dhamma of consciousness, known as a citta, arises associated ( sampayutta ) with at least seven mental factors ( cetasikas ). In Abhidhamma, all awareness events are thus seen as being characterized by intentionality (aboutness, direction) and never exist in isolation. From

4104-500: Is what allows us to say that the individual characteristic of the earth element is solidity. This is contrast to "universal characteristics" of all dhammas ( sāmanna-lakkhaņa ), which are those features all dhammas share. Thus, while in Theravāda Abhidhamma, dhammas are the ultimate constituents of experience, they are not seen as substances ( attena ), essences or independent particulars, since they are empty ( suñña ) of

4212-599: The Atthasālinī (a commentary on the Dhammasaṅgaṇī ), the Sammohavinodanī (a Vibhaṅga commentary) and the Pañcappakaṇaraṭṭhakathā, a commentary on the other books of the Abhidhamma Piṭaka . The Sri Lankan tradition also produced practice manuals, such as Vimuttimagga ("Path of Freedom") c. 1st or 2nd century CE. The 5th century scholar Buddhaghosa is one of the most influential Abhidhammika of

4320-910: The Abhidhammatthasangaha, called the Paramatthadipanitika ). This commentary, which critiqued an older 12th-century commentary from Sri Lanka (the Abhidhammattha-vibhavini-tika ) led to a lively controversy, as different figures debated on Abhidhamma topics. The books of the Abhidhamma Piṭaka were translated into English in the 20th century and published by the Pāli Text Society . The translators were C. A. F. Rhys Davids ( Dhammasaṅgaṇī , Kathāvatthu ), U Thittila ( Vibhaṅga ), U Narada ( Dhātukathā , Paṭṭhāna ), B.C. Law ( Puggalapaññatti ). [REDACTED] Religion portal In

4428-551: The Bupaya , severely and irreparably. Today, 2229 temples and pagodas remain. Many of these damaged pagodas underwent restorations in the 1990s by the military government , which sought to make Bagan an international tourist destination. However, the restoration efforts instead drew widespread condemnation from art historians and preservationists worldwide. Critics were aghast that the restorations paid little attention to original architectural styles, and used modern materials, and that

Yamethin Township - Misplaced Pages Continue

4536-511: The Khmer Empire . The culture of Bagan was dominated by religion. The religion of Bagan was fluid, syncretic and by later standards, unorthodox. It was largely a continuation of religious trends in the Pyu era where Theravada Buddhism co-existed with Mahayana Buddhism , Tantric Buddhism , various Hindu ( Saivite , and Vaishana ) schools as well as native animist ( nat ) traditions. While

4644-741: The Pali Canon . Then there are exegetical works which were composed in Sri Lanka in the 5th century. There are also later sub-commentarial works composed in later historical periods. The primary source for the Abhidhamma is the Abhidhamma Piṭaka , a set of seven texts which form the third "basket" of the Theravāda Tipiṭaka (also known as the Pāli Canon ). It is generally accepted by modern scholars that these works began to be composed during

4752-516: The Potthapāda Sutta , where he explains that even though he uses the word "myself" ( atta ), he is not referring to an ultimate essence, only speaking conventionally and that such terms "are names ( samaññā ), expressions ( nirutti ), turns of speech ( vohāra ), and designations ( paññatti ) in common use in the world. And of these the Tathāgata makes use indeed, but is not led astray by them". Also,

4860-815: The Sutta Pitaka, which have been seen as a "proto-abhidhamma" by scholars such as Johannes Bronkhorst and Frauwallner. These suttas include the Saṅgīti Sutta and Dasuttara Sutta , the two last suttas of the Dīgha Nikāya (as well as the Saṅgīti Sūtra and Daśottara Sūtra of the Dīrgha Āgama). Tse fu Kuan also argues that certain sutras of the Aṅguttara Nikāya (AN 3.25, AN 4.87–90, AN 9.42–51) depicts an early Abhidhamma type method. The Khuddaka Nikāya includes

4968-570: The Visuddhimagga states that nibbāna is the opposite to all conditioned states. In Theravāda Abhidhamma, nibbāna is seen as totally other than the conditioned existents and as the only unique unconditioned dhamma. Therefore, Theravāda Abhidhamma holds that there is only one singular nibbāna , unlike in Vaibhasika or Mahayana Abhidharma, where there are different types of unconditioned elements and different forms of nibbāna (such as

5076-695: The apratistha or non-abiding nirvana of Mahayana and the unconditioned space element in Vaibhasika). In Early Buddhism , consciousness is a phenomenon that always arises based on conditions (i.e. it is dependently originated ) and it also never arises by itself, but is always found in relationship with the other four aggregates of personality. Likewise, it is also said to be mutually dependent on and arise together with "name and form" ( nama-rupa ) . Name refers to feeling ( vedanā ), perception ( saññā ), volition ( cetanā ), sense-impression ( phassa ) , and attention ( manasikāra ), while form refers to

5184-598: The royal chronicles , Bagan was founded in the second century CE, and fortified in 849 by King Pyinbya , 34th successor of the founder of early Bagan. Western scholarship however holds that Bagan was founded in the mid-to-late 9th century by the Mranma (Burmans), who had recently entered the Irrawaddy valley from the Nanzhao Kingdom . It was among several competing Pyu city-states until the late 10th century when

5292-529: The stupas , the hollow gu -style temple is a structure used for meditation, devotional worship of the Buddha and other Buddhist rituals. The gu temples come in two basic styles: "one-face" design and "four-face" design—essentially one main entrance and four main entrances. Other styles such as five-face and hybrids also exist. The one-face style grew out of 2nd century Beikthano , and the four-face out of 7th century Sri Ksetra. The temples, whose main features were

5400-402: The 13th century, the area around Old Bagan was already densely packed with monuments, and new major clusters began to emerge to the east. These new clusters, like the monastic area of Minnanthu, were roughly equally distant – and equally accessible – from any part of the original strip that had been defined in the 11th century. Construction during the 13th century featured a significant increase in

5508-466: The 3rd century BCE. They therefore cannot be the direct work of the Buddha himself, but of later disciples and scholars. However, according to some scholars like Rupert Gethin , it is possible that some elements found in Abhidhamma, such as the mātikās (lists, matrices of doctrinal terms) are from an earlier date than the books themselves. This has been studied by Erich Frauwallner , who argues that there are kernels of early pre-sectarian material in

SECTION 50

#1732791456813

5616-413: The Abhidhamma perspective, there are really only dhammas and their relations. If this is so, how can one explain common sense reality, the everyday world? To answer this, Ābhidhammikas resorted to the nominalist theory of paññatti (concepts, designations) as a way to explain such basic universal categories as unity, identity, time and space. The Buddha made use of this term in the suttas, as can be seen in

5724-982: The Bagan plains alone, of which the remains of over 2200 temples and pagodas survive. The Bagan Archaeological Zone is a main attraction for the country's nascent tourism industry . Bagan is the present-day standard Burmese pronunciation of the Burmese word Pugan ( ပုဂံ ), derived from Old Burmese Pukam ( ပုကမ် ). Its classical Pali name is Arimaddanapura ( အရိမဒ္ဒနာပူရ , lit. "the City that Tramples on Enemies"). Its other names in Pali are in reference to its extreme dry zone climate: Tattadesa ( တတ္တဒေသ , "parched land"), and Tampadīpa ( တမ္ပဒီပ , "bronzed country"). The Burmese chronicles also report other classical names of Thiri Pyissaya ( သီရိပစ္စယာ ; Pali : Siripaccaya ) and Tampawaddy ( တမ္ပဝတီ ; Pali : Tampavatī ). According to

5832-444: The Bagan plains. The prosperous city grew in size and grandeur, and became a cosmopolitan center for religious and secular studies, specializing in Pali scholarship in grammar and philosophical-psychological ( abhidhamma ) studies as well as works in a variety of languages on prosody , phonology , grammar, astrology , alchemy , medicine, and legal studies. The city attracted monks and students from as far as India , Sri Lanka and

5940-465: The Buddha and early Buddhists to investigate the nature of the person and other phenomena. According to Bhikkhu Bodhi , a modern Theravāda scholar, the Abhidhamma is "simultaneously a philosophy , a psychology and an ethics , all integrated into the framework of a program for liberation." There are different textual layers of Abhidhamma literature. The earliest Abhidhamma works are found in

6048-533: The Burman settlement grew in authority and grandeur. From 1044 to 1287, Bagan was the capital as well as the political, economic and cultural nerve center of the Bagan Empire . Over the course of 250 years, Bagan's rulers and their wealthy subjects constructed over 10,000 religious monuments (approximately 1000 stupas, 10,000 small temples and 3000 monasteries) in an area of 104 km (40 sq mi) in

6156-488: The Chola Empire. As a result, immigrants from those places likely also ended up moving to Bagan, in addition to people moving there from within Myanmar. The Pagan Empire collapsed in 1287 due to repeated Mongol invasions (1277–1301). Recent research shows that Mongol armies may not have reached Bagan itself, and that even if they did, the damage they inflicted was probably minimal. According to Michael Aung-Thwin ,

6264-483: The City Gate of old Bagan ( Tharabha Gate ). Bagan is accessible by air, rail, bus, car and river boat. Most international tourists fly to the city. The Nyaung U Airport is the gateway to the Bagan region. Several domestic airlines have regular flights to Yangon , which take about 80 minutes to cover the 600 kilometres. Flights to Mandalay take approximately 30 minutes and to Heho about 40 minutes. The airport

6372-407: The Irrawaddy river the fastest ferry takes around 9 hours to travel the 170 kilometres. The service runs daily during peak periods and slower sailings with overnight stops are also available. Bagan's economy is based mainly on tourism . Because of boycotts against the previous military government, the Bagan region's tourism infrastructure is still quite modest by international standards. The city has

6480-534: The Niruttipatha Sutta states that the division of time into past, present and future are "three pathways of expression ( nirutti ), designation ( adhivacana ), and concept-making ( paññatti )." The first definition of the term in an Abhidhamma text is that found in the Dhammasangani: "That which is an enumeration, that which is a designation, an expression ( paññatti ), a current term, a name,

6588-511: The Pyu style at Sri Ksetra . By the 11th century, the stupa had developed into a more bell-shaped form in which the parasols morphed into a series of increasingly smaller rings placed on one top of the other, rising to a point. On top the rings, the new design replaced the harmika with a lotus bud. The lotus bud design then evolved into the "banana bud", which forms the extended apex of most Burmese pagodas. Three or four rectangular terraces served as

SECTION 60

#1732791456813

6696-484: The Pāli Abhidhamma concerned itself with providing a finer and more exhaustive understanding of all phenomenal experience by explaining, analyzing and classifying all dhammas and their relationships. According to Y. Karunadasa , for the Abhidhamma, dhammas are "the basic factors into which all things can be resolved" and "elementary constituents, the ultimate realities behind manifest phenomena." This " Dhamma theory "

6804-477: The Pāli Nikayas, the Buddha teaches through a method in which experience is explained using various conceptual groupings of physical and mental processes, which are called " dhammā" . Examples of lists of dhammas taught by the Buddha in the Nikayas include the twelve sense 'spheres' ( ayatana ) , the five aggregates ( khandha ) and the eighteen elements of cognition ( dhatu ) . Expanding these various models,

6912-485: The Sanskrit-based Buddhist tradition which refer to the conventional truth as samvrti (which has the meaning of concealing or covering), the Pāli Abhidhamma term sammuti just means human convention and does not have this connotation of an inferior truth hiding a higher truth. Therefore, as pointed out by K.N. Jayatilleke , the Theravāda version of two truths "does not imply that what is true in

7020-485: The Theravāda. His Visuddhimagga (a manual on spiritual praxis based on the Vimuttimagga ) remains one of the most important Theravāda texts. Chapters XIV to XVII are a kind of summary of the Abhidhamma. His commentaries on the suttas also reflect an Abhidhamma perspective. A further period of medieval Sri Lankan scholarship also produced a series of texts called the sub-commentaries (which are commentaries to

7128-574: The advent of tourism industry in the 1990s, only a few villagers lived in Old Bagan. The rise of tourism has attracted a sizable population to the area. Because Old Bagan is now off limits to permanent dwellings, much of the population reside in either New Bagan, south of Old Bagan, or Nyaung-U, north of Old Bagan. The majority of native residents are Bamar . The Bagan archaeological zone is part of Nyaung-U District , Mandalay Region . Abhidhamma The Theravada Abhidhamma tradition refers to

7236-605: The base for a pagoda, often with a gallery of terra-cotta tiles depicting Buddhist jataka stories. The Shwezigon Pagoda and the Shwesandaw Pagoda are the earliest examples of this type. Examples of the trend toward a more bell-shaped design gradually gained primacy as seen in the Dhammayazika Pagoda (late 12th century) and the Mingalazedi Pagoda (late 13th century). In contrast to

7344-447: The bent spouts found at Beikthano. Also found at Otein Taung are earthenware tubes, about 60 cm long and 40 cm in diameter. Similar pipes have been found at Old Bagan, and they are thought to have been part of toilets. It is not clear whether Otein Taung represents a large-scale pottery production site or "a huge, and for Bagan unique, residential midden". Archaeologists did not find any "slumps characteristic of overfiring in

7452-420: The binary opposition between pluralism ( sabbam puthuttam ) and monism ( sabbam ekattam ), or as one Pāli commentary says, the binary opposition between the principle of plurality ( nānatta-naya ) and the principle of unity ( ekatta-naya )." That the Pali Abhidhamma sought to avoid both absolute pluralism and monism can be seen in various commentarial statements that warn against a one-sided focus or grasping on

7560-532: The building of monasteries and associated smaller monuments. Michael Aung-Thwin has suggested that the smaller sizes may indicate "dwindling economic resources" and that the clustering around monasteries may reflect growing monastic influence. Bob Hudson, Nyein Lwin, and Win Maung also suggest that there was a broadening of donor activity during this period: "the religious merit that accrued from endowing an individual merit

7668-474: The buildings shows "an astonishing degree of perfection", where many of the immense structures survived the 1975 earthquake more or less intact. (Unfortunately, the vaulting techniques of the Bagan era were lost in the later periods. Only much smaller gu style temples were built after Bagan. In the 18th century, for example, King Bodawpaya attempted to build the Mingun Pagoda , in the form of spacious vaulted chambered temple but failed as craftsmen and masons of

7776-487: The canonical Abhidhamma Pitaka does not uphold the interpretation of the two truths as referring to primary ontological realities. Karunadasa notes how the Pali commentaries state that "the Buddha sometimes teaches the Dhamma according to conventional truth, sometimes according to ultimate truth, and sometimes through a combination of both." This is compared to a teacher using different dialects to teach his pupils. "There

7884-420: The characteristics of dhammas when considered as separate abstractions, including universal characteristics ( sāmanna-lakkhaņa ) such as impermanence ( aniccatā ) as well as the principle of dependent origination and the four noble truths. According to Y. Karunadasa , for the Theravāda, the two truths theory which divides reality into sammuti (worldly conventions) and paramattha (ultimate, absolute truths)

7992-537: The commentaries). There is also a genre of short introductory manuals to the Abhidhamma, like the 5th century Abhidhammāvatāra . The most influential of these manuals remains the short and succinct Abhidhammattha-saṅgaha of Ācariya Anuruddha. According to Bhikkhu Bodhi, this text has remained "the main primer for the study of Abhidhamma used throughout the Theravada Buddhist world," and various commentaries have been written on it. Abhidhamma remains

8100-404: The convenience of definition." It merely refers to the fact that "any dhamma represents a distinct fact of empirical existence which is not shared by other dhammas." According to Peter Harvey , the Theravāda view of a dhamma's sabhāva is that it refers to an individualizing characteristic ( salakkhaṇa ) that "is not something inherent in a dhamma as a separate ultimate reality, but arise due to

8208-595: The description of dhammas is not found in the books of the Abhidhamma Pitaka , but does appear in other texts such as the Nettippakarana and in the commentaries. Theravāda commentaries sometimes equate the two terms, such as the Visuddhimagga which states that ‘dhamma means sabhāva ’. However, it should be remembered that the Theravāda conception of sabhāva does not mean an essence or

8316-808: The destruction of monuments by an earthquake in August 2016 . After reconnaissance visit to Bagan and a subsequent meeting at the UNESCO offices in Bangkok in February 2017, the Zamani Project documented 12 monuments in Bagan using LiDAR , during three field campaigns between 2017 and 2018, including Kubyauk-gyi ( Gubyaukgyi ) (298); Kyauk-ku-umin (154); Tha-peik-hmauk-gu-hpaya (744); Sula-mani-gu-hpaya ( Sulamani ) (748) Monument 1053; Sein-nyet-ama (1085); Sein-nyet-nyima (1086); Naga-yon-hpaya (1192); Loka-ok-shaung (1467); Than-daw-kya (1592); Ananda Monastery; and

8424-562: The dhammas’ individuality, not their existential status". Sabhāva is therefore synonymous with salakkhaṇa (own characteristic), which is what differentiates one type of dhamma from another for the convenience of definition. Salakkhaṇa (own characteristic) is also called as "individual characteristic" ( paccatta-lakkhaṇa ), "special characteristic" ( visesa-lakkhaṇa ), "the characteristic which separates it from other characteristics" ( asādhāraṇa-lakkhaṇa ), and "intrinsic characteristic" ( āveṇika-lakkhaṇa ). For example, this mode of description

8532-429: The earlier Nikayas, as opposed to the Abhidhamma, sammuti (linguistic conventions) is not analyzed down into existents called paramattha (ultimate). In the Theravāda Abhidhamma, the distinction does arise, referring to: two levels of reality, namely that which is amenable to analysis and that which defies further analysis. The first level is called sammuti because it represents conventional or relative truth or what

8640-519: The earliest Abhidhamma texts (such as in the Vibhanga , the Dharmaskandha , and the Śāriputrābhidharma ). According to Frauwallner's comparative study, these texts were possibly developed and "constructed from the same material", mainly early mātikās (Sanskrit: mātṛkā ) which forms the "ancient core" of early Abhidhamma. The extensive use of mātikā can also be found in some suttas of

8748-415: The east bank of the Irrawaddy emerged during this period, with the walled core (known as "Old Bagan") in the middle. 11th-century construction took place throughout this whole area and appears to have been relatively decentralized. The spread of monuments north and south of Old Bagan, according to Hudson, Nyein Lwin, and Win Maung, may reflect construction at the village level, which may have been encouraged by

8856-415: The eastern mound, and then there are also randomly scattered monuments in the area between the mounds. Finally, there is a large temple between the two mounds, which was probably built in the 12th century. This temple was restored in 1999. Otein Taung was excavated by a team led by Bob Hudson and Nyein Lwin in 1999 and 2000. Excavation revealed layers of potash with a fine texture, suggesting that most of

8964-418: The edges of the mounds, and goats and cattle commonly graze on them. Besides the mounds, there are also about 40 small monuments at Otein Taung, mostly dated to the 13th century. Several of these are clustered around a monastery on the south side of the western mound. There is also a group of monuments arranged in a straight line, which may represent a property boundary or road. Another cluster exists south of

9072-677: The four great properties (see section on " Rupa "). In this sense, early Buddhism and Theravāda Abhidhamma, avoids both idealism or materialism , as well as any kind of dualism that sees mind and body as totally separate. Instead, it posits that mind and body are mutually dependent phenomena. Using this perspective as its basic schema, Abhidhamma analyzes the cognitive process into individual cognitive units which have two main components: consciousness events ( cittas , an intentional knowing or awareness of an object) and mental factors ( cetasikas , mentality that arises in association with cittas ). These two components always arise together, and when

9180-480: The four who had already appeared. The Dhammayazika and the Ngamyethna Pagoda are examples of the pentagonal design. The 140- hectare core on the riverbank is surrounded by three walls. A fourth wall, on the western side, may have once existed before being washed away by the river at some point. The Irrawaddy has certainly eroded at least some parts of the city, since there are "buildings collapsing into

9288-524: The fuel was provided by bamboo and other grasses. Also found were small charcoal fragments, preserved burnt bamboo filaments, and some animal bones and pigs' teeth. Based on radiocarbon dating, Otein Taung dates from at least the 9th century, which is well before recorded history at Bagan. The sprinkler pot, or kendi , is a very characteristic type of pottery from medieval Myanmar, and over 50 spouts and necks belonging to them were found by archaeologists at Otein Taung. These were all straight, in contrast to

9396-404: The government has also established a golf course , a paved highway, and built a 61 m (200 ft) watchtower. Although the government believed that the ancient capital's hundreds of (unrestored) temples and large corpus of stone inscriptions were more than sufficient to win the designation of UNESCO World Heritage Site, the city was not so designated until 2019, allegedly mainly on account of

9504-407: The irreducible ‘building blocks’ that make up one's world, albeit they are not static mental contents and certainly not substances." According to Karunadasa, a dhamma, which can be translated as "a 'principle' or 'element' ( dhamma )", is "those items that result when the process of analysis is taken to its ultimate limits". However, this does not mean that they have an independent existence, for it

9612-571: The later era had lost the knowledge of vaulting and keystone arching to reproduce the spacious interior space of the Bagan hollow temples. ) Another architectural innovation originated in Bagan is the Buddhist temple with a pentagonal floor plan. This design grew out of hybrid (between one-face and four-face designs) designs. The idea was to include the veneration of the Maitreya Buddha , the future and fifth Buddha of this era, in addition to

9720-411: The main elite at Old Bagan. The peak of monument building took place between about 1150 and 1200. Most of Bagan's largest buildings were built during this period. The overall amount of building material used also peaked during this phase. Construction clustered around Old Bagan, but also took place up and down the main strip, and there was also some expansion to the east, away from the Irrawaddy. By

9828-567: The middle of the Dry Zone , the region roughly between Shwebo in the north and Pyay in the south. Unlike the coastal regions of the country, which receive annual monsoon rainfalls exceeding 2,500 mm (98 in), the dry zone gets little precipitation as it is sheltered from the rain by the Rakhine Yoma mountain range in the west. Available online climate sources report Bagan climate quite differently. Bagan stands out for not only

9936-444: The one sense is false in the other or even that the one kind of truth is superior to the other". As Karunadasa writes: the distinction between sammuti-sacca and paramattha-sacca does not refer to two kinds of truth as such, but to two ways of presenting what is true. Although they are formally introduced as two truths, they are explained as two modes of expressing what is true. They do not represent two degrees of truth, of which one

10044-591: The opposite error, a one-sided focus on the principle of unity. Instead, they are simply a "multiplicity of inter-connected but distinguishable co-ordinate factors." This is said to correspond to the idea that the Buddha's teaching is an ontological middle way between various extremes, such as absolute existence and non-existence, or radical plurality and absolute monism. While dhammas are said to be distinguishable (vibhāgavanta) from each other, they are said to arise together in clusters due to their inseparability (samsatthatā, avinibhogatā). This principle can also be seen in

10152-709: The original designs—some finished with "a rude plastered surface, scratched without taste, art or result". The interiors of some temples were also whitewashed, such as the Thatbyinnyu and the Ananda. Many painted inscriptions and even murals were added in this period. Bagan, located in an active earthquake zone, had suffered from many earthquakes over the ages, with over 400 recorded earthquakes between 1904 and 1975. A major earthquake occurred on 8 July 1975, reaching 8 MM in Bagan and Myinkaba , and 7 MM in Nyaung-U . The quake damaged many temples, in many cases, such as

10260-474: The people of nearby areas. Yamethin Township was established as a town during the time of King Duttabaung in 170 BE (Buddhist Era). The town was formerly known as Nwamethin (နွားမည်းသင်း), in reference to the preponderance of black cows in the area. Over time, the town's name evolved to Namethin and to Yamethin , which is the modern-day name. The 2014 Myanmar Census reported that Yamethin Township had

10368-461: The pointed arches and the vaulted chamber, became larger and grander in the Bagan period. Although the Burmese temple designs evolved from Indic, Pyu (and possibly Mon) styles, the techniques of vaulting seem to have developed in Bagan itself. The earliest vaulted temples in Bagan date to the 11th century, while the vaulting did not become widespread in India until the late 12th century. The masonry of

10476-409: The practicalities of insight meditation and leaves ontology "relatively unexplored". Ronkin does note however that later Theravāda sub-commentaries ( ṭīkā ) do show a doctrinal shift towards ontological realism from the earlier epistemic and practical concerns. The Theravāda Abhidhamma holds that there is a total of 82 possible types of dhammas, 81 of these are conditioned ( sankhata ), while one

10584-464: The principle of plurality ( nānattta-naya ). For example, the sub-commentary to the Dīgha Nikāya says that "the erroneous grasping of the principle of plurality is due to the undue emphasis on the radical separateness ( accanta-bheda ) of the dhammas." Likewise, dhammas "are not fractions of a whole indicating an absolute unity" or manifestations of a single metaphysical substratum, since this would be

10692-402: The restorations. On 24 August 2016, a major earthquake hit Bagan, and caused major damages in nearly 400 temples. The Sulamani and Myauk Guni temples were severely damaged. The Bagan Archaeological Department began a survey and reconstruction effort with the help of the UNESCO. Visitors were prohibited from entering 33 much-damaged temples. On 6 July 2019, Bagan was officially inscribed as

10800-454: The river both upstream and downstream from the walled core". The walled core called "Old Bagan" takes up only a tiny fraction of the 8,000-hectare area where monuments are found. It is also much smaller than the walled areas of major Pyu cities (the largest, Śrī Kṣetra or Thayekittaya, has a walled area of 1,400 hectares). Altogether, this suggests that "'Old Bagan' represents an elite core, not an urban boundary". An important outlying site

10908-456: The royal patronage of Theravada Buddhism since the mid-11th century had enabled the Buddhist school to gradually gain primacy, other traditions continued to thrive throughout the Pagan period to degrees later unseen. Bagan's basic physical layout had already taken shape by the late 11th century, which was the first major period of monument building. A main strip extending for about 9 km along

11016-421: The sheer number of religious edifices of Myanmar but also the magnificent architecture of the buildings, and their contribution to Burmese temple design. The artistry of the architecture of pagodas in Bagan proves the achievement of Myanmar craftsmen in handicrafts. The Bagan temple falls into one of two broad categories: the stupa -style solid temple and the gu -style (ဂူ) hollow temple. A stupa , also called

11124-414: The supporting conditions both of other dhammas and previous occurrences of that dhamma". This is shown by other definitions given in the commentaries, which state that a dhamma is "that which is borne by its own conditions," and "the mere fact of occurrence due to appropriate conditions." Similarly, Noa Ronkin argues that in Theravāda Abhidhamma, " sabhāva is predominantly used for the sake of determining

11232-409: The suttas (see: Mahāvedalla Sutta, ) which state that some dhammas are said to be blended (samsattha) in such a way that they cannot be separated out. The fact that dhammas always arise together is also connected to their conditional dependence on each other. In the Abhidhamma, nothing arises without a cause, from a single cause or as a single effect. Therefore, in Abhidhamma "it is always the case that

11340-418: The temple properties. These workers, especially the artisans, were paid well, which attracted many people to move to Bagan. Contemporary inscriptions indicate that "people of many linguistic and cultural backgrounds lived and worked" in Bagan during this time period. Bagan's ascendancy also coincided with a period of political and economic decline in several other nearby regions, like Dvaravati, Srivijaya, and

11448-498: The test of time. For the few dozen temples that were regularly patronized, the continued patronage meant regular upkeep as well as architectural additions donated by the devotees. Many temples were repainted with new frescoes on top of their original Pagan era ones, or fitted with new Buddha statutes. Then came a series of state-sponsored "systematic" renovations in the Konbaung period (1752–1885), which by and large were not true to

11556-730: Was more widely accessible", and more private individuals were endowing small monuments. As with before, this may have taken place at the village level. Both Bagan itself and the surrounding countryside offered plenty of opportunities for employment in various sectors. The prolific temple building alone would have been a huge stimulus for professions involved in their construction, such as brickmaking and masonry; gold, silver, and bronze working; carpentry and woodcarving; and ceramics. Finished temples would still need maintenance work done, so they continued to boost demand for both artisans' services and unskilled labor well after their construction. Accountants, bankers, and scribes were also necessary to manage

11664-465: Was often covered in stucco and decorated in relief. Pairs or series of ogres as guardian figures ('bilu') were a favourite theme in the Bagan period. The original Indic design was gradually modified first by the Pyu , and then by Burmans at Bagan where the stupa gradually developed a longer, cylindrical form. The earliest Bagan stupas such as the Bupaya (c. 9th century) were the direct descendants of

#812187