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125-587: Yancai is first mentioned in Chapter 123 of the Shiji (whose author, Sima Qian , died c. 90 BC), based on the travels of 2nd century BC Chinese diplomat Zhang Qian : Yancai lies some 2,000 li [832 km] northwest of Kangju . The people are nomads and their customs are generally similar to those of the people of Kangju. The country has over 100,000 archer warriors, and borders on a great shoreless lake. The people of Yancai are usually considered an Iranian people of

250-568: A diversion while Zhuge himself led the main force to Mount Qi. The vanguard Ma Su suffered a tactical defeat at Jieting and the Shu army was forced to withdraw. In the next six years Zhuge Liang attempted several more offensives, but supply problems limited the capacity for success. In 234, he led his last great northern offensive, reaching the Battle of Wuzhang Plains south of the Wei River . Due to

375-564: A halt to hostilities with Tao Qian for the time being. Tao Qian died in the same year, leaving his province to Liu Bei. A year later, in 195, Cao Cao managed to drive Lü Bu out of Yan Province. Lü Bu fled to Xu Province and was received by Liu Bei, and an uneasy alliance began between the two. Afterwards, Lü Bu betrayed Liu Bei and seized Xu Province, forming an alliance with Yuan Shu's remnant forces. Liu Bei, together with his followers Guan Yu and Zhang Fei , fled to Cao Cao, who accepted him. Soon, preparations were made for an attack on Lü Bu, and

500-622: A hiatus of around twenty years. The changes in the manuscript of the Shiji during this hiatus have always been disputed among scholars. That the text was more or less complete by ca. 91 BC is established in the Letter to Ren An ( 報任安書 ), composed in the Zhenghe ( 征和 ) era of Emperor Wu's reign. In this letter, Sima Qian describes his work as "spanning from the time of the Yellow Emperor to

625-591: A large army and camped along the northern bank of the Yellow River. In the summer of 200, after months of preparations, the armies of Cao Cao and Yuan Shao clashed at the Battle of Guandu (near present-day Kaifeng). Cao Cao's army was heavily outnumbered by Yuan Shao. Due to a raid in Yuan's supply train, Yuan's army fell into disorder as they fled back north. Cao Cao took advantage of Yuan Shao's death in 202, which resulted in division among his sons, and advanced to

750-503: A major role in world history . The name Alanliao has been connected by modern scholars with that of the Alans . Yancai is last mentioned in the 3rd century Weilüe : Then there is the kingdom of Liu, the kingdom of Yan [to the north of Yancai], and the kingdom of Yancai [between the Black and Caspian Seas], which is also called Alan. They all have the same way of life as those of Kangju. To

875-826: A number of natural disasters during this period, and local rebellions sprung up throughout the country. In the third month of 184, Zhang Jiao , leader of the Way of Supreme Peace, a Taoist movement, along with his two brothers Zhang Liang and Zhang Bao, led the movement's followers in a rebellion against the government that was called the Yellow Turban Rebellion . Their movement quickly attracted followers and soon numbered several hundred thousand and received support from many parts of China. They had 36 bases throughout China, with large bases having 10,000 or more followers and minor bases having 6,000 to 7,000, similar to Han armies. Their motto was: "The Grey Sky has perished,

1000-418: A plan to set fire to Cao Cao's immobilised fleet through the feigned surrender of Sun Quan's general Huang Gai . Cao Cao was defeated decisively and forced to retreat in disarray back to the north. The allied victory at Red Cliffs ensured the survival of Liu Bei and Sun Quan, and provided the basis for the states of Shu and Wu. In 209, Zhou Yu captured Jiangling, establishing the south's complete dominance over

1125-450: A recent refugee from the north, and Zhou Yu was placed in command of Sun Quan's navy, along with a veteran general who served the Sun family, Cheng Pu . Liu Biao's second son, Liu Qi , joined the alliance with his troops, and the combined armies of 50,000 met Cao Cao's fleet and 200,000-man force at Red Cliffs that winter. After an initial skirmish, an attack was set in motion beginning with

1250-519: A regent for the 17-year-old Liu Shan, and held control of the Shu government. Shu and Wu resumed their diplomatic relations by re-establishing peace and alliance in the winter of 223. On 23 June 229, Sun Quan proclaimed himself as the Emperor of Wu. Shu controlled the upper Han valley and the territory west of the Yangtze Gorges. The Qinling Mountains divided Shu and Wei. Wei held control over

1375-414: A result of Sima Qian's use of different source texts. After ca. 91 BC, the more-or-less completed manuscript was hidden in the residence of the author's daughter, Sima Ying ( 司馬英 ), to avoid destruction under Emperor Wu and his immediate successor Emperor Zhao . The Shiji was finally disseminated during the reign of Emperor Xuan by Sima Qian's grandson (through his daughter), Yang Yun ( 楊惲 ), after

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1500-459: A retaliation against a Goguryeo raid in 242, destroyed the Goguryeo capital of Hwando , sent its king fleeing, and broke the tributary relationships between Goguryeo and the other tribes of Korea that formed much of Goguryeo's economy. Although the king evaded capture and eventually settled in a new capital, Goguryeo was reduced to such insignificance that for half a century there was no mention of

1625-441: A variety of political and economic problems after the death of Emperor He in 105 AD. A series of Han emperors ascended the throne while still youths, and "de facto" imperial power often rested with the emperors' older relatives. As these relatives occasionally were loath to give up their influence, emperors would, upon reaching maturity, be forced to rely on political alliances with senior officials and eunuchs to achieve control of

1750-530: Is also careful to balance the negative with the positive, for example, in the biography of Empress Dowager Lu which contains startling accounts of her cruelty, he points out at the end that, despite whatever her personal life may have been, her rule brought peace and prosperity to the country. Sima's family were hereditary historians to the Han emperor. Sima Qian's father Sima Tan served as Grand Historian, and Sima Qian succeeded to his position. Thus he had access to

1875-545: Is generally credited as the work's author. The exact date of the Shiji 's completion is unknown. It is certain that Sima Qian completed it before his death in approximately 86 BC, with one copy residing in the imperial capital of Chang'an (present-day Xi'an ) and the other copy probably being stored in Sima's home. Little is known about the Shiji ' s early reception and circulation. Several 1st-century BC authors, such as

2000-640: Is mild. Wax trees, pines, and ‘white grass’ [aconite] are plentiful. Their way of life and dress are similar to those of Kangju. Y. A. Zadneprovskiy writes that the subjection of Yancai by the Kangju occurred in the 1st century BC. The westward expansion of the Kangju obliged many of the Sarmatians to migrate westwards, and this contributed significantly to the Migration Period in Europe , which played

2125-648: Is the earliest collection of the Sanjiazhu commentaries on the Shiji ( 三家注 , literally: The Combined Annotations of the Three Experts ). In modern times, the Zhonghua Book Company in Beijing has published the book in both simplified Chinese for mass consumption and traditional Chinese for scholarly study. The 1959 (2nd ed., 1982) Sanjiazhu edition in traditional Chinese (based upon

2250-519: Is the first of the Twenty-Four Histories of imperial China. It was written during the late 2nd and early 1st centuries BC by the Han dynasty historian Sima Qian , building upon work begun by his father Sima Tan . The work covers a 2,500-year period from the age of the legendary Yellow Emperor to the reign of Emperor Wu of Han in the author's own time, and describes the world as it

2375-432: Is the shortest of the five Shiji sections, and contains eight chapters (23–30) on the historical evolution of ritual, music, pitch pipes , the calendar, astronomy, sacrifices, rivers and waterways, and financial administration. The "Hereditary Houses" ( shìjiā 世家 ) is the second largest of the five Shiji sections, and spans chapters 31 to 60. Within this section, the earlier chapters are very different in nature than

2500-510: The Hou Hanshu , 88 (covering the period 25–220 and completed in the 5th century), mentioned a report that Yancai was now as vassal state of the Kangju known as Alanliao: The kingdom of Yancai [lit. ‘Vast Steppe’] has changed its name to the kingdoms of Alan [and] Liao. They occupy the country and the towns. They are dependencies of Kangju [the Talas basin, Tashkent and Sogdiana]. The climate

2625-636: The Hangzhou Bay , and some outposts at the Fujian coast), while expanding westward in a series of campaigns. By 200, he had conquered Yuzhang commandery (at present-day Lake Poyang in Jiangxi ) and Lujiang north of the Yangtze. In 200, Sun Ce was ambushed and assassinated by the former retainers of a defeated rival from Wu. At 18, Sun Quan succeeded him and quickly established his authority. By 203, he

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2750-786: The Sarmatian group. They are often connected to the Aorsi of Roman records, who dominated the area between the Don and the Aral Sea and were both a wealthy mercantile people and a powerful military force. According to Chinese sources, Yancai belonged to the northern part of the Silk Route , known as the Northern Route. The Chinese sent embassies to Yancai and actively promoted trading relations. The Later Han dynasty Chinese chronicle,

2875-661: The Shanyue . A collection of successes against the rebellious tribesmen culminated in the victory of 224. In that year, Zhuge Ke ended a three-year siege of Danyang with the surrender of 100,000 Shanyue. Of these, 40,000 were drafted as auxiliaries into the Wu army. Meanwhile, Shu was also experiencing troubles with the indigenous tribes of their south. The southwestern Nanman peoples rose in revolt against Shu authority, captured and looted cities in Yi Province. Zhuge Liang, recognising

3000-620: The Shiji does not treat history as "a continuous, sweeping narrative", but rather breaks it up into smaller, overlapping units dealing with famous leaders, individuals, and major topics of significance. The original title of the work, as given by the author in the postface, is Taishigongshu ( 太史公書 ), or Records of the Grand Historian . However, the book was also known by a variety of other titles, including Taishigongji ( 太史公記 ) and Taishigongzhuan ( 太史公傳 ) in ancient times. Eventually, Shiji ( 史記 ), or Historical Records became

3125-695: The Shiji survive, the earliest of which date to the Song dynasty (960–1279). The Shiji is about 526,500 Chinese characters long, making it four times longer than Thucydides ' History of the Peloponnesian War and longer than the Old Testament . Sima Qian conceived and composed his work in self-contained units, with a good deal of repetition between them. His manuscript was written on bamboo slips with about 24 to 36 characters each, and assembled into bundles of around 30 slips. Even after

3250-428: The Shiji was begun by Sima Tan , who was Grand Historian ( Tàishǐ 太史 , also translated "Grand Scribe") of the Han dynasty court during the late 2nd century BC. Sima Tan drafted plans for the ambitious work and left behind some fragments and notes that may have been incorporated into the final text. After Sima's death in 110 BC, the Shiji was continued and completed by his son and successor Sima Qian , who

3375-674: The Shiji with an account of the five rulers of supreme virtue, the Five Emperors , who modern scholars, such as those from the Doubting Antiquity School , believe to be originally local deities of the peoples of ancient China. Sima Qian sifted out elements of the supernatural and fantastic which seemed to contradict their existence as actual human monarchs, and was therefore criticized for turning myths and folklore into sober history. However, according to Joseph Needham , who wrote in 1954 on Sima Qian's accounts of

3500-540: The Vietnamese opposed Shi Hui 's rebellion against Eastern Wu and attacked him for it. However, when the Wu general Lü Dai betrayed Shi Hui and executed the entire Shi family, the Vietnamese became greatly upset. In 248, the people of Jiaozhi and Jiuzhen commanderies rebelled. Eastern Wu sent Lu Yin to deal with the rebels. He managed to pacify the rebels with a combination of threats and persuasion. However

3625-691: The south-pointing chariot , a non-magnetic directional compass operated by differential gears. The authoritative historical record of the era is Chen Shou 's Records of the Three Kingdoms ( c.  290 AD ), in tandem with the later annotations published in 429 by Pei Songzhi . While comparatively short, the Three Kingdoms period has been romanticised in the culture of the Sinosphere . It has been retold and dramatised in folklore, opera, and novels, as well as film, television, and video games. The most well-known fictional adaptation of

3750-461: The wooden ox , suggested to be an early form of the wheelbarrow , and improved on the repeating crossbow . Wei mechanical engineer Ma Jun is considered by many to be the equal of his predecessor Zhang Heng . He invented a hydraulic-powered, mechanical puppet theatre designed for Emperor Ming of Wei , square-pallet chain pumps for irrigation of gardens in Luoyang , and the ingenious design of

3875-465: The "Tables" ( biǎo 表 ), which comprise one genealogical table and nine other chronological tables. They show reigns, important events, and royal lineages in table form, which Sima Qian stated that he did because "the chronologies are difficult to follow when different genealogical lines exist at the same time." Each table except the last one begins with an introduction to the period it covers. The "Treatises" ( shū 書 , sometimes called "Monographs")

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4000-604: The 121st chapter, "Biographies of Scholars", he writes, "I read the Imperial Decrees that encouraged education officials." Sima Qian wrote of the problems with incomplete, fragmentary and contradictory sources. For example, he mentioned in the preface to chapter 15 that the chronicle records of the Zhou dynasty states kept in the royal archive were burnt by Qin Shi Huang because they contained criticisms and ridicule of

4125-581: The 1st and 2nd centuries AD, the Alans emerged as the dominant people of the Sarmatians either through conquering or absorbing other tribes. At this time they migrated westwards to Southern Russia and frequently raided the Parthian and Roman Empire . Shiji The Shiji , often known in English as Records of the Grand Historian or The Grand Scribe's Records , is a Chinese historical text that

4250-477: The Basic Annals, but slipping negative information into other chapters, and so his work must be read as a whole to obtain full information. For example, the information that Liu Bang (later Emperor Gaozu of Han), in a desperate attempt to escape in a chase from Xiang Yu 's men, pushed his own children off his carriage to lighten it, is not given in the emperor's biography, but in the biography of Xiang Yu. He

4375-593: The Five Emperors", he writes, 余嘗西至空桐，北過涿鹿，東漸於海，南浮江淮矣，至長老皆各往往稱黃帝、堯、舜之處，風教固殊焉，總之不離古文者近是。 I myself have travelled west as far as Kongtong , north past Zhuolu , east to the sea, and in the south I have sailed the Yangtze and Huai Rivers . The elders and old men of these various lands frequently pointed out to me the places where the Yellow Emperor , Yao , and Shun had lived, and in these places

4500-538: The Governor of Jing Province. Sun Quan held control over the lower Yangtze. In 194, Cao Cao went to war with Tao Qian of Xu Province, because Tao's subordinate Zhang Kai had murdered Cao Cao's father Cao Song . Tao Qian received the support of Liu Bei and Gongsun Zan, but even then it seemed as if Cao Cao's superior forces would overrun Xu Province entirely. Cao Cao received word that Lü Bu had seized Yan Province in his absence, and accordingly he retreated, putting

4625-457: The Han River towards the city of Fan (near Xianyang), but was unable to capture it. In the autumn of 219, Lü Meng launched a surprise attack by sailing up the Yangtze towards Jiangling, resulting in its capture. Guan Yu was unable to hold his position as most of his army surrendered. He was captured and executed on Sun Quan's order. Cao Cao regained the Han valley, while Sun Quan captured all

4750-567: The Han River. Cao Cao occupied the naval base at Jiangling on the Yangtze River. He would now begin proceeding eastwards towards Sun Quan with his armies and new fleet, while sending messengers to demand Sun Quan's surrender. In 208, Cao Cao marched south with his army hoping to quickly unify the empire. Liu Cong surrendered Jing Province, and Cao Cao was able to capture a sizeable fleet at Jiangling. Sun Quan continued to resist; his advisor Lu Su secured an alliance with Liu Bei , himself

4875-486: The Han imperial court, and several other areas followed suit. In the same year, Emperor Ling died, and another struggle began between the court eunuchs for control of the imperial family. Court eunuch Jian Shuo planned to kill Regent Marshal He Jin , a relative of the imperial family, and to replace the crown prince Liu Bian with his younger brother Liu Xie , the Prince of Chenliu (present-day Kaifeng ), though his plan

5000-501: The Jinling Publishing House edition, see below) contains commentaries interspersed among the main text and is considered to be an authoritative modern edition. The most well-known editions of the Shiji (all woodblock printed ) are: Three Kingdoms The Three Kingdoms of Cao Wei , Shu Han , and Eastern Wu dominated China from 220 to 280 AD following the end of the Han dynasty . This period

5125-544: The Liu family or court officials. This move made provinces ( zhou ) official administrative units, and although they had power to combat rebellions, the later intra-governmental chaos allowed these local governors to easily rule independently of the central government. Liu Yan was also promoted as governor of Yi Province (roughly covering the Sichuan Basin ). Soon after this move, Liu Yan severed all of his region's ties to

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5250-560: The People", a chapter in the Guanzi ), Shan Gao ("The Mountains Are High"), Chengma ( chariot and horses; a long section on war and economics), Qingzhong (Light and Heavy; i.e. "what is important"), and Jiufu (Nine Houses), as well as the Spring and Autumn Annals of Yanzi ." In his 64th chapter, "Biography of Sima Rangju ", the Grand Historian writes, "I have read Sima's Art of War." In

5375-499: The Qin state, and that the Qin annals were brief and incomplete. In the 13th chapter he mentioned that the chronologies and genealogies of different ancient texts "disagree and contradict each other throughout". In his 18th chapter, Sima Qian writes, "I have set down only what is certain, and in doubtful cases left a blank." Scholars have questioned the historicity of legendary kings of the ancient periods given by Sima Qian. Sima Qian began

5500-504: The Wei and Huai valley, where agricultural garrisons were established at Shouchun and Hefei to defend Huai. Military sorties by Wu against Hefei and Shouchun would consistently end in failure, thereby confirming Wei's hold over Huai. Wu controlled all of the Yangtze valley. The territory between the Huai and Yangtze was a desolate area, where a largely-static frontier between Wei and Wu had formed at

5625-572: The Wei valley, ending in the Battle of Huayin, capturing the territory around Chang'an. In 211, Liu Bei accepted an invitation from Liu Zhang to come to Yi Province for aiding the latter against a threat from the north, namely Zhang Lu of Hanzhong. Liu Bei met people within Liu Zhang's court who wished that he would replace Liu Zhang as the ruler of Yi Province. A year after his arrival, Liu Bei came into conflict with Liu Zhang and turned against him. In

5750-460: The Yangtze River. Meanwhile, Liu Bei and his principal adviser Zhuge Liang captured the Xiang River basin commanderies, establishing control over the southern territories of Jing province. Sun Quan was forced to cede the territory around Jiangling to Liu Bei, because he could not establish a proper authority over it after Zhou Yu's death in 210. In 211, Cao Cao defeated a warlord coalition in

5875-424: The Yangtze below the Yangtze Gorges. Finally, in the sixth month of 222, Lu Xun launched a series of fire attacks against the flank of Liu Bei's extended position which caused disorder in the Shu army and Liu Bei's retreat to Baidi (near present-day Fengjie ) Afterwards in 222, Sun Quan renounced his suzerainty to Wei and declared the independence of Wu. In 223, Liu Bei perished at Baidi. Zhuge Liang now acted as

6000-416: The Yangtze delta, the first Buddhist influences reached the south from Luoyang. The Eastern Wu era was a formative period in Vietnamese history . A Jiaozhou (modern Vietnam and Guangzhou ) prefect, Shi Xie , ruled Vietnam as an autonomous warlord for forty years and was posthumously deified by later Vietnamese emperors. Shi Xie pledged loyalty to Eastern Wu. Originally satisfied with Eastern Wu's rule,

6125-618: The Yellow River. Han Fu had formerly been the Governor of Ji Province, but he came under the control of Yuan Shao and was replaced by him. Between the Yellow and Huai rivers, a conflict had erupted between Yuan Shu, Cao Cao , Tao Qian (Governor of Xu Province ) and Lü Bu. Cao Cao forced the Yellow Turbans to surrender in 192, drove Yuan Shu to the south of the Huai River in 193, inflicted devastation upon Tao Qian in 194, received

6250-603: The Yellow Sky will soon rise; in this year of jiazi , let there be prosperity in the world!" ( 蒼天已死，黃天當立。歲在甲子，天下大吉。 ) Emperor Ling dispatched generals Huangfu Song , Lu Zhi , and Zhu Jun to lead the Han armies against the rebels, and decreed that local governments had to supply soldiers to assist in their efforts. It is at this point that the historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms begins its narrative. The Yellow Turbans were ultimately defeated and its surviving followers dispersed throughout China, but due to

6375-441: The accounts in the "Biographies" give profiles using anecdotes to depict morals and character, with "unforgettably lively impressions of people of many different kinds and of the age in which they lived." The "Biographies" have been popular throughout Chinese history, and have provided a large number of set phrases still used in modern Chinese. Unlike subsequent official historical texts that adopted Confucian doctrine, proclaimed

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6500-416: The aid of other local militaries controlled by Zhang Miao and Chen Gong , who joined his cause to create his first sizeable army. He continued the effort and absorbed approximately 300,000 Yellow Turban rebels into his army as well as a number of clan-based military groups from the eastern part of Qing Province. Since 192, he developed military agricultural colonies ( tuntian ) to support his army. Although

6625-789: The ancient Chinese court chronicle tradition, such as the Spring and Autumn Annals . The first five cover either periods, such as the Five Emperors , or individual dynasties, such as the Xia , Shang , and Zhou dynasties. The last seven cover individual rulers, starting with the First Emperor of Qin and progressing through the first emperors of the Han dynasty . In this section, Sima chose to also include de facto rulers of China, such as Xiang Yu and Empress Dowager Lü , while excluding rulers who never held any real power, such as Emperor Yi of Chu and Emperor Hui of Han . Chapters 13 to 22 are

6750-473: The authentic emperor, Cao Cao would have the formal legal authority to control the other warlords and force them to comply in order to restore the Han dynasty. Cao Cao, whose zone of control was the precursor to the state of Cao Wei, had raised an army in 189. In several strategic movements and battles, he controlled Yan Province and defeated several factions of the Yellow Turban rebels. This earned him

6875-575: The beginning of the rebellion, 185; Dong Zhuo deposing Emperor Shao of Han and enthroning Emperor Xian of Han in 189, Dong Zhuo sacking Luoyang and moving the capital to Chang'an in 190, or Cao Cao placing the emperor under his control in Xuchang in 196. As the Jin unification was itself short-lived, lasting at least until the independence of the Cheng-Han and Han-Zhao states in 304,

7000-519: The capital Luoyang . When Yuan Shao's troops reached Luoyang, they stormed the palace complex, killing the Ten Attendants and 2,000 of the eunuchs' supporters. Though this move effectively ended the century-long feud between the eunuchs and the imperial family, this event prompted the invitation of Dong Zhuo to the outskirts of Luoyang from the northwest boundary of China. On the evening of 24 September 189, General Dong Zhuo observed that Luoyang

7125-498: The case of Wu Qian, the marquis of Bian...." (The father of Marquis Bian, Wu Rui , was named prince ( 王 ; wáng ) of Changsha for his loyalty to Gaozu .) In his chapter on the patriotic minister and poet Qu Yuan , Sima Qian writes, "I have read [Qu Yuan's works] Li Sao , Tianwen ("Heaven Asking"), Zhaohun (summoning the soul), and Ai Ying ( Lament for Ying )". In the 62nd chapter, "Biography of Guan and of Yan", he writes, "I have read Guan's Mu Min ( 牧民 - "Government of

7250-462: The combined forces of Cao Cao and Liu Bei invaded Xu Province. Lü Bu's men deserted him, Yuan Shu's forces never arrived as reinforcements, and he was bound by his own subordinates and executed on Cao Cao's order. Yuan Shu, after being driven south in 193, established himself at his new capital Shouchun (present-day Anhui). He attempted to regain lost territory north of the Huai River. In 197, Yuan Shu declared himself emperor of his own dynasty. The move

7375-490: The commentaries of Pei Yin ( 裴駰 , 5th century), Sima Zhen (early 8th century), and Zhang Shoujie ( 張守節 , early 8th century). The primary modern edition of the Shiji is the ten-volume Zhonghua Book Company edition published in 1959 (revised in 1982), which is based on an edition created in the early 1930s by the Chinese historian Gu Jiegang . Only two fragments of pre-Tang dynasty Shiji manuscripts have survived to

7500-459: The construction of the Zhedong and Jiangnan canals. Trade with Shu flourished, with a huge influx of Shu cotton and the development of celadon and metal industries. Sea journeys were made to Liaodong and the island of Yizhou (modern Ryukyus or Taiwan ). In the south, Wu merchants reached Linyi (southern Vietnam ) and Funan Kingdom . As the economy prospered, so too did the arts and culture. In

7625-641: The corresponding chapters from the Hanshu . The earliest extant copy of the Shiji , handwritten, was made during the Southern and Northern Dynasties period (420–589 AD). The earliest printed edition, called Shiji jijie ( 史記集解 , literally Scribal Records, Collected Annotations ), was published during the Northern Song dynasty . Huang Shanfu 's edition, printed under the Southern Song dynasty ,

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7750-418: The court eunuchs persuaded the emperor to execute many of the protesting scholars. Some local rulers seized the opportunity to exert despotic control over their lands and citizens, since many feared to speak out in the oppressive political climate. Emperors Huan and Ling's reigns were recorded as particularly dark periods of Han dynasty rule. In addition to political oppression and mismanagement, China experienced

7875-400: The death of Zhuge Liang in 234, the Shu army was forced once again to withdraw, but were pursued by Wei. The Shu forces began to withdraw; Sima Yi deduced Zhuge Liang's demise and ordered an attack. Shu struck back almost immediately, causing Sima Yi to second guess and allow Shu to withdraw successfully. Sun Quan turned to the aborigines of the southeast, whom the Chinese collectively called

8000-412: The deep historical-mindedness of the Chinese—and that the Shang dynasty is perfectly acceptable. While the king names in Sima Qian's history of the Shang dynasty are supported by inscriptions on the oracle bones, there is, as yet, no archaeological corroboration of Sima Qian's history of the Xia dynasty . There are also discrepancies of fact such as dates between various portions of the work. This may be

8125-456: The divine rights of the emperors, and degraded any failed claimant to the throne, Sima Qian's more liberal and objective prose has been renowned and followed by poets and novelists. Most volumes of Liezhuan are vivid descriptions of events and persons. Sima Qian sought out stories from those who might have closer knowledge of certain historical events, using them as sources to balance the reliability and accuracy of historical records. For instance,

8250-415: The early Han dynasty archives, edicts, and records. Sima Qian was a methodical, skeptical historian who had access to ancient books, written on bamboo and wooden slips , from before the time of the Han dynasty. Many of the sources he used did not survive. He not only used archives and imperial records, but also interviewed people and traveled around China to verify information. In his first chapter, "Annals of

8375-404: The entire period between the fall of Han and the Sui unification (220–589) is sometimes periodised together as "the period of disunity", "Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern dynasties " (or even "Northern and Southern dynasties" alone, though that more commonly means 420–589 between Jin and Sui), or "the Six Dynasties period". The power of the Eastern Han dynasty had steadily declined owing to

8500-511: The entire work. The 69 "Biographies" chapters mostly contain biographical profiles of about 130 outstanding ancient Chinese men, ranging from the moral paragon Boyi from the end of the Shang dynasty to some of Sima Qian's near contemporaries. About 40 of the chapters are dedicated to one particular man, but some are about two related figures, while others cover small groups of figures who shared certain roles, such as assassins, caring officials, or Confucian scholars. Unlike most modern biographies,

8625-402: The fall of imperial control, the Southern Xiongnu puppet state had also collapsed, causing their tribes to disperse, while the Xianbei people of the steppe began to migrate into the Chinese interior. Goguryeo was invaded by warlord Gongsun Kang in 204, resulting in the Daifang Commandery . In 209, Kang invaded Goguryeo again, took the capital of Goguryeo and forced them to submit. Goguryeo

8750-404: The first century of the Han dynasty (i.e. the 2nd century BC) correspond exactly to the relevant chapters from the Book of Han ( Hanshu ). It is unclear whether those chapters initially came from the Shiji or from the Hanshu . Researchers Yves Hervouet (1921–1999) and A. F. P. Hulsewé argued that the originals of those chapters of the Shiji were lost and they were later reconstructed using

8875-406: The first chapter, "Annals of the Five Emperors", he writes, "I have read the Spring and Autumn Annals and the Guoyu ." In his 13th chapter, "Genealogical Table of the Three Ages", Sima Qian writes, "I have read all the genealogies of the kings ( dieji 諜記 ) that exist since the time of the Yellow Emperor." In his 14th chapter, "Yearly Chronicle of the Feudal Lords", he writes, "I have read all

9000-587: The forces of Liu Biao in a campaign against Sun Jian (Yuan Shu's subordinate general) and killed him. In 194, Sun Ce (aged 18) came into the military service under Yuan Shu. He was given the command of some troops who formerly had been commanded by his late father Sun Jian. In the south, he defeated the warlords of Yang Province , including Liu Yao , Wang Lang , and Yan Baihu . In 198, Sun Ce (aged 23) declared his independence from Yuan Shu who recently had declared himself emperor. He held control over Danyang, Wu, and Kuaiji commanderies (from present-day Nanjing to

9125-455: The government. Political posturing and infighting between imperial relatives and eunuch officials were a constant problem in the Chinese government at the time. During the reigns of Emperor Huan ( r.  146–168 ) and Emperor Ling ( r.  168–189 ), leading officials' dissatisfaction with the eunuchs' usurpation of power reached a peak, and many began to openly protest against them. The first and second protests met with failure, and

9250-686: The governor of Jing Province. His territory was located around his capital Xiangyang and the territory to the south around the Han and Yangtze River. Beyond his eastern border was the territory of Sun Quan. In 200, during the time of the campaign around Guandu between Cao Cao and Yuan Shao, Liu Bei's forces had been defeated by a detachment of Cao Cao's army, forcing Liu Bei to flee and seek refuge with Liu Biao in Jing Province . In this exile, Liu Bei maintained his followers who had accompanied him and made new connections within Liu Biao's entourage. It

9375-475: The history is Romance of the Three Kingdoms , a historical novel written during the Ming dynasty by Luo Guanzhong . There is no set time period for the era. The majority view uses the years 220–280 as endpoints, beginning with the abdication of the last Han emperor and ending with the reunification of China by the first Jin emperor. Strictly speaking, the Three Kingdoms, or independent states, only existed from

9500-529: The importance of stability in the south, ordered the advance of the Shu armies in three columns against the Nanman. He fought a number of engagements against the chieftain Meng Huo , at the end of which Meng Huo submitted. A tribesman was allowed to reside at the Shu capital Chengdu as an official and the Nanman formed their own battalions within the Shu army. In the times of Zhuge Liang 's northern offensives,

9625-613: The kings of the Shang dynasty (c. 1600 – c. 1050 BC): It was commonly maintained that Ssuma Chhien [Sima Qian] could not have adequate historical materials for his account of what had happened more than a thousand years earlier. One may judge of the astonishment of many, therefore, when it appeared that no less than twenty-three of the thirty rulers' names were to be clearly found on the indisputably genuine Anyang bones . It must be, therefore, that [Sima Qian] did have fairly reliable materials at his disposal—a fact which underlines once more

9750-475: The later chapters. Many of the earlier chapters are chronicle-like accounts of the leading states of the Zhou dynasty , such as the states of Qin and Lu , and two of the chapters go back as far as the Shang dynasty . The later chapters, which cover the Han dynasty, contain biographies. The "Ranked Biographies" ( lièzhuàn 列傳 , usually shortened to "Biographies") is the largest of the five Shiji sections, covering chapters 61 to 130, and accounts for 42% of

9875-581: The line of the river defences erected by Wu, which included the Ruxu fortress. Sun Quan's long reign is regarded as a time of plenty for his southern state. Migrations from the north and the settlement of the Shanyue increased manpower for agriculture, especially along the lower reaches of the Yangtze and in Kuaiji Commandery along the southern shore of Hangzhou Bay . River transport blossomed, with

10000-477: The lower Han valley. In 223, Liu Shan rose to the throne of Shu following his father's defeat and death. From 224 to 225, during his southward campaigns, Zhuge Liang conquered the southern territories up to Lake Dian in Yunnan. In 227, Zhuge Liang transferred his main Shu armies to Hanzhong , and opened up the battle for the northwest with Wei. The next year, he ordered Zhao Yun to attack from Ji Gorge as

10125-540: The manners and customs seemed quite different. In general those of their accounts which do not differ from the ancient texts seem to be near to the truth. The Grand Historian used The Annals of the Five Emperors ( 五帝系諜 ) and the Classic of History as source materials to make genealogies from the time of the Yellow Emperor until that of the Gonghe regency (841–828 BC). Sima Qian often cites his sources. For example, in

10250-431: The manuscript was allowed to circulate or be copied, the work would have circulated as bundles of bamboo slips or small groups. Endymion Wilkinson calculates that there were probably between 466 and 700 bundles, whose total weight would have been 88–132 pounds (40–60 kg), which would have been difficult to access and hard to transport. Later copies on silk would have been much lighter, but also expensive and rare. Until

10375-468: The material on Jing Ke 's attempt at assassinating the King of Qin incorporates an eye-witness account by Xia Wuju ( 夏無且 ), a physician to the king of Qin who happened to be attending the diplomatic ceremony for Jing Ke, and this account was passed on to Sima Qian by those who knew Xia. It has been observed that the diplomatic Sima Qian has a way of accentuating the positive in his treatment of rulers in

10500-494: The middle Yangtze. Cao Cao and Sun Quan had gained no success in breaking each other's positions. Liu Fu, an administrator under Cao Cao, had established agricultural garrisons at Hefei and Shouchun to defend Cao's territory near the Huai river. Sun Quan resented the fact that Liu Bei, a weaker ally, had gained so much territory west of him and demanded a larger share of the Xiang River basin. In 215, Lü Meng (Sun Quan's officer)

10625-589: The most commonly used title in Chinese. This title was originally used to refer to any general historical text, although after the Three Kingdoms period, Shiji gradually began to be used exclusively to refer to Sima Qian's work. In English, the title is variously translated as Records of the Grand Historian , Historical Records , The Grand Scribe's Records , or Records of the Historian , although other titles are sometimes used. The work that became

10750-422: The names of a total of fifteen scholars supposed to have added material to the Shiji during the period after the death of Sima Qian. Only the additions by Chu Shaosun ( 褚少孫 , c. 105 – c. 30 BC) are clearly indicated by adding "Mr Chu said," (Chu xiansheng yue, 褚先生曰 ). Already in the first century AD, Ban Biao and Ban Gu claimed that ten chapters in Shiji were lacking. A large number of chapters dealing with

10875-539: The north. In 204, after the Battle of Ye , Cao Cao captured the city of Ye . By the end of 207, after a victorious campaign beyond the frontier against the Wuhuan culminating in the Battle of White Wolf Mountain , Cao Cao achieved complete dominance of the North China Plain . He now controlled China's heartland, including Yuan Shao's former territory, and half of the Chinese population. In 193, Huang Zu led

11000-496: The plot and had Dong Cheng and his conspirators executed, with only Liu Bei surviving and fleeing to join Yuan Shao in the north. After settling the nearby provinces, including a rebellion led by former Yellow Turbans, and internal affairs with the court, Cao Cao turned his attention north to Yuan Shao, who himself had eliminated his northern rival Gongsun Zan that same year. Yuan Shao, himself of higher nobility than Cao Cao, amassed

11125-428: The power of the Han, a large coalition against Dong Zhuo began to rise, with leaders such as Yuan Shao, Yuan Shu, and Cao Cao. Many provincial officials were compelled to join or risk elimination. In 191, Sun Jian (Yuan Shu's subordinate) led an army against Dong Zhuo and drove him from Luoyang to Chang'an. In the following year, Dong Zhuo's former bodyguard Lü Bu assassinated Dong Zhuo. It is said that Dong Zhuo's body

11250-436: The present age and consisting of ten tables, twelve basic annals, eight treatises, thirty chapters on hereditary houses, and seventy biographies, together totaling 130 chapters." These numbers are likewise given in the postface to Shiji . After his death (presumably only a few years later), few people had the opportunity to see the whole work. However, various additions were still made to it. The historian Liu Zhiji reported

11375-776: The present, and both are held by the Ishiyama-dera temple in Ōtsu , Japan. Portions of nine Tang dynasty manuscripts survive: three fragments discovered among the Dunhuang manuscripts in the early 20th century, and six manuscripts preserved in Japanese temples and museums such as the Kōzan-ji temple in Kyoto and the Tōyō Bunko museum in Tokyo . Several woodblock printed editions of

11500-459: The proclamation of the Eastern Wu ruler to be emperor in 229 until the downfall of Shu Han in 263. Interpretations of the period outside performative political acts push the beginning back into the later years of the Han, with the decline of the Han royal house. Several other starting points for the period are given by Chinese historians: the Yellow Turban Rebellion in 184; the year after

11625-445: The province and began appointing scholars and officials from Liu Biao's court to the local government. Meanwhile, Liu Qi had joined Liu Bei to establish a line of defence at the Yangtze River against the surrender to Cao Cao, but they suffered defeat at the hands of Cao Cao. In the aftermath, they retreated and sought support from Sun Quan. Guan Yu (Liu Bei's subordinate lieutenant) had managed to retrieve most of Jing Province's fleet from

11750-595: The puppet Emperor Xian. He became the Chancellor in 208, the Duke of Wei in 214, and the King of Wei in 217. He also compelled Sun Quan to accept suzerainty to Wei, but it had no real effect in practice. After Liu Bei had captured Yi Province from Liu Zhang in 214, Sun Quan—who had been engaged with Cao Cao in the southeast at the region between the Huai and Yangtze rivers during the intervening years—turned his attention to

11875-463: The rebels regrouped under the leadership of Lady Triệu in Jiuzhen and renewed the rebellion with a march on Jiaozhi. After several months of warfare she was defeated and committed suicide. In 226, Cao Pi died at the age of 40, and was succeeded by his eldest son Cao Rui (aged 22) Minister Chen Qun, General Cao Zhen, General Cao Xiu, and General Sima Yi were appointed as regents, even though Cao Rui

12000-512: The reunification of the Three Kingdoms under the Jin shows a total of 2,459,840 households and 16,163,863 individuals which was only a fraction of the 10,677,960 households, and 56,486,856 individuals reported during the Han era. While the census may not have been particularly accurate due to a multitude of factors of the times, in 280, the Jin did make an attempt to account for all individuals where they could. Technology advanced significantly during this period. Shu chancellor Zhuge Liang invented

12125-573: The royal annals ( chunqiu li pudie 春秋曆譜諜 ) up until the time of King Li of Zhou ." In his 15th chapter, "Yearly Chronicle of the Six States", he writes, "I have read the Annals of Qin ( qin ji 秦記 ), and they say that the Quanrong [a barbarian tribe] defeated King You of Zhou [ca 771 BC]." In the 19th chapter, he writes, "I have occasion to read over the records of enfeoffment and come to

12250-530: The scholar Chu Shaosun ( 褚少孫 ; fl. 32–7 BC), added interpolations to it. Ten of the Shiji 's original 130 chapters were lost in the Eastern Han period (AD 25–220) and seem to have been reconstructed later. The first commentaries to the Shiji date from the Northern and Southern dynasties (420–589) and the early Tang dynasty (618–907). Most historical editions of the Shiji included

12375-424: The state in Chinese historical texts. In 238, Cao Rui perished at age 35. He was succeeded by his adopted son Cao Fang (aged 7), who was a close member of the imperial family. Cao Rui had appointed Cao Shuang and Sima Yi to be Cao Fang's regents, even though he had contemplated to establish a regency council dominated by imperial family members. Cao Shuang held the principal control over the court. Meanwhile, Sima Yi

12500-448: The state of Wu had always been on the defensive against invasions from the north. The area around Hefei was the scene of many bitter battles and under constant pressure from Wei after the Battle of Red Cliffs. Warfare had grown so intense that many of the residents chose to migrate and resettle south of the Yangtze. After Zhuge Liang's death, attacks on the southern Huai River region intensified but nonetheless, Wei could not break through

12625-513: The summer of 214, Liu Bei received the surrender of Liu Zhang, capturing Yi Province, and established his regime at Chengdu. In 215, Cao Cao captured Hanzhong after attacking and receiving the surrender of Zhang Lu. He had launched the attack from Chang'an through the Qinling Mountain passes to Hanzhong. The conquest threatened Liu Bei's territory located directly to the south. Cao Cao progressively acquired additional titles and power under

12750-539: The surrender of Liu Bei (then a commander under Tao Qian) in 196, and captured and executed Lü Bu in 198. Cao was now in complete control of the southern part of the North China Plain. In the northeast, Gongsun Du held control of the Liaodong Peninsula and its environs, where he had established a state. He was succeeded by his son Gongsun Kang in 204. In the north across the frontier, since

12875-489: The system imposed a heavy tax on hired civilian farmers (40% to 60% of agricultural production), the farmers were more than pleased to be able to work with relative stability and professional military protection in a time of chaos. This was later said to be his second important policy for success. In 200, Dong Cheng , an imperial relative, received a secret edict from Emperor Xian to assassinate Cao Cao. He collaborated with Liu Bei on this effort, but Cao Cao soon found out about

13000-457: The territory east of the Yangtze Gorges. At the beginning of 220, Cao Cao died and was succeeded by his son Cao Pi. On 11 December, Emperor Xian abdicated and Cao Pi ascended the imperial throne by proclaiming his heavenly mandate as the Emperor of Wei. On 15 May 221, Liu Bei responded by proclaiming himself as the Emperor of Han. His state would become generally known as Shu Han. Sun Quan continued to recognise his de jure suzerainty to Wei and

13125-533: The territory. Liu Bei had now secured his territory against the north and declared himself the King of Hanzhong. In the east, Sun Quan attempted to capture Hefei from Cao Cao, but he did not succeed. While Lu Su had been chief commander for Sun Quan in Jing Province, their policy was to maintain the alliance with Liu Bei while Cao Cao was still a threat. This changed when Sun Quan appointed Lü Meng when Lu Su died in 217. In 219, Guan Yu sailed from Jiangling up

13250-509: The time of instability instead of seriously wishing to restore the Han dynasty's authority. The Han empire was divided between a number of regional warlords. As a result of the complete collapse of the central government and eastern alliance, the North China Plain fell into warfare and anarchy with many contenders vying for success or survival. Emperor Xian fell into the hands of various warlords in Chang'an. Dong Zhuo, confident in his success,

13375-571: The turbulent situation throughout the empire, many were able to survive as bandits in mountainous areas, thus continuing their ability to contribute to the turmoil of the era. With the widespread increase in bandits across the Chinese nation, the Han army had no way to repel each and every raiding party. In 188, Emperor Ling accepted a memorial from Liu Yan suggesting he grant direct administrative power over feudal provinces and direct command of regional military to local governors, as well as promoting them in rank and filling such positions with members of

13500-527: The warlords of Chang'an. Establishing the imperial court at Xuchang in Henan, Cao Cao—who now held the de facto control—rigorously followed the formalities of the court and justified his actions as a loyal minister of the Han. By then, most of the smaller contenders for power had either been absorbed by larger ones or destroyed. This was an extremely important move for Cao Cao following the suggestion from his primary adviser, Xun Yu , commenting that by supporting

13625-465: The west, they border Da Qin [Roman territory], to the southeast they border Kangju [the Chu, Talas, and middle Jaxartes basins]. These kingdoms have large numbers of their famous sables. They raise cattle and move about in search of water and fodder. They are close to a large shoreless lake. Previously they were vassals of Kangju [the Chu, Talas, and middle Jaxartes basins]. Now they are no longer vassals. In

13750-413: The work was transferred to paper many centuries later, circulation would have been difficult and piecemeal, which accounts for many of the errors and variations in the text. Sima Qian organized the chapters of the Shiji into five categories, which each comprise a section of the book. The "Basic Annals" ( běnjì 本紀 ) make up the first 12 chapters of the Shiji , and are largely similar to records from

13875-463: Was a strategic blunder, as it drew the ire of many warlords across the land, including Yuan Shu's own subordinates who almost all abandoned him. Abandoned by almost all his allies and followers, he perished in 199. In August 195, Emperor Xian fled the tyranny of Li Jue at Chang'an and made a year long hazardous journey east in search of supporters. In 196, Emperor Xian came under the protection and control of Cao Cao after he had succeeded in fleeing from

14000-416: Was able to manage the government in practice. Eventually the former three died, leaving only Sima Yi as the senior minister and military commander. In 226, Sima Yi successfully defended Xiangyang against an offensive from Wu; this battle was the first time he had command in the field. In 227, Sima Yi was appointed to a post at Chang'an where he managed the military affairs along the Han River. In 238, Sima Yi

14125-588: Was dispatched to command a military campaign against Gongsun Yuan of the self-proclaimed the Yan Kingdom in Liaodong, resulting in Sima Yi's capture of his capital Xiangping and massacre of his government. Between 244 and 245, General Guanqiu Jian was dispatched to invade Goguryeo and severely devastated that state. The northeastern frontier of Wei was now secured from any possible threats. The invasions,

14250-404: Was during this time that Liu Bei also met Zhuge Liang. In the autumn of 208, Liu Biao died and was succeeded by his youngest son Liu Cong over the eldest son Liu Qi through political manoeuvring. Liu Bei had become the head of the opposition to a surrender when Cao Cao's army marched southward to Jing. After the advice of his supporters, Liu Cong surrendered to Cao Cao. Cao Cao took control of

14375-413: Was enfeoffed as the King of Wu. At the end of 221, Shu invaded Wu in response for Guan Yu's killing and the loss of Jing Province by Wu. In the spring of 222, Liu Bei arrived at the scene to personally take command of the invasion. Sun Quan dispatched Lu Xun to command over the defence of Wu against the invasion by Shu. Against the advice of his subordinates, Lu Xun waited until Liu Bei was committed along

14500-450: Was expanding westward. In 208, Sun Quan defeated Huang Zu (Liu Biao's subordinate commander) around present-day Wuhan. He now held control over the territories south of the Yangtze (below Wuhan, Poyang region, and Hangzhou Bay). His navy established local superiority over the Yangtze. Nevertheless, he would soon come under the threat of Cao Cao's larger armies. During Dong Zhuo's reign over the Han government, Liu Biao had been appointed as

14625-513: Was forced to move its capital further east. In Liang Province (present-day Gansu), rebellion had erupted in 184 . In the west, Liu Yan had been Governor of Yi Province since his appointment in 188. He was succeeded by his son Liu Zhang in 194. Directly north of Liu Zhang's territory, Zhang Lu, leader of the Five Pecks of Rice , led the theocratic government at Hanzhong commandery on the upper Han River. Liu Biao held control over his province as

14750-516: Was known to the Chinese of the Western Han dynasty . The Shiji has been called a "foundational text in Chinese civilization". After Confucius and Qin Shi Huang , "Sima Qian was one of the creators of Imperial China, not least because by providing definitive biographies, he virtually created the two earlier figures." The Shiji set the model for all subsequent dynastic histories of China. In contrast to Western historiographical conventions,

14875-409: Was marked by a comparatively stable arrangement between Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Eastern Wu. This stability broke down with the conquest of Shu by Wei in 263, followed by the usurpation of Cao Wei by Jin in 266 and ultimately the conquest of Wu by Jin in 280. The Three Kingdoms period including the collapse of the Han is one of the bloodiest in Chinese history. A nationwide census taken in 280, following

15000-520: Was preceded by the Eastern Han dynasty and followed by the Western Jin dynasty . Academically, the periodisation begins with the establishment of Cao Wei in 220 and ends with the conquest of Wu by Jin in 280. The period immediately preceding the Three Kingdoms, from 184 to 220, was marked by chaotic infighting among warlords across China as Han authority collapsed. The period from 220 to 263

15125-559: Was sent to capture Jing province's southern commanderies, but Guan Yu (Liu Bei's general) launched a counterattack. Later that year, Liu Bei and Sun Quan reached a settlement that the Xiang River would serve as the border between their territories. In the south, Sun Quan had sent He Qin, Lu Xun, and others to expand and conquer territory in what are now southern Zhejiang and Fujian . In 219, Liu Bei seized Hanzhong by defeating and killing General Xiahou Yuan, who served Cao Cao. Cao Cao sent reinforcements in an unsuccessful attempt to reclaim

15250-497: Was set ablaze—as a result of a power struggle between the eunuchs and civil service—and commanded his army forward to strike down the disorder. As the emperor had lost any remaining military or political power, Dong Zhuo seized the de facto control of the government located at Luoyang. On 28 September, Dong Zhuo deposed Liu Bian from the imperial Han throne in favour of Liu Xie. In the following weeks, rebellions broke out throughout all of China. In East China, in an attempt to restore

15375-552: Was slain by his follower Lü Bu , who plotted with minister Wang Yun . Lü Bu, in turn, was attacked by Dong Zhuo's former officers : Li Jue , Guo Si , Zhang Ji and Fan Chou . Wang Yun and his whole family were executed. Lü Bu fled to Zhang Yang , a northern warlord, and remained with him for a time before briefly joining Yuan Shao, but it was clear that Lü Bu was far too independent to serve another. Yuan Shao operated from Ye city in Ji Province , extending his power north of

15500-410: Was thrown into the street with a lit wick in his navel, which supposedly burned with the same brilliance of the sun for a period of four days. In 192, there was some talk among the coalition of appointing Liu Yu , an imperial relative, as emperor, and gradually its members began to fall out. Most of the warlords in the coalition, with a few exceptions, sought the increase of personal military power in

15625-639: Was unsuccessful. Liu Bian took the Han throne as Emperor Shao, and He Jin plotted with warlord Yuan Shao to assassinate the Ten Attendants , a clique of twelve eunuchs led by Zhang Rang who controlled much of the imperial court. He Jin also ordered Dong Zhuo , the frontier general in Liang Province, and Ding Yuan , Inspector of Bing Province, to bring troops to the capital to reinforce his position of authority. The eunuchs learned of He Jin's plot, and had him assassinated before Dong Zhuo reached

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