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110-401: Mercury spilled by the mining company has poisoned hundreds of people living near the mine and contaminated local water sources. Thousands of local residents have protested the mine in an environmental conflict that also includes ongoing lawsuits against the mining companies. Environmental defenders opposing the mine have been killed and others have received death threats. Yanacocha gold mine

220-574: A Neo-Gaullist group, the Rally for the Republic (RPR). Chirac's first tenure as prime minister was also an arguably progressive one, with improvements in both the minimum wage and the social welfare system carried out during the course of his premiership. After his departure from the cabinet, Chirac wanted to gain the leadership of the political right, to gain the French presidency in the future. The RPR

330-458: A mercury contamination. On June 2, 2000, 151 kilograms of mercury were spilled when transported by a contracted truck from Yanococha to the Pacific coast, contaminating the town of Choropampa and two neighboring villages. According to government estimates, more than nine hundred people were poisoned. Local environmental activists have claimed that mining operations, which use large quantities of

440-547: A "yes" vote in the referendum on the Maastricht Treaty , against the opinion of Pasqua, Séguin and a majority of the RPR voters, who chose to vote "no". While he still was mayor of Paris (since 1977), Chirac went to Abidjan ( Côte d'Ivoire ) where he supported President Houphouët-Boigny (1960–1993), although the latter was being called a "thief" by the local population. Chirac then declared that multipartism

550-566: A February 1998 recording of a telephone conversation between Montesinos and Kurlander. The following is an excerpt from the tape: Along with this telephone conversation, Frontline and The New York Times re-broadcast three other videos. One was filmed in April 1998 and shows Montesinos talking to "Don Arabian", the CIA station chief in Peru, in an attempt to get CIA to pressure the U.S. to back Newmont in

660-558: A close friend of the president, and won. As mayor of Paris, Chirac's political influence grew. He held this post until 1995. Chirac supporters point out that, as mayor, he provided programmes to help the elderly, people with disabilities, and single mothers, and introduced the street-cleaning Motocrotte , while providing incentives for businesses to stay in Paris. His opponents contend that he installed " clientelist " policies. In 1978, Chirac attacked Giscard's pro-European policy and made

770-659: A communist cell. In 1950, he signed the Soviet-inspired Stockholm Appeal for the abolition of nuclear weapons – which led him to be questioned when he applied for his first visa to the United States. In 1953, after graduating from the Sciences Po , he attended a non-credit course at Harvard University 's summer school, before entering the École nationale d'administration , which trains France's top civil servants, in 1957. In

880-504: A concept in 1995 by Joan Martínez-Alier and Martin O'Connor to facilitate more systematic documentation and analysis of environmental conflicts and to produce a more coherent body of academic, activist, and legal work around them. EDCs arise from the unfair access to natural resources, unequally distributed burdens of environmental pollution, and relate to the exercise of power by different social actors when they enter into disputes over access to or impacts on natural resources. For example,

990-593: A dilute cyanide solution, have contaminated the water sources, leading to the disappearance of fish and frogs, illnesses among cattle, air pollution, and loss of medicinal plants. An environmental audit by the Colombian consultancy firm Ingetec S.A. (Ingenieros Consultores: Auditoría Ambiental y Evaluaciones Ambientales de las Operaciones de la Minera Yanacocha en Cajamarca - Perú 2003) found some water contamination above permitted levels, and recommended improvements to Yanacocha's environmental management practices. However,

1100-412: A factory may pollute a river thus affecting the community whose livelihood depends on the water of the river. The same can apply to the climate crisis, which may cause sea level rise on some Pacific islands. This type of damage is often not valued by the market , preventing those affected from being compensated. Ecological conflicts occur at both global and local scales. Often conflicts take place between

1210-577: A favorable outcome for Newmont. The legal battle eventually made it to the Peruvian Supreme Court . During this period Kurlander acknowledged having met with Vladimiro Montesinos , the Peruvian intelligence chief who has since been found guilty of embezzlement , illegally assuming his post as intelligence chief, abuse of power, influence peddling and bribing TV stations. However, Kurlander claimed that he did nothing illegal and that

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1320-477: A field of practice, people working on conflict resolution focus on the collaboration, and consensus building among stakeholders. An analysis of such resolution processes found that the best predictor of successful resolution was sufficient consultation with all parties involved. A new tool with certain potential in this regard is the development of video games proposing distinct options to the gamers for handling conflicts over environmental resources, for instance in

1430-420: A focus on non-violent tactics. Water protectors and land defenders who defend indigenous rights are criminalized at a much higher rate than in other conflicts. Environmental conflicts can be classified based on the different stages of the commodity chain: during the extraction of energy sources or materials, in the transportation and production of goods, or at the final disposal of waste. The EJAtlas

1540-566: A housewife. His grandparents were all teachers from Sainte-Féréole in Corrèze . His great-grandparents on both sides were peasants in the rural south-western region of the Corrèze . According to Chirac, his name "originates from the langue d'oc , that of the troubadours, therefore that of poetry". He was a Catholic . Chirac was an only child (his elder sister, Jacqueline, died in infancy nearly ten years before his birth). He

1650-465: A military intervention against the separatists in the Ouvéa cave , leading to the deaths of 19 militants. He allegedly refused any alliance with Jean-Marie Le Pen 's Front National . Chirac ran against Mitterrand for a second time in the 1988 election . He obtained 20 per cent of the vote in the first round, but lost the second with only 46 per cent. He resigned from the cabinet and the right lost

1760-457: A more egalitarian way. Movements usually shape their repertoires of contention as protest forms and direct actions, which are influenced by national and local backgrounds. In environmental justice struggles, the biophysical characteristics of the conflict can further shape the forms of mobilization and direct action. Resistance strategies can take advantage of ‘biophysical opportunity structures’, where they attempt to identify, change or disrupt

1870-558: A nationalist turn with the December 1978 Call of Cochin , initiated by his counsellors Marie-France Garaud and Pierre Juillet  [ fr ] , which had first been called by Pompidou. Hospitalised in Hôpital Cochin after a car crash, he declared that "as always about the drooping of France, the pro-foreign party acts with its peaceable and reassuring voice". He appointed Yvan Blot , an intellectual who would later join

1980-450: A new French State during World War II and that the Republic had been re-established when the war was over. It was not for France, therefore, to apologise for the roundup of Jews for deportation that happened while the Republic had not existed and was carried out by a state, Vichy France , which it did not recognise. President François Mitterrand had reiterated this position: "The Republic had nothing to do with this. I do not believe France

2090-470: A rapprochement with NATO by joining the Military Committee and attempting to negotiate a return to the integrated military command , which failed after the French demand for parity with the United States went unmet. The possibility of a further attempt foundered after Chirac was forced into cohabitation with a Socialist-led cabinet between 1997 and 2002, then poor Franco-American relations after

2200-406: A short production stop in 2006 due to a road blockade. As of 2015 Yanacocha said the mine provided 2,300 direct jobs. Native Quechua people were aware of gold in the area and called the local river Corimayo , or "gold river." During Ramandi's 1859 expedition to Yanacocha, he noted mines "by the name of Carachugo, and they are in a porous quartz rock, their tunnels are very long..." In 1962

2310-742: Is an inevitability of the system. He theorised that this is because capitalism expands through capital accumulation , an ever-increasing process which requires the economic subjugation of parts of the population in order to function. Building on this theory, academics in the field of political economy created the term ‘economic distribution conflicts’ to describe the conflicts that occur from this inherent economic inequality. This type of conflict typically occurs between parties with an economic relationship but unequal power dynamic, such as buyers and sellers, or debtors and creditors. However, Martinez Allier and Martin O’Connor noticed that this term focuses solely on

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2420-415: Is based on the idea that capitalism's need for expansion drives inequality and conflict. Unfair ecological distribution can be attributed to capitalism as a system of cost-shifting. Neoclassical economics usually consider these impacts as “market failures” or “externalities” that can be valued in monetary terms and internalized into the price system. Ecological economics and political ecology scholars oppose

2530-937: Is centered around the Yanacocha diatreme , breccia envelopes, as in Yanacocha Norte and Yanacocha Oeste, or in the pyroclastic ignimbrite sequences, as in Yanacocha Sur. Argillic alteration commenced 11.5 Ma in the southwest part of the district at Cerro Negro Oeste, then proceeded east-northeast to Maqui Maqui in 10.2 Ma, then finally at Yanacocha Norte and Sur in 8.5 Ma. The epithermal systems were contemporaneous with porphyry intrusions . Production began in 1993. In 2005, Yanacocha's production peaked with 3,316,933 ounces (103,200 kg) of gold (INEI). Since then, production has steadily decreased: According to Newmont Mining annual reports from 2005 to 2011, local protests did not hinder production apart from

2640-497: Is constantly expanding energy and material extraction at commodity frontiers through two main processes: EDCs are caused by the unfair distribution of environmental costs and benefits. These conflicts arise from social inequality, contested claims over territory, the proliferation of extractive industries, and the impacts of the economic industrialization over the past centuries. Oil, mining, and agriculture industries are focal points of environmental conflicts. A 2020 paper mapped

2750-681: Is located in the province and department of Cajamarca Region , about 800 kilometers northeast of Lima, Peru in the Northern highlands at 3,500 and 4,100 meters above sea level. It operates in four primary basins and is the largest gold mine in South America. Since 1999 it is a joint venture between Colorado-based Newmont Mining Corporation (51%), Buenaventura (44%) and the World Bank Group's International Finance Corporation (5%). Exploration from 1985 to 1993 determined Yanacocha

2860-615: Is responsible," he said in September 1994. Chirac was the first president of France to take responsibility for the deportation of Jews during the Vichy regime. In a speech made on 16 July 1995 at the site of the Vel' d'Hiv Roundup , where 13,000 Jews had been held for deportation to concentration camps in July 1942, Chirac said, "France, on that day, committed the irreparable". Those responsible for

2970-449: Is under the control of Parliament and under the significant influence of the prime minister. Short of dissolving parliament and calling for new elections, the president was left with little power to influence public policy regarding crime, the economy, and public services. Chirac seized the occasion to periodically criticise Jospin's government. His position was weakened by scandals about the financing of RPR by Paris municipality . In 2001,

3080-483: The 1981 election , thus splitting the centre-right vote. He was eliminated in the first round with 18% of the vote. He reluctantly supported Giscard in the second round. He refused to give instructions to the RPR voters but said that he supported the incumbent president "in a private capacity", which was interpreted as almost de facto support of the Socialist Party 's (PS) candidate, François Mitterrand , who

3190-478: The Court of Auditors . In April 1962, Chirac was appointed head of the personal staff of Prime Minister Georges Pompidou . This appointment launched Chirac's political career. Pompidou considered Chirac his protégé , and referred to him as "my bulldozer" for his skill at getting things done. The nickname Le Bulldozer caught on in French political circles, where it also referred to his abrasive manner. As late as

3300-735: The Guggenheim Bros. ASARCO filed three claims following their discovery of the Michiquillay porphyry copper deposit in 1957. In 1968 Nippon Mining drilled 13 exploration wells. From 1970 to 1971, the British Geological Survey included the Yanacocha District in their reconnaissance survey, which showed the district contained a significant silver anomaly. This led CEDIMIN, a joint venture of BRGM and Compania de Minera Buenaventura , to acquire

3410-523: The National Front , as director of his campaigns for the 1979 European election . After the poor results of the election, Chirac broke with Garaud and Juillet. Vexed Marie-France Garaud stated: "We thought Chirac was made of the same marble of which statues are carved in, we perceive he's of the same faience bidets are made of." His rivalry with Giscard d'Estaing intensified. Chirac made his first run for president against Giscard d'Estaing in

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3520-446: The next legislative election . For the first time, his leadership over the RPR was challenged. Charles Pasqua and Philippe Séguin criticised his abandonment of Gaullist doctrines. On the right, a new generation of politicians, the "renovation men", accused Chirac and Giscard of being responsible for the electoral defeats. In 1992, convinced a candidate could not become president whilst advocating anti-European policies, he called for

3630-432: The rights of indigenous people , the rights of peasants , or threats to communities whose livelihoods are dependent on the ocean. Outcomes of local conflicts are increasingly influenced by trans-national environmental justice networks that comprise the global environmental justice movement. Environmental conflict can complicate response to natural disaster or exacerbate existing conflicts – especially in

3740-458: The "Giscardian" and "non-Giscardian" factions of the parliamentary majority. At the age of 41, Chirac stood out as the very model of the jeunes loups ('young wolves') of French politics, but he was faced with the hostility of the "Barons of Gaullism" who considered him a traitor for his role during the previous presidential campaign. In December 1974, he took the lead of the Union of Democrats for

3850-472: The 1988 presidential election , Chirac maintained this reputation. At Pompidou's suggestion, Chirac ran as a Gaullist for a seat in the National Assembly in 1967. He was elected deputy for his home Corrèze département , a stronghold of the left. This surprising victory in the context of a Gaullist ebb permitted him to enter the government as Minister of Social Affairs . Although Chirac

3960-565: The Cajamarca area protested the expansion of Yanacocha onto nearby Cerro Quilish , a mountain that supplies water to Cajamarca. In response to public outcry, Newmont announced that further exploration would be suspended. However, since Yanacocha starts its expansion, the landscape has been changed drastically. At the end of 2004 after losing a three-year fight to keep the lawsuit out of US courts, Newmont announced that it would participate in settlement talks before two retired Colorado judges. But

4070-815: The Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. Elected as President of the Republic, he refused to discuss the existence of French military bases in Africa, despite requests by the Ministry of Defence and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs . The French Army thus remained in Côte d'Ivoire as well as in Omar Bongo 's Gabon. Prior to 1995, the French government had maintained that the French Republic had been dismantled when Philippe Pétain instituted

4180-542: The French Navy with no aircraft carrier until 2001, when Charles de Gaulle was commissioned. He also reduced expenditure on nuclear weapons and the French nuclear arsenal was reduced to include 350 warheads, compared to the Russian nuclear arsenal of 16,000 warheads. He also published a plan to reduce the number of fighters the French military had by 30. After François Mitterrand left office in 1995, Chirac began

4290-575: The French UN veto threat over Iraq in 2003 made transatlantic negotiations impossible. On 25 July 2000, as Chirac and the first lady were returning from the G7 Summit in Okinawa, Japan, they were placed in a dangerous situation by Air France Flight 4590 after they landed at Charles de Gaulle International Airport. The first couple were in an Air France Boeing 747 taxiing toward the terminal when

4400-537: The French government took similar steps to contact Montesinos. The French ambassador to Peru Antoine Blanca denied this, saying that Montesinos was on the CIA payroll and thus would side with the U.S-based company. After the fall of Fujimori in 2000, a number of videos Montesinos had taped of himself meeting with several domestic and foreign leaders and offering bribes and accepting them had emerged. In October 2005 Frontline in co-production with The New York Times found

4510-659: The International Planning Committee for Food Sovereignty (IPC) can be considered in the halfway between these two approaches. In their defense of peasant agriculture and against large-scale capitalist industrial agriculture, both LVC and the IPC have fundamentally contributed to promoting agroecology as a sustainable agriculture model across the globe, adopting an intermodal approach against industrial agriculture and providing new sources of education to poor communities that could incentive an aware integration in

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4620-599: The RPR/UDF right-wing coalition won a slight majority in the National Assembly in the 1986 election , Mitterrand (PS) appointed Chirac prime minister (though many in Mitterrand's inner circle lobbied him to choose Jacques Chaban-Delmas instead). This unprecedented power-sharing arrangement, known as cohabitation , gave Chirac the lead in domestic affairs. However, it is generally conceded that Mitterrand used

4730-472: The Republic (UDR) against the will of its more senior personalities. As prime minister, Chirac quickly set about persuading the Gaullists that, despite the social reforms proposed by President Giscard, the basic tenets of Gaullism, such as national and European independence, would be retained. Chirac was advised by Pierre Juillet and Marie-France Garaud , two former advisers of Pompidou. These two organised

4840-762: The Republic , Chirac's party, on 12 October 2000, declaring to the magazine Le Figaro on 18 November 2000: "Jacques Chirac is not my friend anymore". After the publication of the Jean-Claude Méry by Le Monde on 22 September 2000, in which Jean-Claude Méry, in charge of the RPR's financing, directly accused Chirac of organising the network, and of having been physically present on 5 October 1986, when Méry gave in cash 5 million Francs , which came from companies who had benefited from state deals, to Michel Roussin , personal secretary ( directeur de cabinet ) of Chirac, Chirac refused to attend court in response to his summons by judge Eric Halphen , and

4950-536: The United States, Chirac worked at Anheuser-Busch in St. Louis, Missouri . Chirac trained as a reserve military officer in armoured cavalry at Saumur . He then volunteered to fight in the Algerian War , using personal connections to be sent despite the reservations of his superiors. His superiors did not want to make him an officer because they suspected he had communist leanings. In 1965, he became an auditor in

5060-568: The areas granted to the President of the Republic, or "reserved domains" of the Presidency, Defence and Foreign Affairs, to belittle his prime minister. Chirac's cabinet sold many public companies , renewing the liberalisation initiated under Laurent Fabius 's Socialist government of 1984–1986, and abolished the solidarity tax on wealth (ISF), a symbolic tax on those with high value assets introduced by Mitterrand's government. Elsewhere,

5170-502: The arguments and concerns of environmental defenders in over 2743 conflicts found in the Environmental Justice Atlas (EJAtlas). The analysis found that the industrial sectors most frequently challenged by environmental conflicts were mining (21%), fossil energy (17%), biomass and land uses (15%), and water management (14%). Killings of environmental defenders happened in 13% of the reported cases. There

5280-631: The beginning of 2010, Newmont reported that claims of approximately 200 plaintiffs remained unsettled. The mercury spill had also led to two separate complaints to the Compliance Advisor/Ombudsman (CAO) of the International Finance Corporation (IFC)/ Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA). Starting in 2001 the CAO held a series of meetings with local stakeholders who raised concerns regarding

5390-464: The campaign against Chaban-Delmas in 1974. They advocated a clash with Giscard d'Estaing because they thought his policy bewildered the conservative electorate. Citing Giscard's unwillingness to give him authority, Chirac resigned as prime minister in 1976. He proceeded to build up his political base among France's several conservative parties, with a goal of reconstituting the Gaullist UDR into

5500-487: The case. In the video Montesinos claimed to have found e-mails from Paris to Peru of French officials trying to influence the court to get a decision favorable to France. Another video recorded in May 1998 showed Montesinos meeting with Peruvian Supreme Court Justice and former classmate, Jaime Beltran Quiroga , in which Montesinos said that in the case between Newmont and BRGM state interests are at stake. He told Quiroga that if

5610-502: The community in 2001. At the beginning of August 2006, protests broke out against the expansion of the company's Carachugo pit, building a dam (El Azufre) near the village of Combayo. Residents of Combayo blocked the roads leading to the dam, protesting against possible contamination of water supplies and expressed their disappointment in sharing in social and economical benefits of the mining project. The protests ended in clashes between Police and private Yanacocha security guards (FORZA) on

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5720-415: The context of geopolitical disputes or where communities have been displaced to create environmental migrants . The study of these conflicts is related to the fields of ecological economics , political ecology , and environmental justice. The origin of environmental conflicts can be directly linked to the industrial economy. As less than 10% of materials and energy are recycled, the industrial economy

5830-518: The damaging ecological processes they are confronting. Finally, the ‘ collective action frames ’ of movements emerging in response to environmental conflicts becomes very powerful when they challenge the mainstream relationship of human societies with the environment. These frames are often expressed through pithy protest slogans, that scholars refer to as the ‘vocabulary of environmental justice’ and which includes concepts and phrases such as ‘environmental racism’, ‘tree plantations are not forests’, ‘keep

5940-483: The decision to "promulgate without applying" the First Employment Contract (CPE) after large student demonstrations against it). One of his first acts concerning foreign policy was to call back Jacques Foccart (1913–1997), who had been de Gaulle's and his successors' leading counsellor for African matters, called by journalist Stephen Smith the "father of all "networks" on the continent, at

6050-635: The decision went to Newmont, the United States would back Peru in its border dispute with Ecuador which had exploded into the Cenepa War a few years prior. He also told Quiroga to deny any connection with him to the press. Quiroga later played a crucial role, as his vote was deciding in the Newmont victory. After the video was first broadcast on a Peruvian local television station in 2001, the French Ambassador Antoine Blanca

6160-484: The disapproval of the "Pompidolians". Chirac and others published the call of the 43 in favour of Giscard d'Estaing, the leader of the non-Gaullist part of the parliamentary majority. Giscard d'Estaing was elected as Pompidou's successor after France's most competitive election campaign in years. In return, the new president chose Chirac to lead the cabinet. When Valéry Giscard d'Estaing became president, he nominated Chirac as prime minister on 27 May 1974, to reconcile

6270-613: The economic policy of the Socialist government, he gradually aligned himself with prevailing economically liberal opinion, even though it did not correspond with Gaullist doctrine. While the far-right National Front grew, taking advantage of the proportional representation electoral system which had been introduced for the 1986 legislative elections , he signed an electoral pact with the Giscardian (and more or less Christian Democratic) party Union for French Democracy (UDF). When

6380-632: The economy, omitting the conflicts that do not occur from economic inequality but from the unequal distribution of environmental resources. In response, in 1995, they coined the term ‘ecological distribution conflict’. This type of conflict occurs at commodity frontiers, which are constantly being moved and reframed due to society's unsustainable social metabolism . These conflicts might occur between extractive industries and Indigenous populations, or between polluting actors and those living on marginalised land. Its roots can still be seen in Marxian theory, as it

6490-508: The environment, and degrade the living space for humans and nature, resulting in conflict. A particular case of environmental conflicts are forestry conflicts, or forest conflicts which "are broadly viewed as struggles of varying intensity between interest groups, over values and issues related to forest policy and the use of forest resources". In the last decades, a growing number of these have been identified globally. Frequently environmental conflicts focus on environmental justice issues,

6600-443: The fields of political ecology , ecological economics , and ecofeminism . It has also been adopted into a non-academic setting through the environmental justice movement , where it branches academia and activism to assist social movements in legal struggles. In his 1874 lecture ‘ Wage Labour and Capital ’, Karl Marx introduced the idea that economic relations under capitalism are inherently exploitative, meaning economic inequality

6710-592: The first round (20.8 per cent), and then defeated the Socialist candidate Lionel Jospin in the second round (52.6 per cent). Chirac was elected on a platform of tax cuts and job programmes, but his policies did little to ease the labour strikes during his first months in office. On the domestic front, neo-liberal economic austerity measures introduced by Chirac and his conservative prime minister Alain Juppé , including budgetary cutbacks, proved highly unpopular. At about

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6820-537: The fishery sector. Some scholars critique the focus on natural resources used in descriptions of environmental conflict. Often these approaches focus on the commercialization of the natural environment that doesn't acknowledge the underlying value of a healthy environment . Jacques Chirac Jacques René Chirac ( UK : / ˈ ʃ ɪər æ k / , US : / ʒ ɑː k ʃ ɪəˈr ɑː k / ; French: [ʒak ʁəne ʃiʁak] ; 29 November 1932 – 26 September 2019)

6930-565: The global South and the global North, e.g. a Finnish forest company operating in Indonesia, or in econonomic peripheries, although there is a growing emergence of conflicts in Europe, including violent ones. There are also local conflicts that occur within a short commodity chain (e.g. local extraction of sand and gravel for a nearby cement factory). Since its conception, the term Ecological Distribution Conflict has been linked to research from

7040-472: The globe. Environmental justice scholars conclude that these conflicts are a force for sustainability. These scholars study the dynamics that drive these conflicts towards an environmental justice success or a failure. Globally, around 17% of all environmental conflicts registered in the EJAtlas report environmental justices 'successes', such as stopping an unsustainable project or redistributing resources in

7150-531: The highest echelons of the French justice system declared that he could not be inculpated while in office. During his two terms, he increased the Elysee Palace's total budget by 105 per cent (to €90 million, whereas 20 years before it was the equivalent of €43.7 million). He doubled the number of presidential cars – to 61 cars and seven scooters in the Palace's garage. He hired 145 extra employees –

7260-417: The idea of economic commensuration that could form the basis of eco-compensation mechanisms for impacted communities. Instead, they advocate for different valuation languages such as sacredness, livelihood, rights of nature , Indigenous territorial rights, archaeological values, and ecological or aesthetic value. Ecological distribution conflicts have given rise to many environmental justice movements around

7370-409: The impacts of the mine, and made suggestions for transparent dialogue between the community and Yanacocha. A Mesa (roundtable for dialogue) was formed. The CAO sponsored the 2003 water study, and the water monitoring program until 2006. In February 2006 the CAO concluded its involvement and published an "Exit Report" which included a table summarizing progress made against the original concerns raised by

7480-479: The interior . In 1981 and 1988 , he unsuccessfully ran for president as the standard-bearer for the conservative Gaullist party Rally for the Republic (RPR). Chirac's internal policies initially included lower tax rates, the removal of price controls , strong punishment for crime and terrorism, and business privatisation . After pursuing these policies in his second term as prime minister, Chirac changed his views. He argued for different economic policies and

7590-533: The jet had to stop and wait for Flight 4590 to take off. The departing plane, an Aérospatiale-BAC Concorde , ran over a strip of metal on takeoff puncturing its left fuel tank and sliced electrical wires near the left landing gear. The sequence of events ignited a large fire and caused the Concorde to veer left on its takeoff roll. As it reached takeoff speed and lifted off the ground, it came within 30 feet of hitting Chirac's 747. The photograph of Flight 4590 ablaze,

7700-527: The killings and provided support for the families of protesters that were injured and killed in the August demonstrations. In November 2006 two members of Grufides, Father Marco Arana and Mirtha Vasquez reported receiving several death threats and were followed and filmed both at work and at home. An investigation by the Peruvian press uncovered that individuals with ties to the security firm FORZA, which Newmont hired to provide security at Yanacocha, were involved in

7810-441: The last president to be re-elected until 2022 . In 2011, the Paris court declared Chirac guilty of diverting public funds and abusing public confidence, giving him a two-year suspended prison sentence . Jacques René Chirac was born on 29 November 1932 in the 5th arrondissement of Paris . He was the son of Abel François Marie Chirac (1898–1968), a successful executive for an aircraft company, and Marie-Louise Valette (1902–1973),

7920-603: The left, represented by Bertrand Delanoë (PS), won a majority on the city council of the capital. Jean Tiberi , Chirac's successor at the Paris city hall, was forced to resign after having been put under investigations in June 1999 on charges of trafic d'influences in the HLMs of Paris affairs (related to the illegal financing of the RPR). Tiberi was finally expelled from the Rally for

8030-566: The mediation talks failed to produce a settlement and eleven hundred campesinos , announced they would go ahead with their suit in Denver district court. In 2008, the Peruvian Supreme Court upheld the validity of settlement agreements reached with some of the plaintiffs in the remaining Peruvian lawsuits prior to the filing of those suits. As of April 2009 the parties in the Denver cases agreed to binding arbitration and settled. By

8140-623: The mineral concessions in the district. Trenching in 1982 confirmed significant silver. Newmont Mining Corporation became the operator of the joint venture in 1985 after a site visit in 1983 and 25 drill holes were made in 1984. In 1993, the IFC lent $ 23 million to build Yanacocha, which was then co-owned by US based Newmont, the Peruvian mining company Buenaventura and French government owned company Bureau de Recherches Géologiques et Minières (BRGM). The partnership collapsed in 1994 after BRGM tried to sell part of its shares to an Australian company which

8250-570: The ministry of economy and finance. After some months in the ministry for Relations with Parliament, Chirac's first high-level post came in 1972 when he became Minister of Agriculture and Rural Development under Pompidou, who had been elected president in 1969, after de Gaulle retired. Chirac quickly earned a reputation as a champion of French farmers' interests, and first attracted international attention when he assailed U.S., West German , and European Commission agricultural policies which conflicted with French interests. On 27 February 1974, after

8360-423: The oil in the soil’, ‘keep the coal in the hole’ and the like, resonating and empathizing with those communities affected by EDC. Some scholars make a distinction between environmentalist conflicts that have an objective of sustainability or resource conservation and environmental conflicts more broadly (which are any conflict over a natural resource). The former type of conflict gives rise to environmentalism of

8470-413: The one hand and local farmers on the other. Several people were wounded and Isidro Llanos Canvar, a local farmer, was shot dead. At the end of August 2006, Carachugo II was closed for three days as local farmers blocked the entrance roads to the pit demanding clarification of the death of Isidro. On 2 November 2006, Edmundo Becerra Corina, an environmentalist and opponent of Yanacocha's gold mining project,

8580-417: The plan for university reform (plan Devaquet ) caused a crisis in 1986 when a student called Malik Oussekine was killed by the police, leading to massive demonstrations and the proposal's withdrawal. It has been said during other student crises that this event strongly affected Jacques Chirac, who was afterwards careful about possible police violence during such demonstrations (e.g., maybe explaining part of

8690-447: The poor , in which environmental defenders protect their land from degradation by industrial economic forces. Environmentalist conflicts tend to be intermodal conflicts in which peasant or agricultural land uses are in conflict with industrial uses (such as mining). Intramodal conflicts , in which peasants dispute amongst themselves about land use may not be environmentalist. In this division movement such as La Via Campesina (LVC), or

8800-492: The presidency against Chirac in 1995. However, benefiting from positive polls, Balladur decided to be a presidential candidate, with the support of a majority of right-wing politicians. Balladur broke from Chirac along with a number of friends and allies, including Charles Pasqua, Nicolas Sarkozy , etc., who supported his candidacy. A small group of fidels would remain with Chirac, including Alain Juppé and Jean-Louis Debré . When Nicolas Sarkozy became president in 2007, Juppé

8910-544: The redistribution of resources. A similar attitude has shaped the action of the Brazilian Landless Farmworkers movement (MST) in the way it has struggled with the idea of productivity and the use of chemical products by several agribusiness realities that destroy resources rich in fertility and biodiversity. Such movements often question the dominant form of valuation of resource uses (i.e. monetary values and cost-benefit analyses) and renegotiate

9020-422: The relationship between the two men became tense, with Giscard, even though he had been in the same government coalition as Chirac, criticising Chirac's actions openly. After the May 1981 presidential election, the right also lost the subsequent legislative election that year. However, as Giscard had been knocked out, Chirac appeared as the principal leader of the right-wing opposition. Due to his attacks against

9130-688: The resignation of Raymond Marcellin , Chirac was appointed Minister of the Interior . On 21 March 1974, he cancelled the SAFARI project due to privacy concerns after its existence was revealed by Le Monde . From March 1974, he was entrusted by President Pompidou with preparations for the presidential election then scheduled for 1976. These elections were moved forward because of Pompidou's sudden death on 2 April 1974. Chirac vainly attempted to rally Gaullists behind Prime Minister Pierre Messmer . Jacques Chaban-Delmas announced his candidacy in spite of

9240-581: The resumption of nuclear tests at Mururoa Atoll in French Polynesia in 1995, a few months before signing the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty . Reacting to criticism, Chirac said, "You only have to look back at 1935...There were people then who were against France arming itself, and look what happened." On 1 February 1996, Chirac announced that France had ended "once and for all" its nuclear testing and intended to accede to

9350-539: The roundup were "4,500 policemen and gendarmes, French, under the authority of their leaders [who] obeyed the demands of the Nazis. ... the criminal folly of the occupiers was seconded by the French, by the French State". In 1997, Chirac dissolved parliament for early legislative elections in a gamble designed to bolster support for his conservative economic program. But instead, it created an uproar, and his power

9460-577: The sacredness of redefining the very economic, ecological and social principles behind particular uses of the Mother Earth, implicitly defending a conception of ‘strong sustainability’. In contesting and environment, such intermodal conflicts are those that are most clearly forced towards broader sustainability transitions. A distinct field of conflict resolution called Environmental Conflict Resolution , focuses on developing collaborative methods for deescalating and resolving environmental conflicts. As

9570-616: The same time, it became apparent that Juppé and others had obtained preferential conditions for public housing, as well as other perks. At the year's end Chirac faced major workers' strikes which turned, in November–December 1995, into a general strike , one of the largest since May 1968. The demonstrations were largely pitted against Juppé's plan for pension reform, and ultimately led to his dismissal. Shortly after taking office, Chirac – undaunted by international protests by environmental groups – insisted upon

9680-415: The study did not examine claims of impacts on wildlife, plants or livestock. Based on an Ingetec review in April 2006, Yanacocha acted on the 309 Ingetec recommendations, fully implementing 137, making progress on 111, and starting to address 45 of the recommendations - representing progress on 90% of the recommendations in advance of the agreed 2007 completion date. In 2004, more than 10.000 people living in

9790-491: The surveillance of the GRUFIDES staff members. Newmont denied any involvement in the harassment or surveillance. In response to the threats Amnesty International issued an urgent action stating that "their lives, and those of others associated with GRUFIDES, may be in danger". On 15 June 2007, several local farmers, including two minors, were injured and taken into custody by public and private police forces paid by Yanacocha in

9900-731: The time [in 1986] aged 72." Foccart, who had also co-founded the Gaullist SAC militia (dissolved by Mitterrand in 1982 after the Auriol massacre ) along with Charles Pasqua , and who was a key component of the Françafrique system, was again called to the Elysée Palace when Chirac won the 1995 presidential election. Furthermore, confronted by anti-colonialist movements in New Caledonia , Prime Minister Chirac ordered

10010-493: The total number of the people he employed simultaneously was 963. As the Supreme Commander of the French armed forces, he reduced the military budget, as did his predecessor. At the end of his first term it accounted for three per cent of GDP. In 1997 the aircraft carrier Clemenceau was decommissioned after 37 years of service, with her sister ship Foch decommissioned in 2000 after 37 years of service, leaving

10120-411: The values deemed relevant for sustainability. Sometimes, particularly when the resistance weakens, demands for monetary compensation are made (in a framework of ‘weak sustainability’). The same groups, at other times or when feeling stronger, might argue in terms of values which are not commensurate with money, such as indigenous territorial rights, irreversible ecological values, human right to health or

10230-1329: The village of Totoracocha. The farmers occupied heavy machinery of the mining company as they were protesting against wage withholding for construction work they had been carried out for Yanacocha. Anaya, R. (2001). "Acute elemental mercury poisoning in three locations of the department of Cajamarca-Peru. In: Toxicology, Volume 164, Issue(1-3): p. 1-266, p. 69. 6°58′49″S 78°30′18″W  /  6.98027°S 78.50487°W  / -6.98027; -78.50487 Environmental conflict Environmental conflicts, socio-environmental conflict or ecological distribution conflicts (EDCs) are social conflicts caused by environmental degradation or by unequal distribution of environmental resources . The Environmental Justice Atlas documented 3,100 environmental conflicts worldwide as of April 2020 and emphasised that many more conflicts remained undocumented. Parties involved in these conflicts include locally affected communities, states, companies and investors, and social or environmental movements; typically environmental defenders are protecting their homelands from resource extraction or hazardous waste disposal. Resource extraction and hazardous waste activities often create resource scarcities (such as by overfishing or deforestation ), pollute

10340-399: Was a "kind of luxury". Nevertheless, the right won the 1993 legislative election . Chirac announced that he did not want to come back as prime minister as his previous term had ended with his unsuccessful run for the presidency against Mitterrand who was still president at this point. Chirac instead suggested the appointment of Edouard Balladur , who had promised that he would not run for

10450-458: Was a French politician who served as President of France from 1995 to 2007. He was previously Prime Minister of France from 1974 to 1976 and 1986 to 1988, as well as Mayor of Paris from 1977 to 1995. After attending the École nationale d'administration , Chirac began his career as a high-level civil servant , entering politics shortly thereafter. Chirac occupied various senior positions, including minister of agriculture and minister of

10560-489: Was a rival of Newmont. Newmont and Buenaventura would both go to court to challenge the trade. Larry Kurlander , then a senior executive at Newmont, claimed the French President Jacques Chirac had sent a letter to then Peruvian President Alberto Fujimori asking him to intervene in the court case in favor of BRGM, the French owned company. Newmont sent Kurlander to Peru in order to try to get

10670-492: Was also a distinct difference in the types of conflict found in high and low income countries. There were more conflicts around conservation, water management, and biomass and land use in low income countries; while in high income countries almost half of conflicts focused on waste management , tourism, nuclear power, industrial zones, and other infrastructure projects. The study also found that most conflicts start with self-organized local groups defending against infringement, with

10780-673: Was an 18 km by 6 km northeast trending belt of gold bearing high sulfidation outcrop system. Drilling in 1986 confirmed the gold potential. Other deposits discovered during this time include the Carachugo, San Jose, Yanacocha Norte, Maqui Maqui, Yanacocha Sur, Cerro Negro Este, and Cerro Quilish. Production began in 1993. By 2010, 20 hard rock deposits and 2 gravel alluvial fan deposits were being developed. The gold deposits are located in Miocene to Pliocene volcanic andesite host rocks. Gold and copper mineralization

10890-497: Was conceived as an electoral machine against President Giscard d'Estaing. Paradoxically, Chirac benefited from Giscard's decision to create the office of mayor in Paris, which had been in abeyance since the 1871 Commune , because the leaders of the Third Republic (1871–1940) feared that having municipal control of the capital would give the mayor too much power. In 1977, Chirac stood as a candidate against Michel d'Ornano ,

11000-615: Was educated in Paris at the Cours Hattemer , a private school. He then attended the Lycée Carnot and the Lycée Louis-le-Grand . After his baccalauréat , behind his father's back he went off to serve for three months as a sailor on a coal-transport. Chirac played rugby union for Brive 's youth team, and also played at university level. He played no. 8 and second row . At age 18, his ambition

11110-498: Was elected by a broad majority. Giscard has always blamed Chirac for his defeat. He was told by Mitterrand, before his death, that the latter had dined with Chirac before the election. Chirac told the Socialist candidate that he wanted to "get rid of Giscard". In his memoirs, Giscard wrote that between the two rounds, he phoned the RPR headquarters. He passed himself off, as a right-wing voter, by changing his voice. The RPR employee advised him "certainly do not vote Giscard!" After 1981,

11220-560: Was elected president in 1995 , with 52.6% of the vote in the second round, beating Socialist Lionel Jospin , after campaigning on a platform of healing the "social rift" ( fracture sociale ). Chirac's economic policies, based on dirigisme , allowing for state-directed investment, stood in opposition to the laissez-faire policies of the United Kingdom under the ministries of Margaret Thatcher and John Major , which Chirac described as "Anglo-Saxon ultraliberalism ". Chirac

11330-697: Was founded and is co-directed by Leah Temper and Joan Martinez-Alier, and it is coordinated by Daniela Del Bene. Its aim is “to document, understand and analyse the political outcomes that emerge or that may emerge” from ecological distribution conflicts. It is housed at the ICTA of the Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona . Since 2012, academics and activists have collaborated to write the entries, reaching 3,500 by July 2021. The EJ Atlas identifies ten categories of ecological distribution conflicts: Ecological Distribution Conflicts (EDCs) were introduced as

11440-461: Was known for his stand against the American-led invasion of Iraq , his recognition of the collaborationist French government 's role in deporting Jews , and his reduction of the presidential term from seven years to five through a referendum in 2000 . At the 2002 presidential election , he won 82.2% of the vote in the second round against the far-right candidate, Jean-Marie Le Pen , and was

11550-498: Was one of the few chiraquiens to serve in François Fillon's government. During the 1995 presidential campaign , Chirac criticised the "sole thought" ( pensée unique ) of neoliberalism represented by his challenger on the right and promised to reduce the "social fracture", placing himself more to the centre and thus forcing Balladur to radicalise himself. Ultimately, he obtained more votes than Balladur in

11660-550: Was quoted as saying "Now I know why Newmont won". In July 1999, Montesinos was seen with the then departing CIA station chief "Don Arabian" on the third video, giving him a gift and thanking him for the help he gave Peru stating "[W]e hope that when you're back there [in Washington] you'll remember your friends". The IFC financed Yanacocha's expansion in 1999 for which it received the 5% ownership stake. Newmont has been involved in an ongoing conflict over damages resulting from

11770-520: Was shot dead in Yanacanchilla, Cajamarca province. He had received several death threats because of his opposition to the expansion of the mining company's activities in the region. The attack took place days before he was due to meet with representatives from the Ministry of Energy and Mines. The Peruvian NGO GRUFIDES, an environmental organization with a strong anti-mining stance, investigated

11880-508: Was to become a ship's captain. At age 16, Chirac wanted to learn Sanskrit and found a White Russian Sanskrit teacher in Paris who ended up teaching him Russian; by age 17 Chirac was almost fluent in Russian. Inspired by Charles de Gaulle , Chirac started to pursue a civil service career in the 1950s. During this period, he joined the French Communist Party , sold copies of L'Humanité , and took part in meetings of

11990-479: Was weakened by the subsequent backlash. The Socialist Party (PS), joined by other parties on the left , soundly defeated Chirac's conservative allies, forcing Chirac into a new period of cohabitation with Jospin as prime minister (1997–2002), which lasted five years. Cohabitation significantly weakened the power of Chirac's presidency. The French president, by a constitutional convention , only controls foreign and military policy— and even then, allocation of funding

12100-521: Was well-situated in de Gaulle's entourage, being related by marriage to the general's sole companion at the time of the Appeal of 18 June 1940, he was more of a "Pompidolian" than a "Gaullist". When student and worker unrest rocked France in May 1968 , Chirac played a central role in negotiating a truce. Then, as state secretary of economy (1968–1971), he worked closely with Valéry Giscard d'Estaing , who headed

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