88-725: Yanbian University ( YBU ; 延边大学 ) is a public university at Yanji , Yanbian , Jilin , China . It is affiliated with the Province of Jilin, and co-funded by the provincial government and the Ministry of Education . The university is part of Project 211 and the Double First-Class Construction . 42°54′29″N 129°29′7″E / 42.90806°N 129.48528°E / 42.90806; 129.48528 Yanji Yanji ( Chinese : 延吉 ; Korean : 연길 ; alternately romanized as Yenki or Yenji )
176-587: A dopamine dysregulation syndrome which occurs in some patients taking dopaminergic drugs , such as amphetamine or methamphetamine. Methamphetamine addiction is persistent for many individuals, with 61% of individuals treated for addiction relapsing within one year. About half of those with methamphetamine addiction continue with use over a ten-year period, while the other half reduce use starting at about one to four years after initial use. The frequent persistence of addiction suggests that long-lasting changes in gene expression may occur in particular regions of
264-406: A drug test for sports, employment, poisoning diagnostics, and forensics. Chiral techniques may be employed to help distinguish the source of the drug to determine whether it was obtained illicitly or legally via prescription or prodrug. Chiral separation is needed to assess the possible contribution of levomethamphetamine , which is an active ingredients in some OTC nasal decongestants, toward
352-468: A city of transport and trade. China is the largest trading partner of North Korea, accounting for almost 40% of that country's international commerce, and Yanji is the center of much of the cross-border enterprise. Beyond North Korea, other countries have begun to partner with Yanji business groups: currently there are over five hundred joint ventures with international partners ongoing in Yanji. Much of
440-507: A common needle . The level of needle sharing among methamphetamine users is similar to that among other drug injection users. The psychological effects of methamphetamine can include euphoria , dysphoria , changes in libido , alertness , apprehension and concentration , decreased sense of fatigue, insomnia or wakefulness , self-confidence , sociability, irritability, restlessness, grandiosity and repetitive and obsessive behaviors. Peculiar to methamphetamine and related stimulants
528-846: A diverse term. It frequently refers to the exaggeration of the unusual effects with features such as irritability, agitation, hallucinations and paranoia. The cardiovascular effects are typically not noticed in young healthy people. Hypertension and tachycardia are not apparent unless measured. A moderate overdose of methamphetamine may induce symptoms such as: abnormal heart rhythm , confusion, difficult and/or painful urination , high or low blood pressure, high body temperature , over-active and/or over-responsive reflexes , muscle aches , severe agitation , rapid breathing , tremor , urinary hesitancy , and an inability to pass urine . An extremely large overdose may produce symptoms such as adrenergic storm , methamphetamine psychosis , substantially reduced or no urine output , cardiogenic shock , bleeding in
616-651: A full-time teaching staff of over 1,400, serving an active student body of over sixteen thousand. One of Yanbian University's graduates, a Korean language major , is Zhang Dejiang , formerly a deputy secretary of the Municipal Committee of Yanji (1983–1985), and now a Vice-Premier of the Chinese Communist Party in Beijing. It is a national "double first-class" construction university, a national "211 Project" key construction university,
704-699: A greater affinity for σ 1 than σ 2 , and inhibits monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A) and monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B). Sigma receptor activation by methamphetamine may facilitate its central nervous system stimulant effects and promote neurotoxicity within the brain. Dextromethamphetamine is a stronger psychostimulant , but levomethamphetamine has stronger peripheral effects, a longer half-life, and longer perceived effects among heavy substance users. At high doses, both enantiomers of methamphetamine can induce similar stereotypy and methamphetamine psychosis , but levomethamphetamine has shorter psychodynamic effects. The bioavailability of methamphetamine
792-733: A key construction university for western development, a key construction university jointly supported by the Jilin Provincial People's Government and the Ministry of Education, and a jointly supported construction university by the Jilin Provincial People's Government and the National Ethnic Affairs Commission. Yanji is also home to the Yanbian University of Science and Technology , a technical research college founded in 1990, and
880-478: A positive test result. Dietary zinc supplements can mask the presence of methamphetamine and other drugs in urine. Methamphetamine is a chiral compound with two enantiomers, dextromethamphetamine and levomethamphetamine . At room temperature, the free base of methamphetamine is a clear and colorless liquid with an odor characteristic of geranium leaves. It is soluble in diethyl ether and ethanol as well as miscible with chloroform . In contrast,
968-433: A potential treatment for traumatic brain injury . Methamphetamine was discovered in 1893 and exists as two enantiomers : levo-methamphetamine and dextro-methamphetamine. Methamphetamine properly refers to a specific chemical substance, the racemic free base , which is an equal mixture of levomethamphetamine and dextromethamphetamine in their pure amine forms, but the hydrochloride salt, commonly called crystal meth,
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#17327806476461056-562: A time-limited withdrawal syndrome that occurs within 24 hours of their last dose". Withdrawal symptoms in chronic, high-dose users are frequent, occurring in up to 87.6% of cases, and persist for three to four weeks with a marked "crash" phase occurring during the first week. Methamphetamine withdrawal symptoms can include anxiety, drug craving , dysphoric mood , fatigue , increased appetite , increased movement or decreased movement , lack of motivation , sleeplessness or sleepiness , and vivid or lucid dreams . Methamphetamine that
1144-641: A transcription factor, and G9a , a histone methyltransferase enzyme, both directly oppose the induction of ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens (i.e., they oppose increases in its expression). Sufficiently overexpressing ΔJunD in the nucleus accumbens with viral vectors can completely block many of the neural and behavioral alterations seen in chronic drug use (i.e., the alterations mediated by ΔFosB). ΔFosB also plays an important role in regulating behavioral responses to natural rewards , such as palatable food, sex, and exercise. Since both natural rewards and addictive drugs induce expression of ΔFosB (i.e., they cause
1232-505: Is ethnic Korean . Yanji is a busy hub of transport and trade between China and North Korea . The city is home to Yanbian University , a comprehensive university and the only Project 211 university in Yanji. Yanji and its environs were largely unpopulated until the 1800s when Qing dynasty rulers of China began to encourage migration there from China proper as part of its Chuang Guandong policy to populate Manchuria in an effort to stem encroaching Russian expansion. The city
1320-574: Is " punding ", persistent non-goal-directed repetitive activity. Methamphetamine use also has a high association with anxiety , depression , amphetamine psychosis , suicide , and violent behaviors. Methamphetamine is directly neurotoxic to dopaminergic neurons in both lab animals and humans. Excitotoxicity , oxidative stress , metabolic compromise, UPS dysfunction, protein nitration, endoplasmic reticulum stress , p53 expression and other processes contributed to this neurotoxicity. In line with its dopaminergic neurotoxicity, methamphetamine use
1408-414: Is 67% orally , 79% intranasally , 67 to 90% via inhalation ( smoking ), and 100% intravenously . Following oral administration, methamphetamine is well-absorbed into the bloodstream, with peak plasma methamphetamine concentrations achieved in approximately 3.13–6.3 hours post ingestion. Methamphetamine is also well absorbed following inhalation and following intranasal administration. Because of
1496-566: Is a county-level city in the east of China's Jilin Province, and is the seat of the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture . Yanji City is located in the eastern part of Jilin Province. It is the seat of the government of Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture and the political, economic and cultural center of the entire autonomous prefecture. Its population is approximately 400,000 of which a significant portion
1584-554: Is a second-class station under the jurisdiction of China Railway Shenyang Bureau Group Co., Ltd. It was built in 1924. As of 2012, Yanji offers the most convenient road access to the Rason Special Economic Zone in North Korea. Yanbian University is a comprehensive university in Yanji, founded in 1949; it offers eleven programs of study, including four doctoral programs. The university maintains
1672-400: Is associated with DAT phosphorylation through a Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CAMK)-dependent signaling pathway, in turn producing dopamine efflux. TAAR1 has been shown to reduce the firing rate of neurons through direct activation of G protein-coupled inwardly-rectifying potassium channels . TAAR1 activation by methamphetamine in astrocytes appears to negatively modulate
1760-481: Is associated with a higher risk of Parkinson's disease . In addition to its dopaminergic neurotoxicity, a review of evidence in humans indicated that high-dose methamphetamine use can also be neurotoxic to serotonergic neurons. It has been demonstrated that a high core temperature is correlated with an increase in the neurotoxic effects of methamphetamine. Withdrawal of methamphetamine in dependent persons may lead to post-acute withdrawal which persists months beyond
1848-482: Is dangerous. Methamphetamine may decrease the effects of sedatives and depressants and increase the effects of antidepressants and other stimulants as well. Methamphetamine may counteract the effects of antihypertensives and antipsychotics owing to its effects on the cardiovascular system and cognition respectively. The pH of gastrointestinal content and urine affects the absorption and excretion of methamphetamine. Specifically, acidic substances will reduce
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#17327806476461936-579: Is especially useful for treatment of concomitant tachycardia and hypertension induced by methamphetamine. The phenomenon of "unopposed alpha stimulation" has not been reported with the use of beta-blockers for treatment of methamphetamine toxicity. Methamphetamine is metabolized by the liver enzyme CYP2D6 , so CYP2D6 inhibitors will prolong the elimination half-life of methamphetamine. Methamphetamine also interacts with monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), since both MAOIs and methamphetamine increase plasma catecholamines; therefore, concurrent use of both
2024-540: Is expected to develop with regular methamphetamine use and, when used recreationally, this tolerance develops rapidly. In dependent users, withdrawal symptoms are positively correlated with the level of drug tolerance. Depression from methamphetamine withdrawal lasts longer and is more severe than that of cocaine withdrawal. According to the current Cochrane review on drug dependence and withdrawal in recreational users of methamphetamine, "when chronic heavy users abruptly discontinue [methamphetamine] use, many report
2112-464: Is found; the usual effective dose is around 20–25 mg/day. Methamphetamine is sometimes prescribed off label for narcolepsy and idiopathic hypersomnia . In the United States, methamphetamine's levorotary form is available in some over-the-counter (OTC) nasal decongestant products. As methamphetamine is associated with a high potential for misuse, the drug is regulated under
2200-611: Is more due to users' other choices. They suggest the side effect has been exaggerated and stylized to create a stereotype of current users as a deterrence for new ones. Methamphetamine use was found to be related to higher frequencies of unprotected sexual intercourse in both HIV-positive and unknown casual partners, an association more pronounced in HIV-positive participants. These findings suggest that methamphetamine use and engagement in unprotected anal intercourse are co-occurring risk behaviors, behaviors that potentially heighten
2288-418: Is not enough evidence on hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis in cases of methamphetamine intoxication to determine their usefulness. Forced acid diuresis (e.g., with vitamin C ) will increase methamphetamine excretion but is not recommended as it may increase the risk of aggravating acidosis, or cause seizures or rhabdomyolysis. Hypertension presents a risk for intracranial hemorrhage (i.e., bleeding in
2376-510: Is not reported in these statistics and is difficult to know. Unlike fentanyl which causes respiratory depression, methamphetamine is not a respiratory depressant. Some deaths are as a result of intracranial hemorrhage and some deaths are cardiovascular in nature including flash pulmonary edema and ventricular fibrillation. Acute methamphetamine intoxication is largely managed by treating the symptoms and treatments may initially include administration of activated charcoal and sedation . There
2464-608: Is now part of the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture , which is situated in eastern Jilin. Yanji City is centrally located, surrounded by five other county-level cities and two rural counties (see map); it is the administrative seat of the prefecture. The North Korean military detonated its second nuclear test in May 2009 close to the Chinese border, and the blast set off an earthquake of magnitude 4.5 with an epicenter only 112 mi (180 km) from Yanji. The mutual goodwill of
2552-1015: Is popular in Yanji, and the city even has a burgeoning underground beatboxing scene, which has been documented by filmmaker Liu Feng in Yan Bian Box (2007). Yanji was named "China's Excellent Tourism City" by the National Tourism Administration. It has beautiful natural scenery, rich Korean culture, the majestic Changbai Mountain to the south, and the summer resort Jingbo Lake to the north. Attractions in Yanji include: Maoershan National Forest Park, Chengzishan Mountain City Ruins, Mengdumei Folk Tourism Resort, Chunxing Village, an ancient Korean village, etc. Places such as China Korean Folk Garden, Yanbian University Internet Celebrity Wall, and Floating Market have become popular travel destinations. Tourists’ experience activities in Yanji have also expanded from simply viewing
2640-609: Is present in a mother's bloodstream can pass through the placenta to a fetus and be secreted into breast milk . Infants born to methamphetamine-abusing mothers may experience a neonatal withdrawal syndrome, with symptoms involving of abnormal sleep patterns, poor feeding, tremors, and hypertonia . This withdrawal syndrome is relatively mild and only requires medical intervention in approximately 4% of cases. Unlike other drugs, babies with prenatal exposure to methamphetamine do not show immediate signs of withdrawal. Instead, cognitive and behavioral problems start emerging when
2728-716: Is provided by the Changchun Longjia Airport , and surface travel to Changchun itself has been made more accessible since the large Changchun-Yanji Expressway was opened to the public in 2009. A new 125-mile (201 km) water and sewage pipeline was completed in 2006, linking Yanji and the neighboring cities of Jilin and Songyuan to modern sewage treatment plants along the Songhua River . Yanji Station .located in Yanbian Autonomous Prefecture, Jilin Province, China,
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2816-581: Is small by Chinese standards (by comparison , the population of Shanghai is almost twenty million). Yanji is also relatively young: the city was developed only in the nineteenth century and became the regional capital after the Second World War . Recent growth in tourism and overseas investment has helped to make Yanji a notably prosperous city. It abounds with modern architecture of steel and glass, and its broad avenues are conspicuously clean and well-maintained. In modern times, Yanji has become
2904-527: Is subject to substantial interindividual variability . CYP2D6 , dopamine β-hydroxylase , flavin-containing monooxygenase 3 , butyrate-CoA ligase , and glycine N-acyltransferase are the enzymes known to metabolize methamphetamine or its metabolites in humans. The primary metabolites are amphetamine and 4-hydroxymethamphetamine ; other minor metabolites include: 4-hydroxyamphetamine , 4-hydroxynorephedrine , 4-hydroxyphenylacetone , benzoic acid , hippuric acid , norephedrine , and phenylacetone ,
2992-526: Is typically preceded by convulsions and coma . Use of methamphetamine can result in a stimulant psychosis which may present with a variety of symptoms (e.g., paranoia , hallucinations , delirium , and delusions ). A Cochrane Collaboration review on treatment for amphetamine, dextroamphetamine, and methamphetamine use-induced psychosis states that about 5–15% of users fail to recover completely. The same review asserts that, based upon at least one trial, antipsychotic medications effectively resolve
3080-610: Is widely used. Methamphetamine is rarely prescribed over concerns involving its potential for recreational use as an aphrodisiac and euphoriant , among other concerns, as well as the availability of safer substitute drugs with comparable treatment efficacy such as Adderall and Vyvanse . Dextromethamphetamine is a stronger CNS stimulant than levomethamphetamine. Both racemic methamphetamine and dextromethamphetamine are illicitly trafficked and sold owing to their potential for recreational use. The highest prevalence of illegal methamphetamine use occurs in parts of Asia and Oceania, and in
3168-592: The American Dental Association , meth mouth "is probably caused by a combination of drug-induced psychological and physiological changes resulting in xerostomia (dry mouth), extended periods of poor oral hygiene , frequent consumption of high-calorie, carbonated beverages and bruxism (teeth grinding and clenching)". As dry mouth is also a common side effect of other stimulants, which are not known to contribute severe tooth decay, many researchers suggest that methamphetamine-associated tooth decay
3256-493: The Controlled Substances Act and is listed under Schedule II in the United States. Methamphetamine hydrochloride dispensed in the United States is required to include a boxed warning regarding its potential for recreational misuse and addiction liability. Desoxyn and Desoxyn Gradumet are both pharmaceutical forms of the drug. The latter is no longer produced and is a extended-release form of
3344-626: The Köppen system as Dwb ), with long, very cold winters, and short, but very warm, humid summers. Spring and autumn constitute very short transitions with some, but usually not heavy, rainfall. The monthly 24-hour average temperature ranges from −13.2 °C (8.2 °F) in January to 21.7 °C (71.1 °F) in August, while the annual mean is 5.69 °C (42.2 °F) and a total precipitation of 531 mm (20.9 in), most of it falling during
3432-639: The United Nations Convention on Psychotropic Substances treaty. While dextromethamphetamine is a more potent drug, racemic methamphetamine is illicitly produced more often, owing to the relative ease of synthesis and regulatory limits of chemical precursor availability. In low to moderate doses, methamphetamine can elevate mood , increase alertness, concentration and energy in fatigued individuals, reduce appetite, and promote weight loss. At very high doses, it can induce psychosis , breakdown of skeletal muscle , seizures , and bleeding in
3520-684: The Yanbian Medical College . Yanbian International Academy , the area school for foreigners, is located in Yanji. There is also a school for Koreans, Korean International School in Yanbian . Yanji hosts sporting events at the 50,000-seat People's Stadium . The city was the eighteenth stop for the Olympic torch relay at the opening of the 2008 Summer Games . Officials from the Guinness Book of World Records visited
3608-520: The chromatin that contribute to the persistent epigenetic changes found in methamphetamine addiction. A 2018 systematic review and network meta-analysis of 50 trials involving 12 different psychosocial interventions for amphetamine, methamphetamine, or cocaine addiction found that combination therapy with both contingency management and community reinforcement approach had the highest efficacy (i.e., abstinence rate) and acceptability (i.e., lowest dropout rate). Other treatment modalities examined in
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3696-425: The hippocampus , and the prefrontal cortex . Chronic methamphetamine use caused gene-specific histone acetylations, deacetylations and methylations . Gene-specific DNA methylations in particular regions of the brain were also observed. The various epigenetic alterations caused downregulations or upregulations of specific genes important in addiction. For instance, chronic methamphetamine use caused methylation of
3784-450: The presynaptic neuron , and their subsequent release into the synaptic cleft by the phosphorylated transporters. Other transporters that methamphetamine is known to inhibit are SLC22A3 and SLC22A5 . SLC22A3 is an extraneuronal monoamine transporter that is present in astrocytes, and SLC22A5 is a high-affinity carnitine transporter. Methamphetamine is also an agonist of the alpha-2 adrenergic receptors and sigma receptors with
3872-486: The substituted phenethylamine and substituted amphetamine chemical classes . It is related to the other dimethylphenethylamines as a positional isomer of these compounds, which share the common chemical formula C 10 H 15 N . In the United States, methamphetamine hydrochloride, sold under the brand name Desoxyn , is approved by the FDA for treating ADHD and obesity in both adults and children; however,
3960-576: The Chinese and Korean populations in the region was put under severe strain, and many in Yanji expressed newfound feelings of dismay and insecurity regarding their North Korean neighbors. A South Korean pastor, the Reverend Kim Dong-shik , was kidnapped in Yanji in January 2000, one of numerous well-publicized North Korean abductions of South Koreans ; a suspect of mixed Korean-Chinese descent, said to have been trained in Pyongyang ,
4048-878: The FDA advises monitoring the height and weight of growing children and adolescents during treatment. Methamphetamine is a sympathomimetic drug that causes vasoconstriction and tachycardia . Methamphetamine also promotes abnormal extra heart beats and irregular heart rhythms some of which may be life threatening. The effects can also include loss of appetite , hyperactivity, dilated pupils , flushed skin , excessive sweating , increased movement , dry mouth and teeth grinding (potentially leading to condition informally known as meth mouth ), headache, rapid breathing , high body temperature , diarrhea, constipation, blurred vision , dizziness , twitching , numbness , tremors , dry skin, acne , and pale appearance . Long-term meth users may have sores on their skin; these may be caused by scratching due to itchiness or
4136-446: The FDA also indicates that the limited therapeutic usefulness of methamphetamine should be weighed against the inherent risks associated with its use. To avoid toxicity and risk of side effects, FDA guidelines recommend an initial dose of methamphetamine at doses 5–10 mg/day for ADHD in adults and children over six years of age, and may be increased at weekly intervals of 5 mg, up to 25 mg/day, until optimum clinical response
4224-561: The Tumen River Area International Investment & Business Forum, a three-day exposition held annually since 2000. Daily train service to most major urban centers of the province is available from Yanji, including a 24-hour trip to Beijing. A much shorter trip to the Chinese capital can be arranged at Yanji Chaoyangchuan International Airport which serves the area with scheduled passenger flights domestically and to Korea. International air service
4312-437: The United States, where racemic methamphetamine and dextromethamphetamine are classified as Schedule II controlled substances. Levomethamphetamine is available as an over-the-counter (OTC) drug for use as an inhaled nasal decongestant in the United States. Internationally, the production, distribution, sale, and possession of methamphetamine is restricted or banned in many countries, owing to its placement in schedule II of
4400-574: The absorption of methamphetamine and increase urinary excretion, while alkaline substances do the opposite. Owing to the effect pH has on absorption, proton pump inhibitors , which reduce gastric acid , are known to interact with methamphetamine. Methamphetamine has been identified as a potent full agonist of trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1), a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) that regulates brain catecholamine systems. Activation of TAAR1 increases cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) production and either completely inhibits or reverses
4488-451: The actual number was possibly five or six times higher. The geographical coordinates are between 42°50' and 43°23' north latitude, and between 129°01' and 129°48' east longitude. Yanji is situated among foothills, with the main metropolitan area contained in a small, very flat area. It is ringed by mountains dotted with small, remote farming communities. It has a four-season, monsoon -influenced, humid continental climate (classified in
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#17327806476464576-421: The analysis included monotherapy with contingency management or community reinforcement approach, cognitive behavioral therapy , 12-step programs , non-contingent reward-based therapies, psychodynamic therapy , and other combination therapies involving these. As of December 2019 , there is no effective pharmacotherapy for methamphetamine addiction. A systematic review and meta-analysis from 2019 assessed
4664-591: The athletics stadium at Yanbian University in July 2010 to witness a new world record being set: over one thousand students simultaneously juggled soccer balls with their feet for more than ten seconds. Two all-Korean television channels are produced locally, and others can be freely received from both North and South Korea. Korean cuisine is highly popular and available everywhere. An annual Korean folk festival takes place each September in Yanji, featuring traditional Korean music, dance, painting, and sports. Karaoke
4752-413: The belief that insects are crawling under their skin, and the damage is compounded by poor diet and hygiene. Numerous deaths related to methamphetamine overdoses have been reported. Additionally, "[p]ostmortem examinations of human tissues have linked use of the drug to diseases associated with aging, such as coronary atherosclerosis and pulmonary fibrosis", which may be caused "by a considerable rise in
4840-453: The border from North Korea has led to a drug problem. According to a Brookings report, "Jilin Province is not only the most important transshipment point for drugs from North Korea into China, but has itself become one of the largest markets in China for amphetamine-type stimulants." Yanji had registered nearly 2100 drug addicts in 2010 compared to just 44 in 1990; local officials admitted that
4928-399: The brain , circulatory collapse , hyperpy rexia (i.e., dangerously high body temperature), pulmonary hypertension , kidney failure , rapid muscle breakdown , serotonin syndrome , and a form of stereotypy ("tweaking"). A methamphetamine overdose will likely also result in mild brain damage owing to dopaminergic and serotonergic neurotoxicity. Death from methamphetamine poisoning
5016-437: The brain . Chronic high-dose use can precipitate unpredictable and rapid mood swings , stimulant psychosis (e.g., paranoia , hallucinations , delirium , and delusions ), and violent behavior . Recreationally, methamphetamine's ability to increase energy has been reported to lift mood and increase sexual desire to such an extent that users are able to engage in sexual activity continuously for several days while binging
5104-442: The brain to produce more of it), chronic acquisition of these rewards can result in a similar pathological state of addiction. ΔFosB is the most significant factor involved in both amphetamine addiction and amphetamine-induced sex addictions , which are compulsive sexual behaviors that result from excessive sexual activity and amphetamine use. These sex addictions (i.e., drug-induced compulsive sexual behaviors) are associated with
5192-558: The brain) and, if severe, is typically treated with intravenous phentolamine or nitroprusside . Blood pressure often drops gradually following sufficient sedation with a benzodiazepine and providing a calming environment. Antipsychotics such as haloperidol are useful in treating agitation and psychosis from methamphetamine overdose. Beta blockers with lipophilic properties and CNS penetration such as metoprolol and labetalol may be useful for treating CNS and cardiovascular toxicity. The mixed alpha- and beta-blocker labetalol
5280-453: The brain, and may contribute importantly to the addiction phenotype. In 2014, a crucial role was found for epigenetic mechanisms in driving lasting changes in gene expression in the brain. A review in 2015 summarized a number of studies involving chronic methamphetamine use in rodents. Epigenetic alterations were observed in the brain reward pathways , including areas like ventral tegmental area , nucleus accumbens , and dorsal striatum ,
5368-399: The children reach school age. A prospective cohort study of 330 children showed that at the age of 3, children with methamphetamine exposure showed increased emotional reactivity, as well as more signs of anxiety and depression; and at the age of 5, children showed higher rates of externalizing disorders and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Methamphetamine overdose is
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#17327806476465456-494: The city's ethnic Korean population at over 170,000. In 1994, the estimated total population of Yanji was 343,600. Official census reports from 2000 have not yet been released publicly, but current estimates place it between about one third of the city's total population to more than one half. Both Chinese and Korean are considered "official languages" of the city: all official signs are in bilingual text. With its current population estimated at four hundred thousand, Yanji
5544-653: The development of drug addictions, since its overexpression in D1-type medium spiny neurons in the nucleus accumbens is necessary and sufficient for most of the behavioral and neural adaptations that arise from addiction. Once ΔFosB is sufficiently overexpressed, it induces an addictive state that becomes increasingly more severe with further increases in ΔFosB expression. It has been implicated in addictions to alcohol , cannabinoids , cocaine , methylphenidate , nicotine , opioids , phencyclidine , propofol , and substituted amphetamines , among others. ΔJunD ,
5632-409: The dose is excreted in urine as methamphetamine and 10–23% as amphetamine. Following IV doses, about 45% is excreted as methamphetamine and 7% as amphetamine. The elimination half-life of methamphetamine varies with a range of 5–30 hours, but it is on average 9 to 12 hours in most studies. The elimination half-life of methamphetamine does not vary by route of administration , but
5720-790: The drug, flattening the curve of the effect of the drug while extending it. Methamphetamine is often used recreationally for its effects as a potent euphoriant and stimulant as well as aphrodisiac qualities. According to a National Geographic TV documentary on methamphetamine, an entire subculture known as party and play is based around sexual activity and methamphetamine use. Participants in this subculture, which consists almost entirely of homosexual male methamphetamine users, will typically meet up through internet dating sites and have sex. Because of its strong stimulant and aphrodisiac effects and inhibitory effect on ejaculation , with repeated use, these sexual encounters will sometimes occur continuously for several days on end. The crash following
5808-425: The drug. Methamphetamine is known to possess a high addiction liability (i.e., a high likelihood that long-term or high dose use will lead to compulsive drug use) and high dependence liability (i.e., a high likelihood that withdrawal symptoms will occur when methamphetamine use ceases). Discontinuing methamphetamine after heavy use may lead to a post-acute-withdrawal syndrome , which can persist for months beyond
5896-732: The efficacy of 17 different pharmacotherapies used in randomized controlled trials (RCTs) for amphetamine and methamphetamine addiction; it found only low-strength evidence that methylphenidate might reduce amphetamine or methamphetamine self-administration. There was low- to moderate-strength evidence of no benefit for most of the other medications used in RCTs, which included antidepressants (bupropion, mirtazapine , sertraline ), antipsychotics ( aripiprazole ), anticonvulsants ( topiramate , baclofen , gabapentin ), naltrexone , varenicline , citicoline , ondansetron , prometa , riluzole , atomoxetine , dextroamphetamine, and modafinil . Tolerance
5984-408: The formation of ceramides , pro-inflammatory molecules that can foster cell aging and death." Methamphetamine users, particularly heavy users, may lose their teeth abnormally quickly, regardless of the route of administration, from a condition informally known as meth mouth . The condition is generally most severe in users who inject the drug, rather than swallow, smoke, or inhale it. According to
6072-416: The formation of reactive oxygen species. Current models of addiction from chronic drug use involve alterations in gene expression in certain parts of the brain, particularly the nucleus accumbens . The most important transcription factors that produce these alterations are ΔFosB , cAMP response element binding protein ( CREB ), and nuclear factor kappa B ( NFκB ). ΔFosB plays a crucial role in
6160-427: The high lipophilicity of methamphetamine due to its methyl group, it can readily move through the blood–brain barrier faster than other stimulants, where it is more resistant to degradation by monoamine oxidase . The amphetamine metabolite peaks at 10–24 hours. Methamphetamine is excreted by the kidneys, with the rate of excretion into the urine heavily influenced by urinary pH. When taken orally, 30–54% of
6248-860: The level of biomarkers of metabolic integrity and synthesis occur in recreational users, such as a reduction in N -acetylaspartate and creatine levels and elevated levels of choline and myoinositol . Methamphetamine has been shown to activate TAAR1 in human astrocytes and generate cAMP as a result. Activation of astrocyte-localized TAAR1 appears to function as a mechanism by which methamphetamine attenuates membrane-bound EAAT2 (SLC1A2) levels and function in these cells. Methamphetamine binds to and activates both sigma receptor subtypes, σ 1 and σ 2 , with micromolar affinity. Sigma receptor activation may promote methamphetamine-induced neurotoxicity by facilitating hyperthermia , increasing dopamine synthesis and release, influencing microglial activation, and modulating apoptotic signaling cascades and
6336-641: The lysine in position 4 of histone 3 located at the promoters of the c-fos and the C-C chemokine receptor 2 (ccr2) genes, activating those genes in the nucleus accumbens (NAc). c-fos is well known to be important in addiction . The ccr2 gene is also important in addiction, since mutational inactivation of this gene impairs addiction. In methamphetamine addicted rats, epigenetic regulation through reduced acetylation of histones, in brain striatal neurons, caused reduced transcription of glutamate receptors . Glutamate receptors play an important role in regulating
6424-423: The membrane expression and function of EAAT2 , a type of glutamate transporter . In addition to its effect on the plasma membrane monoamine transporters, methamphetamine inhibits synaptic vesicle function by inhibiting VMAT2 , which prevents monoamine uptake into the vesicles and promotes their release. This results in the outflow of monoamines from synaptic vesicles into the cytosol (intracellular fluid) of
6512-522: The metabolites of amphetamine. Among these metabolites, the active sympathomimetics are amphetamine, 4‑hydroxyamphetamine , 4‑hydroxynorephedrine , 4-hydroxymethamphetamine , and norephedrine. Methamphetamine is a CYP2D6 inhibitor. The main metabolic pathways involve aromatic para-hydroxylation, aliphatic alpha- and beta-hydroxylation, N-oxidation, N-dealkylation, and deamination. The known metabolic pathways include: Methamphetamine and amphetamine are often measured in urine or blood as part of
6600-460: The methamphetamine hydrochloride salt is odorless with a bitter taste. It has a melting point between 170 and 175 °C (338 and 347 °F) and, at room temperature, occurs as white crystals or a white crystalline powder. The hydrochloride salt is also freely soluble in ethanol and water. The crystal structure of either enantiomer is monoclinic with P2 1 space group ; at 90 K (−183.2 °C; −297.7 °F), it has lattice parameters
6688-431: The past or are currently taking monoamine oxidase inhibitors should not take methamphetamine. The FDA also advises individuals with bipolar disorder , depression , elevated blood pressure , liver or kidney problems, mania , psychosis , Raynaud's phenomenon , seizures , thyroid problems, tics , or Tourette syndrome to monitor their symptoms while taking methamphetamine. Owing to the potential for stunted growth,
6776-469: The recent investment has been made by South Korea and Taiwan , which has helped substantially in building the city's tourism industry. Yanji also burnishes its reputation as a center of tourism by hosting the annual North China Travel Fair. Held every year since 1996, the fair is one of the largest of its kind in the country, showcasing over a thousand exhibitions representing cultural and economic partners from across China and overseas. Yanji also hosts
6864-411: The reinforcing effects of addictive drugs. Administration of methamphetamine to rodents causes DNA damage in their brain, particularly in the nucleus accumbens region. During repair of such DNA damages, persistent chromatin alterations may occur such as in the methylation of DNA or the acetylation or methylation of histones at the sites of repair. These alterations can be epigenetic scars in
6952-450: The risk of HIV transmission among gay and bisexual men. Methamphetamine use allows users of both sexes to engage in prolonged sexual activity, which may cause genital sores and abrasions as well as priapism in men. Methamphetamine may also cause sores and abrasions in the mouth via bruxism , increasing the risk of sexually transmitted infection. Besides the sexual transmission of HIV, it may also be transmitted between users who share
7040-493: The scenery, tasting food, and appreciating folk customs to visiting the local morning market and wearing traditional costumes. Methamphetamine Methamphetamine (contracted from N -methylamphetamine ) is a potent central nervous system (CNS) stimulant that is mainly used as a recreational or performance-enhancing drug and less commonly as a second-line treatment for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and obesity . It has also been researched as
7128-519: The summer. Sunshine is generous but falling far short of the central and western parts of Jilin; with monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 39% in July to 62% in February, there are 2,280 hours of bright sunshine annually. Yanji has six subdistricts and four towns . The Korean diaspora in China has significant populations in at least eleven major Chinese cities, but none larger than Yanji: official Chinese census reports from 1990 placed
7216-471: The symptoms of acute amphetamine psychosis. Amphetamine psychosis may also develop occasionally as a treatment-emergent side effect. The CDC reported that the number of deaths in the United States involving psychostimulants with abuse potential to be 23,837 in 2020 and 32,537 in 2021. This category code (ICD–10 of T43.6) includes primarily methamphetamine but also other stimulants such as amphetamine, and methylphenidate. The mechanism of death in these cases
7304-460: The transport direction of the dopamine transporter (DAT), norepinephrine transporter (NET), and serotonin transporter (SERT). When methamphetamine binds to TAAR1, it triggers transporter phosphorylation via protein kinase A (PKA) and protein kinase C (PKC) signaling, ultimately resulting in the internalization or reverse function of monoamine transporters . Methamphetamine is also known to increase intracellular calcium, an effect which
7392-423: The typical withdrawal period. At high doses, methamphetamine is neurotoxic to human midbrain dopaminergic neurons and, to a lesser extent, serotonergic neurons. Methamphetamine neurotoxicity causes adverse changes in brain structure and function, such as reductions in grey matter volume in several brain regions, as well as adverse changes in markers of metabolic integrity. Methamphetamine belongs to
7480-538: The typical withdrawal period. Magnetic resonance imaging studies on human methamphetamine users have also found evidence of neurodegeneration, or adverse neuroplastic changes in brain structure and function. In particular, methamphetamine appears to cause hyperintensity and hypertrophy of white matter , marked shrinkage of hippocampi , and reduced gray matter in the cingulate cortex , limbic cortex , and paralimbic cortex in recreational methamphetamine users. Moreover, evidence suggests that adverse changes in
7568-600: The use of methamphetamine in this manner is very often severe, with marked hypersomnia (excessive daytime sleepiness). The party and play subculture is prevalent in major US cities such as San Francisco and New York City. Methamphetamine is contraindicated in individuals with a history of substance use disorder , heart disease , or severe agitation or anxiety, or in individuals currently experiencing arteriosclerosis , glaucoma , hyperthyroidism , or severe hypertension . The FDA states that individuals who have experienced hypersensitivity reactions to other stimulants in
7656-490: Was arrested and charged with the crime in December 2004. Yanji was the starting point of an international dispute in 2009 when two American journalists, Euna Lee and Laura Ling , were detained by North Korean border guards when, after leaving Yanji, they overstepped the nearby demarcation line. The two were freed only after intervention at the highest level by former US President Clinton . Crystal meth seeping across
7744-594: Was the seat of Jiandao Province in the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo from 1934 to 1943. In 1943, the city itself was renamed Jiandao (Chientao) and made a part of the Dongman Consolidated Province (东满总省). Following World War II, the city (again called Yanji) was nominally part of a new Songjiang Province but with the communist seizure of power in 1949, Sonjiang's borders were changed and Yanji became part of Jilin Province . Yanji
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