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113-626: Emperor Taizong of Liao (25 November 902 – 18 May 947), personal name Yaogu , sinicised name Yelü Deguang , courtesy name Dejin , was the second emperor of the Khitan -led Liao dynasty of China. Yelü Deguang was born in 902, before the founding of the Liao dynasty . His father was the Yelü clan chieftain Yelü Abaoji , and his mother was Yelü Abaoji's wife Shulü Ping ; he was their second son. As

226-407: A Dongdan Kingdom over the old Balhae territory, with its capital at Fuyu, and made Yelü Deguang's older brother Yelü Bei its king, with the title of "Imperial King of Man" (人皇王, Ren Huangwang ), echoing the titles used by himself ("Imperial Emperor of Heaven," 天皇帝, Tian Huangdi ) and his wife (Yelü Bei's mother) Empress Shulü ("Imperial Empress of Earth," 地皇后, Di Huanghou ). He gave Yelü Deguang

339-574: A Muslim from Bukhara , Sayyid Ajall Shams al-Din Omar , as governor of Yunnan after conquering the Bai -led Dali Kingdom . Sayyid Ajall is best known among Chinese for helping sinicize the Yunnan province; the promotion of Islam , Confucianism , and Buddhism would be part of his ' civilizing mission ' upon the non-Han Chinese peoples in Yunnan, who he viewed as "backward and barbarian." He founded

452-543: A marriage alliance , Li Congke changed his mind and never made the alliance proposal. Not long after, in summer 936, Li Congke, under Xue's suggestion, issued an edict moving Shi from Hedong to Tianping Circuit (天平, headquartered in modern Tai'an , Shandong ). This caused Shi to fear that he would be executed if he left Hedong, and so he rebelled. With Li Congke then sending an army, commanded by Zhang Jingda , to attack Hedong, Shi sent emissaries to Khitan to request aid, promising that, if Emperor Taizong would support him as

565-504: A "Chinese style" city called Zhongjing Cheng, where modern Kunming is today, and ordered that a Buddhist temple , two mosques , and a Confucian temple be built in the city. The latter temple, built in 1274 and doubled as a school, was the first Confucian temple ever to be built in Yunnan. By incorporating Chinese and consequently Confucian thought in the dynasty, scholars now deem Kublai Khan as an adopted Chinese citizen of Mongol ethnicity, rather than simply being mutually excluded from

678-599: A Liao emissary, and then submitted an arrogantly-worded petition to Shi, demanding that he terminate his submissiveness to Liao and turn against Liao for its mistreatment of the Chinese people. Sang secretly pointed out to Shi that turning against Liao could not yield any benefit — and, in his evaluation of Emperor Taizong, referred to Emperor Taizong as being "more intelligent and brave than other people." Shi listened to Sang, and instead tried to persuade An against provocative behaviors against Liao. He also sent Yang Yanxun (楊彥詢)

791-717: A chief of staff ( Shumishi ) and chancellor . Later, after Xu seized the Wu throne and established Southern Tang as its emperor, he continued friendly relations with Liao, but on one occasion decided to assassinate the Liao emissary once the Liao emissary crossed into Later Jin territory, hoping to blame Later Jin for the assassination and disrupt Liao and Later Jin relations. Meanwhile, Shi Jingtang, as Later Jin's emperor, continued to be very submissive to Liao. In 938, he offered honorific titles to Emperor Taizong and Empress Dowager Shulü, and sent his senior officials Feng Dao and Liu Xu to

904-483: A key part of enhancing "ethnic unity". As of 2019 , it was estimated that Chinese authorities may have detained one and a half million people in secretive internment camps. The vast majority of those forcibly interned are Muslim Uyghurs but Kazakhs and other minority groups have also been included. In September 2020, sinicization policies targeted Muslim Utsuls in the Hainan province. Restrictions included limiting

1017-401: A more conciliatory posture with Later Jin. Meanwhile, Sang Weihan, who had taken over much of the military responsibility from Jing by this point, also was urging Shi to take a reconciliatory approach. In summer 945, Shi sent the emissary Zhang Hui (張暉) to the Liao court, apologizing and begging forgiveness. Emperor Taizong responded, "Send Sang Weihan and Jing Yanguang to come see us, and cede

1130-694: A number of generals to try to cut off the Liao army movement, but then, in fear of the Liao army's strengths, pulled back to the Yedu region, allowing the Liao army to advance unimpeded to Yedu, pillaging the Later Jin territory as it went along. However, the Liao army then withdrew in spring 945. As the Liao army withdrew, Shi sent Du Wei (i.e., Du Chongwei, who changed his name to observe naming taboo for Shi) and Li in command of an army to give chase. They crossed into Liao territory and captured Qi (祁州) and Tai (泰州) (both in modern Baoding), but soon received news that

1243-429: A trap), stating, "I have long been in a foreign land, and I want to return to China. Please launch a major army to support me, so that I can pull myself out and return with it." Subsequently, under Emperor Taizong's orders, Liao's prefect of Ying Prefecture (瀛州, in modern Cangzhou , Hebei ), Liu Yanzuo (劉延祚), also offered to defect to Later Jin. Shi thus put Du and Li Shouzhen in command of an army to attack north, with

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1356-468: A young adult, he was described by the History of Liao as serious in his appearance and kind in his disposition, and often participating in his parents' governance of the state. In 922, by which time Yelü Abaoji was the emperor of the Liao dynasty, Yelü Deguang was given the title of Generalissimo of All Forces (天下兵馬大元帥, Tianxia Bingma Da Yuanshuai ), and he was put in charge of commanding incursions into

1469-740: Is also often used to refer to processes or policies of acculturation or assimilation of norms from China on neighboring East Asian societies , or on minority ethnic groups within China. Evidence of this process is reflected in the histories of Korea , Japan , and Vietnam in the adoption of the Chinese writing system , which has long been a unifying feature in the Sinosphere as the vehicle for exporting Chinese culture to other Asian countries. In recent times, sinicization has been used in reference to China's policy toward minorities, particularly toward religious minorities within China. Policies include

1582-451: Is an issue in, for example, the Taiwan independence movement and Taiwan localization movements . The sinicization of Tibet is the change of Tibetan society to Han Chinese standards by means of state propaganda , police presence, cultural assimilation , religious persecution , immigration , population transfer , land development, land transfer, and political reform . According to

1695-581: The Boxer Rebellion and the anti-Christian movement of 1922–1927 as early efforts to sinicize Christianity. The TSPM and China Christian Council arranged a conference in Shanghai on August 4–6, 2014, commemorating the anniversary of the TSPM. This conference included a seminar on the sinicizaton of Christianity, with Fu Xianwei, chairman of the TSPM, saying "churches in China will continue to explore

1808-504: The Di and Qiang were farmers and herders from the mountains of western Sichuan of southwest China. As migrants, they lived among ethnic Chinese and were sinicized to varying degrees. Many worked as farm laborers. Some attained official positions in the court and military. The numerous tribal groups in the north and northwest who had been heavily drafted into the military then exploited the chaos to seize power by local Chinese warlords. During

1921-687: The Hexi Corridor region, capturing the capital of the Gansu Uyghur Kingdom , defeating Balhae , and destroying the Dalugu Tribes (達盧骨). In 926, Emperor Taizu decided to conquer Balhae. In a campaign, he captured the important Balhae city Fuyu (夫餘, in modern Siping, Jilin ). (This appeared to have ended the Balhae state, even though Emperor Taizu did not at this time capture Balhae's capital Longquan .) Emperor Taizu set up

2034-528: The Hui population and adopted Chinese culture practice Chinese customs, speaking varieties of Chinese as their language. From the late Han dynasty to the early Jin dynasty (266–420) , large numbers of non-Chinese peoples living along China's northern periphery settled in northern China. Some of these migrants such as the Xiongnu and Xianbei had been pastoralist nomads from the northern steppes. Others such as

2147-561: The Three Kingdoms period, Cao Cao initiated the policy of settling Xiongnu nomads away from the frontier near Taiyuan in modern Shanxi province, where they would be less likely to rebel. The Xiongnu abandoned nomadism and the elite were educated in Chinese-Confucian literate culture. The migration of northern Chinese people to the south further settled China as a multi-ethnic empire. The Northern and Southern dynasties

2260-554: The Xinjiang internment camps is a part of the ongoing sinicization policy by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Since 2015, it has been estimated that over a million Uyghurs have been detained in these camps. The camps were established under CCP General Secretary Xi Jinping 's administration with the main goal of ensuring adherence to national ideology. Critics of China's treatment of Uyghurs have accused

2373-677: The 11th century BC, some of the Baiyue peoples in the Yangtze River Delta started to sinicize, marked by their establishment of the Wu State . These Yue peoples, together with their southerner neighbours who formed the Yue State centuries later, are collectively termed as Yuyue peoples. Over time, the mutual contact between Baiyue peoples and Han Chinese, as well as southward spread of Han Chinese, mostly as war refugees , led to

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2486-561: The 18th century, the emperors developed a sense of Manchu identity and used Central Asian models of rule as much as Confucian ones. There is also evidence of sinicization, however. For example, Manchus originally had their own separate style of naming from the Han Chinese, but eventually adopted Han Chinese naming practices. Manchu names consisted of more than the two or one syllable Chinese names , and when phonetically transcribed into Chinese, they made no sense at all. The meaning of

2599-580: The 19th century even the imperial court had lost fluency in the language. The Jiaqing Emperor (reigned 1796–1820) complained that his officials were not proficient at understanding or writing Manchu. Eventually, the Qing royal family (the Aisin Gioro ) gave their children Chinese names, which were separate from the Manchu names, and even adopted the Chinese practice of generation names , although its usage

2712-772: The Chinese government of propagating a policy of sinicization in Xinjiang in the 21st century, calling this policy a cultural genocide , or ethnocide , of Uyghurs. After the Republic of China took control of Taiwan from the Empire of Japan in 1945 and relocated its capital to Taipei in 1949, the intention of Chiang Kai-shek was to eventually go back to mainland China and retake control of it. Chiang believed that to retake mainland China, it would be necessary to re-Sinicize Taiwan's inhabitants who had undergone assimilation under Japanese rule . Examples of this policy included

2825-455: The Chinese people are this difficult to rule." He sent some of the military governors back to their circuits with Liao soldiers escorting them, but was unable to stem these rebellions. In late spring, tired of dealing with these rebellions, Emperor Taizong convened the officials at Daliang, stating to them, "It is soon to be summer. It is not easy for me to remain. Let me return to the greater empire [(i.e., Liao proper)] for me to pay homage to

2938-518: The Empress Dowager. I will leave a trusted person here to be the military governor." He prepared to take the entire Later Jin imperial administration's officials with him, but there were those who advised him that doing that may cause the situation at Daliang to go out of control, so he took only the highly honored officials with him, while leaving the rest at Daliang. He commissioned his brother-in-law (Empress Xiao Wen's brother) Xiao Han as

3051-501: The Han people in pointing to Zhao, "This is your Lord." In spring 944, Emperor Taizong made a major incursion into Later Jin territory, using Zhao Yanshou and Zhao Yanzhao (趙延照) as his forward commanders. The Liao forces first captured Bei Prefecture (貝州, in modern Xingtai , Hebei ), and then grouped near Yedu (鄴都, capital of the former Tianxiong Circuit). Shi Chonggui tried to respond diplomatically, but his emissaries could not get through

3164-594: The Japanese influences on the culture that had occurred in the previous 50 years, and to help unite the recent immigrants from mainland China that had come to Taiwan with the KMT and among whom there was a tendency to be more loyal to one's city, county or province than to China as a nation. The process of re-asserting non-Chinese identity, as in the case of ethnic groups in Taiwan, is sometimes known as desinicization . This

3277-432: The Later Jin emissaries detained at You Prefecture and refused to see them himself. Even though Sang Weihan repeatedly suggested that Shi Chonggui revert to subservience to Liao to avoid a war, Jing repeatedly stopped Shi from doing so. By winter 943, Yang Guangyuan, who was then Later Jin's military governor of Pinglu Circuit (平盧, headquartered in modern Weifang , Shandong ), was in a mutually-suspicious relationship with

3390-457: The Later Jin imperial government, and, while he had not yet rebelled, was in communication with Emperor Taizong, urging him to attack Later Jin due to Shi's defiant behavior. Emperor Taizong thereafter gave Zhao 50,000 soldiers from Lulong and Datong (大同, headquartered in modern Datong , Shanxi ) Circuits, asking him to manage the campaign to capture central China, stating to him, "If you gained it, I will make you emperor." He also often stated to

3503-422: The Later Jin soldiers and told him that the Later Jin army was now his, and then prepared to advance south. With virtually the entire Later Jin army having been given to Du and Li for this northern campaign, then-Later Jin capital Daliang was left essentially defenseless, and Shi Chonggui felt compelled to surrender, ending Later Jin. Emperor Taizong subsequently entered Daliang. Emperor Taizong declared himself

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3616-438: The Liao army and reach Emperor Taizong to deliver his letters. He also sent a number of generals to respond, with Jing Yanguang in effective command of the overall operations, but also himself went to the frontline. The second Liao thrust, led by Yelü Andu toward Hedong, however, was repelled by Hedong's military governor Liu Zhiyuan . Later Jin's prefect of Bo Prefecture (博州, in modern Liaocheng , Shandong ), Zhou Ru (周儒), who

3729-433: The Liao army had turned around and was heading for them. They tried to withdraw, but became surrounded near Yangcheng (陽城, in modern Baoding). Du panicked and was reluctant to engage the Liao army, but at Fu Yanqing 's advocacy, Fu, Zhang Yanze , Yao Yuanfu (藥元福), and Huangfu Yu (皇甫遇), attacked the Liao army fiercely, causing the Liao army to panic and flee. After Emperor Taizong was able to regroup at You, he caned each of

3842-399: The Liao court to officially present the titles. During Shi's reign as Later Jin's emperor, he referred to himself as "subject" and "son," while referring to Emperor Taizong as "father emperor." Whenever Emperor Taizong issued edicts to him, he would receive them in a side hall rather than his own imperial hall, to show respect. Whenever at the Liao emperor's and empress dowager's birthdays or

3955-437: The Liao court. In 939, fearing that An Chongrong the military governor of Chengde Circuit (成德, headquartered in modern Shijiazhuang , Hebei ) would rebel, Shi moved An's potential ally Huangfu Yu (皇甫遇) the military governor of the neighboring Yiwu Circuit (義武, headquartered in modern Baoding , Hebei ) to Zhaoyi Circuit (昭義, headquartered at Lu Prefecture). Emperor Taizong tried to use this opportunity to inject himself into

4068-469: The Liao merchants were arrested and killed. When Qiao was released later in the year and allowed to return to Liao, Jing gave him an arrogant speech: Tell your master: the deceased emperor [(i.e., Shi Jingtang)] was placed in his position by the northern dynasty [(i.e., Liao)], and that is why he claimed himself to be a subject and submitted reports. The current emperor was placed in his position by China itself. The only reason why he subordinated himself to

4181-554: The Liao soldiers into the countryside to pillage it, referring to it as "threshing the grass seeds" (打草穀). This caused many deaths of Han adults, and the Han young and old were forced to hide themselves in trenches to avoid the same fate. It was said that all civilian wealth and animals in a region that included Daliang and Luoyang, and Zheng (鄭州, in modern Zhengzhou , Henan ), Hua (滑州, in modern Anyang , Henan ), Cao (曹州, in modern Heze , Shandong ), and Pu (濮州, in modern Puyang , Henan ) were all destroyed. He also ordered that all in

4294-547: The Liao-commissioned deputy military governor Liu Yuan (劉願) and supported one of their own, Zhao Hui (趙暉), in rebellion against Liao. Not long after, Liu Zhiyuan declared himself emperor at Hedong (initially without a new name for his state, but later known as Later Han . After Liu's declaration of himself as emperor, many of the circuits resisting Liao pledged allegiance to him. This included many agrarian rebels, causing Emperor Taizong to lament, "I did not know that

4407-677: The Mongols in China, and bringing 'civilization' to Yunnan" (1997); and in "The Origins of Confucian and Islamic Education in Southwest China: Yunnan in the Yuan Period" (n.d.) and "The Sinicization and Confucianization in Chinese and Western Historiography of a Muslim from Bukhara Serving Under the Mongols in China" (1989). During the Ming conquest of Yunnan Chinese military soldiers were settled in Yunnan, and many married

4520-781: The Sinicisation of Protestantism will never change, and our determination to walk a path that is adapted to a socialist society will never waver." In December 2023, Wang Huning stated that Christian groups must "adhere to the direction of the sinicisation of Christianity." In December 2016, the Ninth National Congress of the Chinese Catholic Representatives reaffirmed their plan for the United Front Work Department 's Catholic Patriotic Association to uphold

4633-679: The U.S. branch of the Offices of Tibet , it has been underway since the Chinese regained control of Tibet in 1951. Sources quoted by Radio Free Asia have stated that in present-day Tibet, traditional Tibetan festivals have "been turned into a platform for propaganda and political theater" where "government workers and retirees are barred from engaging in religious activities, and government workers and students in Tibetan schools are forbidden from visiting local monasteries." In April 2016, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping declared that to "actively guide

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4746-561: The adaptation of religions to socialist society, an important task is supporting China's religions' persistence in the direction of sinicization." He later reiterated this plan to the 19th Communist Party Congress saying "We will fully implement the Party's basic policy on religious affairs, insist on the sinicization of Chinese religions, and provide active guidance for religion and socialism to coexist." The Three-Self Patriotic Movement (TSPM) of Protestant churches in China has described

4859-600: The agreement to cede Lulong and parts of Hedong, for a total of 16 prefectures , to Khitan, as well as to submit a large amount of silk each year as tribute. Li Congke ordered Zhao Dejun the military governor of Lulong to command another army to rescue Zhang at Jin'an, but Zhao himself wanted Emperor Taizong's support to be emperor of China, and therefore halted some distance away at Tuanbo Valley (團柏谷, in modern Jinzhong , Shanxi ), while he sent secret emissaries to Emperor Taizong's camp, negotiating with him. Zhao, who submitted bribes of gold and silk to Emperor Taizong, promised

4972-571: The angry response of, "How many layers of promotion did you go through from being military governor to be the Son of Heaven ?" Shi, in fear, sent a rich tribute and promised to make Wang Chuzhi's grandnephew Wang Tingyin (王廷胤) Yiwu's military governor. That somewhat placated Emperor Taizong. An Chongrong, in addition to considering a rebellion against Later Jin, was particularly hostile to Liao. Whenever Liao emissaries passed through Chengde, he would curse them and sometimes even kill them. In 940, he seized

5085-729: The bringing together of these two terms, which indicate two real visions of the world." In June 2018, the Bishops' Conference of the Catholic Church in China and the Catholic Patriotic Association issued a "Five-Year Plan on Carrying Forward the Catholic Church's Adherence to the Direction of Sinicization in Our Country". This document calls for Catholics to accept Communist party leadership, love

5198-450: The capital, as well as in prefectures that he sent emissaries to, force the populace to turn over their wealths so that they could be (ostensibly) rewarded to the Liao soldiers, but in reality he planned to transport back to Liao proper. This led to resentment among the Han, and growing sentiment to expel the Liao forces. One of the leading Later Jin military governors who, while submitting to Liao, did not go to Daliang to pay homage to him,

5311-498: The chieftains who were part of the operation several hundred times, with only Zhao Yanshou escaping punishment. It was described that, by this point, the incessant Liao incursions were rendering Later Jin's imperial army fatigued and its border regions desolate. Liao itself had also suffered many casualties to its soldiers and animals, and the Khitan people tired of the campaigns. Empress Dowager Shulü tried to urge Emperor Taizong into

5424-442: The commissioning of Yiwu's military governor, proposing that the Liao official Wang Wei (王威), whose father Wang Chuzhi had previously ruled Yiwu in alliance with Later Tang's predecessor state Jin, be made Yiwu's military governor. When Shi refused (based on the rationale that Wang needed to go through several layers of promotions to qualify (from prefect to military prefect to defender to military governor), Emperor Taizong sent back

5537-509: The country's citizen, respect and acceptance towards cultural differences among citizens of China. Critics argue that assimilation destroys ethnic diversity , language diversity , and cultural diversity . The historian James A. Millward has claimed that the People's Republic of China has used the concept of sinicization as a means to obscure Han settler colonialism . In China there are 292 non-Mandarin languages spoken by native peoples of

5650-511: The deaths of key Liao officials, he would often present gifts, including also to Empress Dowager Shulü, Yelü Lihu, Yelü Anduan, the two chancellors in charge of Liao's southern and northern branches of government, and key Han officials such as Zhao Yanshou and Han Yanhui. Further, even when Emperor Taizong sent arrogantly-worded edicts, Shi would respond meekly. Therefore, throughout Shi's reign, there would be no disputes between Liao and Later Jin. In late 938, Shi, fearing that Yang Guangyuan, then

5763-693: The definition of fellow Chinese he governed. As such, Sayyid Ajall would be the one to introduce Confucian education , rituals , and traditions into Yunnan, including Chinese social structures, funeral rituals , and marriage customs . He would go on to construct numerous Confucian temples throughout his reign. Confucian rituals were taught to students in newly founded schools by Sichuanese scholars. The natives of Yunnan were instructed by Sayyid Ajall in such Confucian ceremonies as weddings, matchmaking, funerals, ancestor worship, and kowtow. The native leaders had their "barbarian" clothing replaced by clothing given to them by Sayyid Ajall as well. The governor

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5876-464: The destruction of religious architecture and costumes, the attempt to blend religious traditions with traditions perceived as Chinese as well as the promotion of "ethnic unity". The assimilation policy is a type of Chinese nationalism aimed at strengthening the Chinese national identity ( Zhonghua minzu ) among the population. Proponents believe it will help to develop shared values, pride in being

5989-558: The eighth and ninth centuries in the Tang dynasty , Chinese male soldiers moved into Guizhou ( formerly romanized as Kweichow) and married native non-Chinese women, their descendants being known as Lao-han-jen (original Chinese), in contrast to new Chinese people who colonized Guizhou at later times. They still spoke an archaic dialect as of 1929. Many immigrants to Guizhou were descended from these soldiers in garrisons who married non-Chinese women. The Mongol -led Yuan dynasty appointed

6102-428: The emperor of China as well, reneging on his promises to Zhao Yanshou and Du Chongwei. He gave Shi Chonggui the title of Marquess of Fuyi (i.e., "marquess who turned against righteousness) and moved Shi and Shi's family to a desolate part of Liao proper, away from Shi's old realm. Nearly all of Later Jin's officials and military governors submitted petitions to him, acknowledging him as emperor, except for two circuits on

6215-467: The emperor of China, to serve Emperor Taizong as a father and to cede Lulong Circuit (盧龍, headquartered in modern Beijing ) and Hedong's prefectures north of the Yanmen Pass to Khitan. When Shi's emissaries arrived at the Khitan court, Emperor Taizong was pleased, and he stated to Empress Dowager Shulü, "Your son had dreamt that Master Shi would be sending messengers here. Now it has happened. This

6328-414: The idea. In 946, there were rumors that Zhao Yanshou was planning on defecting to Later Jin. This rumor was believed by the Later Jin chiefs of staff Li Song and Feng Yu . They had Du Wei write a letter to Zhao, encouraging him to do so, with the officer Zhao Xingshi (趙行實), who had previously served under Zhao Yanshou, delivering the letter. Zhao Yanshou wrote back (to try to lead Later Jin forces into

6441-562: The idea. He kept the Later Jin military governors who came to Daliang to pay him homage at Daliang, while commissioning a number of Liao generals (of both Khitan and Han ethnicities) to take over the circuits. Believing that his rule was firm, he spent much time feasting, and he stated to the former Later Jin officials, "We know everything there is to know about China, but you know nothing about our land." To congratulate him for this great victory, Empress Dowager Shulü sent wine, delicacies, and fruits from Khitan lands to Daliang. Whenever he drank

6554-448: The imperial guard general Li Shouzhen to attack Yang, and in winter 944, Yang's son Yang Chengxun (楊承勳) put his father under house arrest and surrendered. (Yang Guangyuan was later secretly killed on Shi's orders.) In winter 944, Emperor Taizong again made a major incursion into Later Jin territory, using Zhao Yanshou as his forward commander. Shi was initially going to lead the Later Jin army himself, but fell ill at that time. He sent

6667-632: The integration of Muslims into Chinese society. Ma Fuxiang was a hardcore assimilationist and said that Hui should assimilate into Han. The Hui Muslim 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army) governed the southern region of Xinjiang in 1934–1937. The administration that was set up was colonial in nature, importing Han cooks and baths, changing the Uyghur-language -only street names and signs to Chinese, as well as switching carpet patterns in state-owned carpet factories from Uyghur to Han. Strict surveillance and mass detentions of Uyghurs in

6780-433: The laughing stock of the entire world. Do not forget this! As Qiao feared that Emperor Taizong would blame him for the loss of the Liao wealth, he flattered Jing and requested that Jing write his words down on paper. Jing had his secretary write down the words and give them to Qiao. When Qiao presented them to Emperor Taizong, Emperor Taizong was incensed, and therefore became resolute that he would attack Later Jin. He had

6893-686: The military governor of Anguo Circuit (安國, headquartered in modern Xingtai , Hebei ) as an emissary to Liao, to explain to Emperor Taizong, who was angry over An's killing of Liao emissaries, to explain that An's provocative behavior did not reflect a chance in Later Jin's overall submission. In winter 941, An Chongrong's ally, An Congjin the military governor of Shannan East Circuit (山南東道, headquartered in modern Xiangyang , Hubei ) rebelled against Later Jin. Shortly after, An Chongrong, hearing of An Congjin's rise, also did so. The Later Jin army against An Chongrong, commanded by Shi's brother-in-law Du Chongwei , quickly defeated An Chongrong, and An Chongrong

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7006-440: The military governor of Tianxiong Circuit (天雄, headquartered in modern Handan , Hebei ), would be difficult to control, and therefore divided Tianxiong and moved Yang to be the military governor of Heyang Circuit (河陽, headquartered in modern Luoyang , Henan ) and the defender of Luoyang. It was said that after this movement, Yang began to be resentful of the Later Jin imperial government and entered into secret communications with

7119-587: The military governor of Xuanwu Circuit (宣武, headquartered at Daliang), and left Xiao in charge of Daliang, while withdrawing from Daliang himself. As Emperor Taizong withdrew, as he crossed the Yellow River, he lamented, "When I was at the greater empire, I was pleased to shoot and hunt. I am, instead, saddened here without so. Now as I am returning to the greater empire, I would not regret it even if I died." As he travelled past cities laid desolate by his army, he lamented, "The fact that I did all this to China

7232-504: The morale was crumbling and that many more generals were already surrendering to the combined Khitan/Later Jin forces. Emperor Taizong escorted Shi to Lu Prefecture (潞州, in modern Changzhi , Shanxi ), and then, citing his belief that the Han Chinese would panic if Khitan forces actually arrived at Luoyang, stayed at Lu while Shi approached Luoyang. Li Congke, finding the situation hopeless, committed suicide with his family. Prior to

7345-713: The motherland and obey the state, as well as to embrace the state's directive to implement Chinese cultural integration within Catholicism. Churches in Hebei province and the Yibin Diocese of Sichuan province began holding training seminars immediately. Cardinal Parolin , the Vatican secretary of state, in a 2019 interview with the CCP-owned Global Times newspaper, claimed that sinicization

7458-473: The names that Manchus used were also very different from the meanings of Chinese names. The Manchus also gave numbers as personal names. Historical records report that as early as 1776, the Qianlong Emperor was shocked to see a high Manchu official, Guo'ermin , not understand what the emperor was telling him in Manchu, despite coming from the Manchu stronghold of Shengjing (now Shenyang ). By

7571-593: The native women. The rulers of the Qing dynasty were ethnic Manchus who adopted the norms of the Mandate of Heaven to justify their rule. The "orthodox" historical view emphasized the power of Han Chinese to "sinicize" their conquerors, although more recent research such as the New Qing History school revealed Manchu rulers were savvy in their manipulation of their subjects and from the 1630s through at least

7684-494: The newly received 16 prefectures. He respected the captured official Zhang Li and listened to much of Zhang's advice. In 937, Xu Gao , the regent of Later Jin's southeastern neighbor Wu sent an emissary to Khitan to try to establish friendly relations. Emperor Taizong also sent an emissary to Wu in return. Later in the year, Emperor Taizong changed the name of his state from Khitan to Liao. He modeled his government after Chinese states', and made Zhao Dejun's son Zhao Yanshou

7797-543: The northern dynasty is that he did not forget the alliance the deceased emperor entered. It was enough for him to claim himself to be a grandson; there is no reason for him to claim himself to be a subject. The emperor of the northern dynasty should not be deluded by Zhao Yanshou such that he insults China. You have seen the soldiers and horses that China possesses. If the grandfather is angry, he can come and battle us. The grandson has 100,000 sharpened swords waiting for him. If he were defeated by his grandson, he would become

7910-468: The populace. Later in spring 944, the armies commanded by the two emperors confronted each other near Yedu, but did not engage each other. Eventually, the Liao forces withdrew, pillaging as it went along over Later Jin's territory north of the Yellow River. Yang led his own troops west from Pinglu's capital Qing Prefecture (青州), and tried to meet the Liao forces at the Yellow River, but by the time he reached there, Liao forces had already left. Shi then sent

8023-543: The principle of independence and self-governance, along with the promotion of sinicization. In March 2018, Archbishop Paul Gallagher , Secretary for Relations with States within the Holy See 's Secretariat of State , said that "two expressions or, more precisely, two principles stand out, which should interact with each other, namely "sinicization" and " inculturation ." I am convinced that an important intellectual and pastoral challenge arises in an almost natural way from

8136-449: The realm is rebelling against me! First, I extracted the money from the circuits. Second, I let the soldiers from the greater empire thresh the grass seeds. Third, I did not let the military governors return to their circuits quicker. Meanwhile, when Emperor Taizong's train arrived at Lincheng (臨城, in modern Xingtai, he began to become ill. By the time that he reached Luancheng (欒城, in modern Shijiazhuang), his illness became worse, and he

8249-543: The region. There are also a number of immigrant languages, such as Khmer , Portuguese , and English. Before sinicization, non-Chinese indigenous peoples of southern China , collectively termed by the Chinese as Baiyue ( Chinese : 百越 ; lit. 'Hundreds of Yue Peoples' ), inhabited the coastline of China from as far north as the Yangtze River to as far south as the Gulf of Tonkin . As early as

8362-524: The religious and cultural level." In 2015, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping first raised the issue of "sinicization of Islam". In 2018, a confidential directive was issued ordering local officials to "prevent Islam from interfering with secular life and the state's functions". Yang Faming, leader of the Islamic Association of China , said in a 2018 speech that "We must allow traditional Chinese culture to permeate Islam and jointly guard

8475-459: The remaining Later Tang army, which Emperor Taizong turned over to Shi. Then they began to march toward the Later Tang capital Luoyang . With Yang having surrendered, Zhao's army lost its morale and also collapsed, and Zhao surrendered. At that time, Li Congke, who had himself led another Later Tang relief force northward, decided to return to Luoyang, but once he returned to Luoyang saw that

8588-400: The renaming of Japanese-named streets with mainland geographical names, the use of Mandarin Chinese in schools and punishments for using other regional Chinese languages, or " dialects " (such as Hakka and Hokkien ), and teaching students to revere traditional ethics, develop pan-Chinese nationalism, and view Taiwan from the perspective of China. Other reasons for the policy were to combat

8701-401: The siege on Taiyuan. The remnants of Zhang's army took up position at Jin'an Base (晉安寨), near Taiyuan, but the combined Khitan/Hedong forces then put it under siege. While continuing to siege the Later Tang forces at Jin'an, Emperor Taizong created Shi emperor, having his state known as Jin (referred to by later historians as Later Jin . As part of Shi's enthronement announcement, he announced

8814-593: The sinicization of Christianity [and] ensure Christianity takes root in the soil of Chinese culture, ethnicity, and society... To advance the sinicization of Christianity, churches will need guidance and support from government agencies in charge of religious affairs." In 2019, TSPM chairman Xu Xiaohong made a pledge to eliminate any Western "imprint" from Chinese faith saying "[We] must recognise that Chinese churches are surnamed 'China', not 'the West'" and "No matter how much effort or time it takes, our resolution in upholding

8927-894: The sinicization of most of the Baiyue populations that remained in southern China, be they in the Yangtze Valley or in coastal areas from the mouth of the Yangtze to the Gulf of Tonkin. The remnants of these peoples who were not fully sinicized are now recognized officially as the ethnic minorities of the People's Republic of China . Tuoba Wei of northern China was a sinicized empire of Mongolic-Xianbei origin. Historical Shatuo Turks founded three sinicized dynasties in northern China. Descendants of Buddhist Uyghurs (see also Yugurs , Kingdom of Qocho and Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom ) who migrated to Taoyuan County, Hunan , have assimilated into

9040-597: The size of mosques, requiring a Communist Party member on mosque management committees, forbidding the use of Arabic words on food stalls (such as " halal "), and banning the hijab in schools and government offices. Later Tang Tang , known in historiography as the Later Tang , was a short-lived imperial dynasty of China and the second of the Five Dynasties during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period in Chinese history . The first three of

9153-674: The southern dynasty [(i.e., Later Jin, as Liu, while outwardly a vassal of Shi Chonggui's, made no attempt to save him)], and now you are not serving the northern dynasty [(i.e., Liao)]. What are you intending?" Meanwhile, Gao Conghui , the ruler of the semi-independent state of Jingnan , submitted tributes to Emperor Taizong, and Emperor Taizong sent awards of horses in return, but Gao also sent emissaries to Liu, encouraging him to declare himself emperor in resistance to Liao. Southern Tang's emperor Li Jing also sent emissaries to Emperor Taizong, congratulating him on destroying Later Jin, and requesting permission to send construction workers to repair

9266-506: The spiritual homeland of the Chinese people." He encouraged Chinese characteristics to be present in religious ceremony, culture, and architecture. In 2018, over one million Chinese government workers began forcibly living in the homes of Uyghur Muslim families to monitor and assess resistance to assimilation, and to watch for frowned-upon religious or cultural practices. These government workers were trained to call themselves "relatives" and have been described in Chinese state media as being

9379-476: The stated objectives being to first recapture the prefectures previously ceded to Liao, and then to destroy Liao. When Du and Li advanced, though, they were met by a large army that Emperor Taizong personally commanded. The Liao army eventually surrounded the Later Jin army at Zhongdu Bridge (中度橋, in modern Baoding). After Emperor Taizong made the promise to Du to make him emperor if he surrendered, Du and Li surrendered their army. Emperor Taizong had Zhao comfort

9492-608: The succession away from Yelü Bei, as she had favored Yelü Deguang. However, formally, she called an assembly of the chieftains, along with Yelü Bei and Yelü Deguang, and stated to them, "I love both of my sons, and I do not know which one to make emperor. You can decide which one you wish to support by holding his rein." The chieftains, knowing that she favored Yelü Deguang, rushed to him and held to his rein. She thereafter declared him emperor (as Emperor Taizong). Yelü Bei, angry over this turn of events, took several hundred soldiers and wanted to flee to Later Tang (Jin's successor state), but

9605-408: The suicide, he had Emperor Taizong's older brother Yelü Bei executed. Shi entered Luoyang and established his authority there. He had Yelü Bei's casket escorted with honor back to Khitan. Emperor Taizong returned to Khitan proper with a number of Later Tang generals that he had detained. He also established Lulong's capital You Prefecture (幽州) as the southern capital, to facilitate the governance of

9718-555: The term Han ( 漢人 ) to refer to the Vietnamese people, and the name Trung Quốc (中國, the same Chinese characters as for 'China') to refer to Vietnam. Likewise, the lord Nguyễn Phúc Chu had referred to Vietnamese as Han people in 1712 when differentiating between Vietnamese and Chams. Chinese clothing was also adopted by the Vietnamese people. Variations of them are still being used today. Hui Muslim General Ma Fuxiang created an assimilationist group and encouraged

9831-706: The terms of being fraternal states with Khitan and that Shi would be allowed to retain Hedong. As Zhao's army was still a strong one, Emperor Taizong was enticed. Shi, hearing of this, sent his close advisor Sang Weihan to plead with Emperor Taizong, arguing that the Khitan/Later Jin forces would prevail and that he should not turn his back on Shi. Emperor Taizong, after consideration, agreed with Sang and rejected Zhao's overture. After Jin'an had been under siege for three months and ran out of supplies, Zhang's deputy Yang Guangyuan assassinated Zhang and surrendered

9944-701: The territory of Khitan's southern neighbor Former Jin . In 923, under him, Liao forces captured Jin's Ping Prefecture (平州, in modern Qinhuangdao , Hebei ), and also defeated the Huxun Tribe (胡遜) of the Xi . It was said that he later followed Emperor Taizu in defeating the Khitan Jueli Tribes (厥里), forcing the submission of the Dangxiang tribes in the Ordos Loop region, conquering the garrisons of

10057-486: The throne?" Jing authored an insolent response on Shi's behalf. Thereafter, Zhao Yanshou, who was then Liao's military governor of Lulong, began to advocate that Emperor Taizong attack Later Jin, hoping that Emperor Taizong would replace Shi with Zhao himself. Emperor Taizong began to be enticed. Meanwhile, Jing upped the hostility by arresting Qiao Rong (喬榮), the Liao commerce officer stationed at Later Jin's capital Kaifeng , and seizing Liao's commercial assets. Further,

10170-563: The title of "Generalissimo Crown Prince" and made Yelü Deguang in charge of the Liao capital Linhuang (臨潢), which Yelü Bei had previously been in charge of. Shortly after conquering Fuyu, however, Emperor Taizu fell ill and died while still at Fuyu. Empress Shulü took over effective leadership of the Liao dynasty, and she and Yelü Bei began the trek of escorting Emperor Taizu's casket back to Linhuang, leaving one of Emperor Taizu's younger brother Yelü Anduan (耶律安端) temporarily in charge at Dongdan. Once then returned to Linhuang, she wanted to divert

10283-437: The tombs of Tang emperors (as Li Jing claimed to be the legitimate successor to Tang). Emperor Taizong refused, but still sent emissaries to Southern Tang in response. Meanwhile, with the original Later Jin-commissioned military governors no longer at their circuits, many circuits began to raise in rebellion against Liao, starting with Baoyi Circuit (保義, headquartered in modern Sanmenxia , Henan ), whose officers assassinated

10396-424: The two circuits of Zhen (鎮州, i.e., Chengde, as Zhen was the capital of Chengde, now renamed Shunguo (順國)) and Ding (定州, i.e., Yiwu, as Ding was the capital of Yiwu) to us, then there will be peace." Shi found the response insulting, and cut off further communications. He considered an alliance with Goryeo 's King Taejo against Liao, but then found out that Goryeo lacked the strength to attack Liao, and so abandoned

10509-455: The unification of all of China proper by Emperor Wen of the Sui dynasty . During this period, the process of sinicization accelerated among the non-Han arrivals in the north and among the indigenous people in the south. This process was also accompanied by the increasing popularity of Buddhism ( introduced into China in the first century ) and Daoism in both northern and southern China . During

10622-456: The western periphery, whose military governors Shi Kuangwei (史匡威) and He Chongjian (何重建) refused to accept Liao rule. Fearing of the strength that the old Later Jin imperial army still possessed, he considered slaughtering the soldiers, but as Zhao pointed out that doing so would merely open the Later Jin realms open to attack and occupation by Later Jin's southwestern neighbor Later Shu and southeastern neighbor Southern Tang , he decided against

10735-467: The wine that she sent, he stood up and stated, "This was bestowed by the Empress Dowager. I do not dare to drink it sitting down." However, in this jubilation, Emperor Taizong then carried out acts that alienated the people of the land that he just conquered. When Zhao pointed out that tax revenues needed to be collected to supply the Liao soldiers that came with Emperor Taizong, Emperor Taizong responded, "Our land has no such customs." Rather, he sent out

10848-442: The year, apparently in reaction to being bypassed again, Yelü Bei fled from Dongdan to Khitan's southern neighbor Later Tang (Jin's successor state). In 935, Empress Xiao, after giving birth to her and Emperor Taizong's second son Yelü Yanchege (耶律罨撤葛), fell ill and died. There would not be another empress during the rest of Emperor Taizong's reign. As of 936, Later Tang was embroiled in internal strife, as then-emperor Li Congke

10961-400: Was Liu Zhiyuan the military governor of Hedong, who made excuses to stay at Taiyuan but who also did not immediately declare resistance to Liao. Emperor Taizong tried to get him to commit by sending emissaries to him to award him a cane (which was only matched by what Emperor Taizong awarded to Yelü Anduan, as the emperor's uncle) and also having the emissaries state to him, "You did not serve

11074-501: Was a form of 'inculturation', which is a Catholic missionary term that refers to adopting local culture to proclaim the gospel. He cited Matteo Ricci as an example and pointed out that the Chinese leadership had promised not to undermine the doctrine and nature of each religion. He stated in the interview: "These two terms, "inculturation" and "sinicization," refer to each other without confusion and without opposition: in some ways, they can be complementary and can open avenues for dialogue on

11187-553: Was a period in the history of China that lasted from 386 to 589, following the tumultuous era of the Sixteen Kingdoms period. Though an age of civil war and political chaos, it was also a time of flourishing arts and culture, advancement in technology, and the spread of Mahayana Buddhism and Daoism . The period saw large-scale migration of Han Chinese to the lands south of the Yangtze . The period came to an end with

11300-601: Was able to take over the throne after fighting off challenges, first leveled by Zhao Yanshou, and then leveled by Empress Dowager Shulü and Yelü Lihu. However, Liao was unable to retain the lands that Emperor Taizong seized from Later Jin, which eventually all became part of Liu Zhiyuan's Later Han state. Consort and issue(s): Sinicization Areas of influence include diet , writing , industry , education , language/lexicon , law , architectural style , politics , philosophy , religion , science and technology , value systems, and lifestyle . The term sinicization

11413-638: Was an adult, as Later Jin's emperor. Shortly after Shi Chonggui's succession to the Later Jin throne, the tone of the Liao-Later Jin relationship began to change, as Shi Chonggui, at Jing Yanguang's advice and against Li Song's, did not submit a petition but rather sent a letter to the Liao court to announce his succession, essentially declaring the states equal. Moreover, in the letter, he did not refer to himself as "subject" but only as "grandson." This caused Emperor Taizong to be angry and respond, "How do you dare not to first report to me before taking

11526-595: Was heavily populated by Muslims during the Yuan dynasty, with Rashid naming a city with all Muslim inhabitants as the "great city of Yachi." It has been suggested that Yachi was Dali City ( Ta-li ), which had many Hui people. Sayyid Ajall's son Nasir al-Din became Governor of Yunnan in 1279 after his death. Historian Jacqueline Armijo-Hussein has written on Sayyid Ajall's confucianization and sinicization policies in various papers, including in her dissertation "Sayyid 'Ajall Shams al-Din: A Muslim from Central Asia, serving

11639-663: Was in secret communications with Yang Guangyuan, surrendered Bo to Liao forces, and encouraged them to cross the Yellow River at Majiakou (馬家口, in modern Liaocheng), to join forces with Yang. Jing was convinced by Yan Kan (顏衎) the acting military governor of Tianping that if Liao forces were able to cross the river, disaster would ensue, so the Later Jin imperial forces concentrated on battling Liao forces at Majiakou to prevent them from successfully crossing, and were able to do so. In anger, Liao forces slaughtered Han civilians that they had captured, which led to fiercer resistance from

11752-749: Was inconsistent and error-ridden. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Manchu royal family stopped using Manchu names. The Niohuru family of the Manchu changed their family name to Lang , which sounded like "wolf" in Chinese, since wolf in Manchu was Niohuru; thus forming a translation. Although the Manchus replaced their Manchu names with Chinese personal names, the Manchu bannermen followed their traditional practice in typically used their first/personal name to address themselves and not their last name, while Han Chinese bannermen used their last name and first in normal Chinese style. Usage of surnames

11865-601: Was intercepted by Liao border guards. Empress Shulü did not punish him, but sent him to Dongdan. Emperor Taizong honored his mother Empress Shulü as empress dowager , and created his wife Lady Xiao Wen , who was a niece of Empress Shulü's, empress. It was said that he was filially pious toward his mother, such that if the empress dowager were ill and unable to eat, he would also not eat, and that if his mother were displeased at him, he would not dare to meet her until her temper had been soothed. In 930, Emperor Taizong created his younger brother Yelü Lihu crown prince . Later in

11978-436: Was killed by his own officers. Shi had An Chongrong's head delivered to Liao. (An Congjin, however, would not be destroyed until shortly after Shi's own death.) Despite An Chongrong's defeat, Emperor Taizong continued to send emissaries to Later Jin, rebuking Shi for the fact that Tuyuhun tribesmen, whose grazing lands were part of the territory ceded by Later Jin to Liao, were often defecting from Liao back to Later Jin. It

12091-575: Was not traditional to the Manchu while it was to the Han Chinese. The Vietnamese Nguyễn emperor Minh Mạng sinicized ethnic minorities such as Khmers , Chams and Montagnards , claimed the legacy of Confucianism and China's Han dynasty for Vietnam. Directing his policies at the Khmers and hill tribes , Minh Mang declared that "We must hope that their barbarian habits will be subconsciously dissipated, and that they will daily become more infected by Han [Sino-Vietnamese] customs." Moreover, he would use

12204-566: Was praised and described as making "the orangutans and butcherbirds become unicorns and phoenixes and their felts and furs were exchanged for gowns and caps" by He Hongzuo , the Regional Superintendent of Confucian studies. Sayyid Ajall would also be the first to bring Islam to the area, and thus the widespread presence of Islam in Yunnan is credited to his work. Both Marco Polo and Rashid al-Din Vatvat recorded that Yunnan

12317-475: Was running such a high fever such that he had ice stacked on his chest, abdomen, and limbs, and was chewing the ice, to try to relieve the fever. Shortly after, he died. The Khitan generals cut open his abdomen and stuffed it with salt, to allow continued transport north. The Han sarcastically referred to him as "dried emperor." The Khitan chieftains supported his nephew (Yelü Bei's son) Yelü Ruan to succeed him as emperor (as Emperor Shizong), and Emperor Shizong

12430-420: Was said that this caused Shi much fear and caused him to fall ill. In summer 942, he died. After a discussion between Feng Dao and the Later Jin imperial guard general Jing Yanguang , they decided that the state needed an older emperor, so instead of supporting Shi's youngest and only surviving son Shi Chongrui (石重睿) as Later Jin's emperor, they supported his adoptive son and biological nephew Shi Chonggui , who

12543-497: Was suspicious that his brother-in-law Shi Jingtang the military governor ( Jiedushi ) of Hedong Circuit (河東, headquartered in modern Taiyuan , Shanxi ), would rebel against him. At the advice of the imperial scholars Li Song and Lü Qi (呂琦), Li Congke considered entering an alliance with the Khitan to ward off the possibility that Shi would seek aid from Khitan. However, when another imperial scholar, Xue Wenyu (薛文遇), argued against it by predicting that Emperor Taizong would demand

12656-458: Was the fault of the Prince of Yan [(i.e., Zhao Yanshou)]." He also commented that it was also the contributions of his official Zhang Li . Emperor Taizong's departure from Daliang, however, only continued to embolden the Han rebels, and soon, the key Yellow River ford of Heyang (河陽, in modern Luoyang) fell. When he heard of Heyang's fall, he lamented: I made three errors, such it was right that

12769-573: Was the will of heaven." He sent a reply that he would lead his entire empire's forces to aid Shi in the fall. Meanwhile, Zhang put Hedong's capital Taiyuan under siege. Taiyuan was running low on food supplies, but its defenses held. In late fall, Emperor Taizong himself commanded 50,000 cavalry soldiers (but claimed publicly that it was 300,000) and headed for Taiyuan. When he arrived at Taiyuan's outskirts, Shi urged caution and not immediate engagement, but Emperor Taizong did not listen. Rather, he engaged Zhang's army immediately, crushing it and lifting

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