Ansar al-Shariah campaign (2011–14)
113-652: Houthi rebellion (2014) Bombings and terrorist attacks in Yemen Houthi missile and drone attacks in Yemen Houthi attacks on Saudi Arabia Houthi attacks on the United Arab Emirates U.S. raids on al-Qaeda Military operations Diplomacy Effects The Yemeni crisis began with the 2011–2012 revolution against President Abdullah Saleh , who had led Yemen for 33 years. After Saleh left office in early 2012 as part of
226-591: A Revolutionary Committee led by Mohammed Ali al-Houthi to lead the state in an interim capacity. The announcement sparked protests in Sana'a and other cities, especially in the south. Reactions to the Houthi takeover were broadly negative, with the Arab League , Gulf Cooperation Council , United Nations , and United States refusing to recognise the "constitutional declaration" and several governorates rejecting
339-428: A Schedule I substance that possesses a similar chemical structure to the khat plant's cathinone active component. However, both the side effects and the addictive properties of methcathinone are much stronger than those associated with khat use. When khat leaves dry, the more potent chemical, cathinone, decomposes within 48 hours, leaving behind the milder chemical, cathine. Thus, harvesters transport khat by packaging
452-643: A bombing at the Bin Salman Mosque in Sa'dah as crowds of people left Friday prayers . The government blamed the rebels for the bombing, but the Houthis denied responsibility. Shortly after the attack, three soldiers and four rebels died in overnight skirmishes. On 12 May, clashes between Yemeni soldiers and rebels near the border with Saudi Arabia killed 13 soldiers and 26 rebels. During fighting in May 2008,
565-739: A Ministry of Justice official in Dhamar . The fighting ended before the presidential elections that year and in March 2006, the Yemeni government freed more than 600 captured Shī'a fighters. There was no data with regards to casualties in 2006, but they were said to be significantly lower than those of the previous year. Fighting broke out on 28 January 2007, when militants attacked a number of government installations in Saada Governorate , causing 26 casualties; with six soldiers killed and leaving
678-687: A ban on khat in the British-governed Aden Protectorate , the Qāt Commission of Inquiry in Aden concluded: "Qāt does not create an addiction, like opium or hashish, in that those who are suddenly deprived of it, do not suffer physical consequences." In 1965, the World Health Organization (WHO) Expert Committee on Dependence-producing Drugs' Fourteenth Report noted, "The Committee was pleased to note
791-513: A boat in the Red Sea that was transporting anti-tank shells and, according to some reports, five Iranian "instructors" sent to help the Houthis. Various official Iranian sources responded, calling this claim a politically motivated fabrication, and stating that the ship was traveling for business activities carrying no consignment. In early November the rebels stated that Saudi Arabia was permitting Yemeni army units to launch attacks from across
904-406: A conditional cease-fire. The cease-fire had five conditions: the re-establishment of safe passage on roads, the surrender of mountain strongholds, a full withdrawal from all local authority property, the return of all military and public equipment seized during hostilities and the release of all the detained civilians and soldiers. On 30 January, Abdel-Malek al-Houthi released a video wherein he blamed
1017-465: A further 20 injured. Further attacks on 31 January left six more soldiers dead and 10 wounded. A further ten soldiers died and 20 were wounded in an attack on an army roadblock near the Saudi Arabian border on 1 February. Though there was no official confirmation of militant casualties in the attacks, government sources claim three rebel fighters were killed in a security operation following
1130-528: A mediated agreement between the Yemeni government and opposition groups, the government led by Saleh's former vice president, Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi , struggled to unite the fractious political landscape of the country and fend off threats both from Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula and from Houthi militants that had been waging a protracted insurgency in the north for years. In September 2014,
1243-402: A mountainous section inside Saudi Arabia, in the border region of Jabal al-Dukhan and occupied two villages inside Saudi territory. The Houthis had entered Saudi territory and attacked patrols, and that a second soldier later died from wounds sustained in the same clash. On 5 November, Saudi Arabia responded by launching heavy air strikes on rebels in northern Yemen, and moved troops nearer
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#17327871168361356-401: A new peculiarity in this city – everyone chewed leaves as goats chew the cud . There is a type of leaf, rather wide and about two fingers in length, which is widely sold, as people would consume these leaves just as they are; unlike betel leaves, which need certain condiments to go with them, these leaves were just stuffed fully into the mouth and munched. Thus when people gathered around,
1469-691: A preacher at Riyadh's central mosque, who dismissed al-Sistani as "an infidel and debauched." The remarks by the Saudi cleric were considered extremely insulting by Shi'as around the world, causing major outrage in some Shi'a dominant countries like Iraq, Iran and Lebanon. On 13 January 2010, Operation Blow to the Head was launched in an attempt by the government to capture the city of Sa'adah. Security forces claimed they killed 34 and arrested at least 25 Houthis and killed al-Qaeda in Yemen leader Abdullah al-Mehdar in
1582-438: A psychotic episode can result, resembling a hypomanic state in presentation. In humans, its prolonged consumption creates an uplifted mood and a sense of release from time and space. Khat is mainly chewed by men, but there are cases of its use by women, and in particular it has been associated with increased likelihood of adverse outcomes during pregnancy. Immediate Long-term Indeterminate The stimulant effect of
1695-462: A sense of union with God. The earliest known documented description of khat is found in the Kitab al-Saidala fi al-Tibb كتاب الصيدلة في الطب , an 11th-century work on pharmacy and materia medica written by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī , a Persian scientist and biologist . Unaware of its origins, al-Bīrūnī wrote that khat is: [A] commodity from Turkestan . It is sour to taste and slenderly made in
1808-410: A social custom dating back thousands of years. The traditional form of khat chewing in Yemen involves only male users; khat chewing by females is less formal and less frequent. Researchers estimate about 70–80% of Yemenis between 16 and 50 years old chew khat, at least on occasion. Approximately 60–90% of male and 35% of female Yemenis chew khat daily. Before Yemeni unification in 1990, khat chewing
1921-524: A state of euphoria and stimulation. The leaves or the soft part of the stem can be chewed with either chewing gum or fried peanuts to make it easier to chew. In Uganda , it is grown in the central region, especially in Kasenge ( Wakiso ), Butambala District , Mabira Forest , and in some parts of the western region of the country. In Kenya , it is grown in Meru County and Embu County . Although
2034-410: A temperature range of 5–35 degrees Celsius (41–95 degrees Fahrenheit). It has evergreen leaves , which are 5–10 centimeters (2–4 inches) long and 1–4 cm (0.39–1.6 in) broad. It takes seven to eight years for the khat plant to reach its full height. Other than access to sun and water, khat requires little maintenance. Ground water is often pumped from deep wells by diesel engines to irrigate
2147-432: A total of 1,000 government forces were killed and 3,000 injured. Some 70,000 people were displaced by the fighting. President Saleh declared an end to fighting in the northern Sa'dah governorate on 17 July 2008. On 11 August 2009, the government promised to use an "iron fist" against the rebels. The Yemeni troops, backed by tanks and fighter aircraft, launched a fresh offensive, code-named Operation Scorched Earth, against
2260-645: Is also known as jimaa in the Oromo language , mayirungi in Luganda , and as miraa and muguka in Swahili . In the African Great Lakes region , where Catha edulis is (in some areas) cultivated, it is known as miraa , muhulo , muguka and muirungi . It also goes by various descriptive names, such as Abyssinian tea , Arabian tea , kafta , jimaa , and Somalian tea in its endemic regions of
2373-459: Is food-insecure, 45% of the water withdrawn from the ever-depleting aquifers is used to grow a crop that feeds nobody. This water insecurity has a direct impact on political stability. Outsiders hear most about the proxy war between factions supported by other countries, but according to the Yemeni newspaper Al-Thawra , 70% to 80% of conflicts in the country's rural regions are water-related. The country's Interior Ministry has estimated that across
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#17327871168362486-626: Is high and groundwater levels in the Sana'a basin are diminishing, so government officials have proposed relocating large portions of the population of the city to the Red Sea coastal areas. One reason for the widespread cultivation of khat in Yemen is the high income that it provides for farmers. Some studies done in 2001 estimated that the income from cultivating khat was about 2.5 million Yemeni rials per hectare, while fruits brought only 0.57 million rials per hectare. Between 1970 and 2000,
2599-547: Is much used by the Arabs, to whom it is sent in camel loads, consisting of a number of small parcels, each containing about forty slender twigs, with the leaves attached, carefully, wrapped so as to avoid exposure to the air. These leaves are chewed, and act upon the spirits of those using them, much as a strong dose of green tea acts upon us in Europe, when it acts agreeably. Europeans used to stronger stimulants, are little affected by
2712-633: Is native to the Arabian Peninsula and the Horn of Africa , despite its native grounds it is only legal in one of the several countries of the Arabian Peninsula , Yemen . The plant however is widely available and legal in East Africa , some African nations on the other hand such as South Africa consider it as a protected species . The plant is mostly used by East Africans and South West Arabians, rarely by people from other places. Following
2825-539: Is native, khat-chewing has historical relevance (as a social custom, especially among men) dating back thousands of years, analogous—but slightly different—to the use of coca leaves in South America 's Andes Mountains or the betel nut preparations in South Asia . Since 1980, the World Health Organization (WHO) classifies khat as a “ drug of abuse ” that can produce psychological dependence , although
2938-430: Is responsible for feelings of euphoria associated with chewing khat. In mice, cathinone produces the same types of nervous pacing or repetitive scratching behaviours associated with amphetamines. The effects of cathinone peak after 15 to 30 minutes, with nearly 98% of the substance metabolised into norephedrine by the liver. Cathine is somewhat less understood, being believed to act upon the adrenergic receptors causing
3051-477: Is small, with five white petals. The samara fruit is an oblong, three-valved capsule, which contains one to three seeds. Khat has been grown for use as a stimulant for centuries in the Horn of Africa and the Arabian peninsula . There, chewing khat predates the use of coffee and is used in a similar social context. Its fresh leaves and tops are chewed or, less frequently, dried and consumed as tea, to achieve
3164-527: Is the main source of water in the country but the water tables have dropped severely, leaving the country without a viable source of water. For example, in Sanaa , the water table was 30 meters below surface in the 1970s but had dropped to 1200 meters below surface by 2012. The groundwater has not been regulated by Yemen's governments. Even before the revolution, Yemen's water situation had been described as increasingly dire by experts who worried that Yemen would be
3277-509: Is used as a socialising drug as in Yemen, where khat-chewing is predominantly a male habit combined with conversation, hookah smoking, and tea drinking. Khat is so popular in Yemen that its cultivation consumes much of the country's agricultural resources. An estimated 40% of Yemen's water supply goes towards irrigating it, with production increasing by about 10% to 15% every year. One "daily bag" of khat requires an estimated 500 litres (130 US gal) of water to produce. Water consumption
3390-580: The Al-Qaeda insurgency in Yemen . Popular protests broke out in early 2011, led by both secular and Islamist opposition groups. Longtime rebel groups like the Houthis and the Southern Movement also participated in the protests. Saleh responded with a violent crackdown, and the country nearly disintegrated into an all-out civil war as several army elements broke with the government and joined
3503-580: The Hashemites . Sa'dah , in the north, was their main stronghold and since their fall from power the region was largely ignored economically and remains underdeveloped. The Yemeni government has little authority in Sa'dah. During Yemen's 1994 civil war , the Wahhabis , an Islamic group adhering to a strict version of Sunni Islam found in neighboring Saudi Arabia, helped the government in its fight against
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3616-457: The House of Representatives in place despite the "constitutional declaration" dissolving it two weeks prior. The agreement also stipulated that a "people's transitional council" would be established to represent southerners, women, youth, and other political minorities. The next day, Hadi traveled to Aden , where he said all Houthi-directed actions since 21 September 2014 were invalid, and condemned
3729-470: The Houthis and a former parliamentarian on whose head the government had placed a $ 55,000 bounty. Hussein Badreddin al-Houthi movement accused Ali Abdullah Saleh of massive financial corruption and criticized him for being backed by Saudi Arabia and United States at the expense of the Yemeni people and Yemen's sovereignty. When armed conflict erupted between the Yemeni government and Houthis for
3842-530: The Sana'a Governorate by July. The Houthis began protesting against Hadi's government to demand concessions in order to resolve a years-long insurgency they had been waging against the Yemeni state in mid-2014. The uprising escalated dramatically as Houthi fighters swept into Sana'a , the capital, and effectively seized control of the city from the Yemeni military within a couple of days in September. The forces of General Ali Mohsen al-Ahmer surrendered to
3955-460: The Tunisian revolution (2011–2012). Yemen was a poor country with a government widely acknowledged to be corrupt, with a large amount of weapons in private hands. By 2011, the country was already facing challenges from al Qaeda -linked militants and separatists in the south and Zaydī Shīʿa Muslim rebels in the north. Yemen had only been unified since 1990, and deep divisions persisted between
4068-2321: The United Arab Emirates issued a statement along with Saudi Arabia saying their goal is to "repel Houthi aggression" in Yemen. Egypt , Jordan , Morocco , and Sudan are also members of the coalition. Houthi insurgency Houthi victory [REDACTED] Yemen [REDACTED] Ansar al-Sharia [REDACTED] Abdrabbuh Hadi (2012–2015) [REDACTED] Hameed Al-Qushaibi † [REDACTED] Ali Abdullah Saleh (2004–2012) † [REDACTED] Mohammed Basindawa (2011–2014) [REDACTED] Ali Mohsen al-Ahmar (2004–2014) [REDACTED] Ali Muhammad Mujawar (2007–2011) [REDACTED] Abdul Qadir Bajamal (2001–2007) [REDACTED] Ahmed Saleh (2000–2012) [REDACTED] Abdul Malik al-Houthi [REDACTED] Hussein Badreddin al-Houthi † [REDACTED] Yahia al-Houthi [REDACTED] Muhammad al-Houthi [REDACTED] Abdul-Karim al-Houthi [REDACTED] Abdullah al-Ruzami ( POW ) [REDACTED] Abu Ali al-Hakem [REDACTED] Yusuf al-Madani [REDACTED] Taha al-Madani [REDACTED] Abu Haider † [REDACTED] Abbas Aidah † [REDACTED] Mohammad Abd al-Salam [REDACTED] Ali al-Qantawi † [REDACTED] Fares Mana'a [REDACTED] Ali Abdullah Saleh (alleged from 2014 until his death in 2017) [REDACTED] Ahmed Saleh (alleged from 2014) Yemen : 30,000 soldiers in- theatre 66,700 total 27,000 tribal fighters Saudi Arabia: 100,000 deployed Houthis 2,000 (2004) 10,000 (2009) Yemen: 1,000–1,300 killed 6,000 wounded (Yemeni claim) 2,600–3,000 killed 8,000 wounded (Independent estimates) 495 captured (all released) Saudi Arabia: 133 KIA 470 WIA 3,700–5,500 rebels and civilians killed Total casualties: Hundreds to thousands killed (humanitarian organizations), 25,000 (Houthi sources) 2,000 Sa'dah residents handicapped 250,000 Yemenis displaced 1. General Ali Mohsen al-Ahmar in charge of Yemeni operations against
4181-737: The United Nations Security Council and the United States Department of the Treasury . Yemen was riven in 2015, with the Houthis establishing a new government in Sana'a and Hadi retreating with his supporters to Aden, and later Saudi Arabia. The Arab League, led by the Saudis, began a bombing campaign and mobilization of various armed forces in the region for a possible invasion. The Houthis stepped up their pressure on Hadi's weakened government, seizing
4294-475: The north and south . Yemen's political instability has been compounded and partly caused by the severe ecological crisis in the country. The average Yemeni has access to only 140 cubic meters of water per year for all uses, (101 gallons per day) while the Middle Eastern average is 1000 m/yr, and the internationally defined threshold for water stress is 1700 cubic meters per year. Yemen's groundwater
4407-594: The secessionist south . Zaidis complain the government has subsequently allowed the Wahhabis too strong a voice in Yemen. Saudi Arabia, for its part, worries that strife instigated by the Zaidi sect so close to Yemen's border with Saudi Arabia could stir up groups in Saudi Arabia itself. The conflict was sparked in 2004 by the government's attempt to arrest Hussein Badreddin al-Houthi , a Zaidi religious leader of
4520-422: The sympathomimetic effects of the drug, which are also reflected in increased heart rate and blood pressure. Long-term use can precipitate permanent tooth darkening (of a greenish tinge), susceptibility to ulcers , and diminished sex drive . Khat is an effective anorectic , causing loss of appetite. It is unclear if the consumption of khat directly affects the mental health of the user or not. Occasionally,
4633-407: The "first country to run out of water". Agriculture in Yemen takes up about 90% of water in Yemen even though it only generates 6% of GDP - however a large portion of Yemenis are dependent on small-scale subsistence agriculture. Half of agricultural water in Yemen is used to grow khat , a narcotic that most Yemenis chew. This means that in such a water-scarce country as Yemen, where half the population
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4746-515: The 31 January attacks. In February, the government launched a major offensive against the rebels involving 30,000 troops. By 19 February, almost 200 members of the security forces and over 100 rebels had died in the fighting. A further 160 rebels were killed in the subsequent two weeks. A French student was also killed. A ceasefire agreement was reached on 16 June 2007. The rebel leaders agreed to lay down arms and go into exile in Qatar (by whom
4859-562: The Horn of Africa and the Arabian peninsula. In South Africa, the plant is known as Bushman's tea . The plant is also known as chat tree and flower of paradise . Khat is a slow-growing shrub or tree that typically attains a height of 1–5 meters (3 feet 3 inches – 16 feet 5 inches). However, it can reach heights of up to 10 m (33 ft) in equatorial areas. The plant usually grows in arid environments, at
4972-500: The Houthi insurgency transformed into a full-blown civil war as Houthi fighters swept into the capital of Sana'a and forced Hadi to negotiate a "unity government" with other political factions. The rebels continued to apply pressure on the weakened government until, after his presidential palace and private residence came under attack from the militant group, Hadi resigned along with his ministers in January 2015. The following month,
5085-477: The Houthis declared themselves in control of the Yemeni government , dissolving the Parliament , and installing an interim Revolutionary Committee led by Mohammed al-Houthi , a cousin of Houthi leader Abdul-Malik al-Houthi . Hadi escaped to Aden , where he declared that he remains Yemen's legitimate president, proclaimed the country's temporary capital, and called on loyal government officials and members of
5198-402: The Houthis after a brief fight. Ali Abdullah Saleh , the former president, was widely suspected of aiding the Houthis behind the scenes and helping pave the way for their takeover. Prime Minister Mohammed Basindawa resigned on 21 September as part of a deal meant to end the standoff. The Houthis and the government agreed on 21 September to form a "unity government" within one month. However,
5311-403: The Houthis attacked the Saudi border, killed one of the Saudi border guards, seized Al Khubah Village and other villages. The Houthis accuse Saudi Arabia of supporting the Yemeni government in attacks against them. It was not clear what type of support they meant. The Saudi government denied this. The rebels shot dead a Saudi security officer in a cross-border attack. The rebels took control of
5424-403: The Houthis had imposed. The rebel group welcomed Hadi's resignation, but continued to keep him under house arrest. The news prompted four southern governorates to announce they would disregard all orders from Sana'a. The House of Representatives was to meet on 25 January to discuss whether to accept or reject Hadi's resignation under the Yemeni constitution , but the session was cancelled after
5537-412: The Houthis in the northern Sa'ada province. Hundreds of thousands of people were displaced by the fighting. On 17 September, more than 80 people were killed in an air raid on a camp for displaced people in northern Yemen. The conflict took on an international dimension late in the month. Clashes were reported between the Houthis and Saudi security forces near the border. Also, Yemeni officials captured
5650-558: The Houthis rejected Hadi's original choice of prime minister, Ahmad Awad bin Mubarak , and Oil Minister Khaled Bahah was appointed instead with the armed group's approval. The Houthis and the General People's Congress led by Saleh announced abruptly on 8 November that they would not participate in the unity government, claiming it was unacceptable to them. The boycott prompted sanctions against Saleh and senior Houthi leaders from
5763-400: The Houthis stated that they managed to repulse Saudi Arabian forces trying to infiltrate into the province of Sa'dah, killing an unspecified number of Saudi soldiers in a battle in the border region. The fighting between Yemeni and Saudi forces and Houthis killed at least 119 Yemeni government forces, 263 Houthis, 277 civilians and 7 foreign civilians. Saudi casualties were confirmed at 82 at
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#17327871168365876-414: The Houthis took control of the parliament building. The United Nations stepped in to attempt a negotiated resolution to what many in Yemen regarded as a Houthi coup. UN negotiations were fruitless, and a Houthi ultimatum to Yemen's political factions to find a solution was not met. On 6 February, the Houthis declared themselves in total control of the Yemeni government, dissolving parliament and installing
5989-510: The Houthis until 2011 when he deserted. 2. Sheikh Badreddin al-Houthi died of natural causes in November 2010 3. Sheikh Abdullah al-Ruzami turned himself in to the authorities in 2005, but later he was released The Houthi insurgency , also known as the Houthi rebellion , the Sa'dah War , or the Sa'dah conflict , was a military rebellion pitting Zaidi Shia Houthis (though
6102-489: The Houthis' authority. With most political parties criticising the coup, Jamal Benomar , the UN envoy to Yemen, announced a resumption of national talks over the future of Yemen on 8 February. Benomar said the Houthis had agreed to participate in the talks. UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon called for Hadi to be reinstated as president. The Houthis and other factions reached a tentative agreement, announced on 20 February, to keep
6215-599: The Levant's Yemen branch claimed responsibility. Hadi declared Aden to be Yemen's temporary capital on 21 March while Sana'a remains under Houthi control. The next day, Houthi forces advanced toward Aden, capturing key parts of Yemen's third-largest city, Taiz . They consolidated their grip on much of the south and seized much of Aden itself by early April. On 26 March 2015, Saudi Arabia and several other countries announced that they had begun military operations in Yemen against Houthi rebels. Bahrain , Kuwait , Qatar and
6328-399: The Saudis also stopped fighting saying, "The battle has ended by God's will." But the Saudi king denied the Houthis had withdrawn saying they were forced out, and declared military victory for the end of their conflict with the Houthis. There have however been allegations that the Saudis launched new air raids on 29 January, thus breaking the truce. On 1 January the Yemeni government offered
6441-468: The UAE, the punishment for possession, use, or distribution of khat can include life imprisonment. By contrast, its production, sale, and consumption are all fully legal—or not mentioned in a legal context at all—in the nations where its use is culturally significant, including Djibouti , Ethiopia , Kenya , Somalia , Sudan , Uganda and Yemen . In Israel , which hosts a population of Yemenite Jews , only
6554-452: The WHO does not consider khat addiction to be a serious global problem. The legality of khat varies by region and country; in many territories, khat might pass "under-the-radar" as a botanical species (thus not be a specifically controlled substance), but its recreational use may, nevertheless, be illegal under more general laws. It is strictly a controlled substance in many regions, often at
6667-471: The Yemeni government rejected the truce and launched a new round of attacks, killing 24 people. In April, Houthi spokesman Mohammed Abdulsalam declared that rebels had captured the Manaba district in Sa'dah, with little government resistance. Government troops declared they had killed 30 Houthis who had tried to penetrate into Harf Sufyan District . On July 17, 2010, the Houthis warned on their website that
6780-401: The Yemeni rebels. The Saudi assault continued the following day, as Saudi residents near the southern border of Jizan Province were evacuated. At the same time, a Houthi spokesman reported to the media that they had captured Saudi troops. On 18 November, Yemen forces killed two Houthi commanders, Abbas Aaida and Abu Haider. On 19 November, Yemeni forces took control of al-Malaheez, killing
6893-497: The agreement had been mediated), while the government agreed to release rebel prisoners, help pay for reconstruction and assist with IDPs returning home. In total some 1,500 people were killed by the conflict in 2007, including 800 government troops, 600 rebels and 100 civilians. Armed incidents resumed in April 2008, when seven Yemeni soldiers died in a rebel ambush on 29 April. On 2 May, 15 worshippers were killed and 55 wounded in
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#17327871168367006-574: The area on which khat was cultivated was estimated to have grown from 8,000 to 103,000 hectares. In 2000, according to a World Bank estimate, khat accounted for 30% of Yemen's economy. In countries outside the core area of growth and consumption, khat is sometimes chewed at parties or social functions. It may also be used by farmers and labourers for reducing physical fatigue or hunger, and by drivers and students for improving attention. More recently, in 2019, reports indicate that child soldiers in Yemen have been chewing khat in order to remain alert on
7119-672: The battlefield. Khat consumption induces mild euphoria and excitement, similar to that conferred by strong coffee. Individuals become very talkative under the influence of the plant. Animal testing has shown that khat causes an increase in motoric activity. The effects of oral administration of cathinone occur more rapidly than the effects of amphetamine pills; roughly 15 minutes as compared to 30 minutes in amphetamine. Khat can induce manic behaviours and hyperactivity , similar in effects to those produced by amphetamine. The use of khat results in constipation . Dilated pupils ( mydriasis ) are prominent during khat consumption, reflecting
7232-543: The border at a base in Jabal al-Dukhan , charges which were denied by the Yemeni government. In late October, heavy clashes in the area of Razih led to the Houthis capturing two military headquarters and killing Yemeni General Amr Ali Mousa Al-Uuzali. In early November, General Ali Salem al-Ameri and regional security chief Ahmed Bawazeir were killed in a Houthi ambush as they were returning from Saudi Arabia. The conflict took on an international dimension on 4 November 2009 when
7345-409: The border. Saudi government officials said only that the air force had bombed Yemeni rebels who had seized a border area inside the kingdom, which they said had now been recaptured. The officials said at least 40 rebels had been killed in the fighting. The Saudi government adviser said no decision had yet been taken to send troops across the border, but made clear Riyadh was no longer prepared to tolerate
7458-399: The capital in an orderly and peaceful way, the war and political crisis have rendered Sana'a and most of Yemen into a battleground that people have been forced to flee. Additional environmental catastrophes have battered Yemen as the war has progressed. In late 2015, two historic cyclones struck the country. The first of these, Cyclone Chapala , struck the island of Socotra before hitting
7571-691: The clashes, including 20 tribal and 10 Houthi fighters. The Houthis also managed to surround the Yemeni military bases in the region. Khat Khat ( Catha edulis ), also known as Bushman's tea , especially in South Africa , is a flowering plant native to eastern and southeastern Africa. It has a history of cultivation originating in the Harar area (present day eastern Ethiopia) and subsequently introduced at different times to countries nearby in East Africa and Southern Arabia , most notably Yemen . Cultivated by farmers, its leaves are sold on
7684-755: The consumption of the plant's leaves in its natural state is permitted; "khat extracts" are illegal, because they became a street drug and were popularly abused in the 2000s. The genus name Catha is a Latinization of the Arabic name قات, which is regularly romanized as qāt . Other romanizations include kat , quatt , qaad , qhat , ghat , and chat . The khat plant is known by a variety of names, such as qat and gat in Yemeni Arabic, qaat and jaad in Somali , and chat in Harari and Amharic . It
7797-413: The country, water and land related disputes kill 4,000 people a year - more than terrorism. In Al-Jawf Governorate , a dispute over a well's placement has led to a blood feud that has continued for more than 30 years In 2007, Yemen's minister of Water and Natural Resources suggested that Sana'a, the capital city, might have to be evacuated if it runs out of water. Although the government was unable to move
7910-552: The coup d'état. Fighting broke out over Aden International Airport on 19 March, with special forces loyal to ex-president Ali Abdullah Saleh attempting to seize the airport before they were defeated by troops and militiamen under orders from the Hadi administration. The following day, in an apparently unrelated incident, four suicide bombers detonated themselves in Sana'a mosques packed with Houthi congregants, killing at least 142. The Sunni Islamist group Islamic State of Iraq and
8023-399: The crops, or brought in by water trucks. The plants are watered heavily starting around a month before they are harvested to make the leaves and stems soft and moist. A good khat plant can be harvested four times a year, providing a year-long source of income for the farmer. The shrub's flowers are produced on short axillary cymes that are 4–8 cm (1.6–3.1 in) in length. Each flower
8136-412: The custom of khat chewing in the Horn region and the adjacent Gulf territories, likening it to drinking strong green tea : And one may sleep well if, during the day, too much kat has not been chewed. The leaves of the drug called kat are the chief source of pleasurable excitement in these districts of East Africa. Botanists, taking the native name for the plant, turn it into Catha edulis, eatable kat. It
8249-432: The deal, the opposition agreed to allow Hadi to stand unopposed for the presidency in 2012. Meanwhile, the insurgent Houthis in northern Yemen laid siege to a Salafi town in Saada Governorate , Dammaj . Fighting was worst in November and December. The Yemeni military was unable to restore order due to the crisis elsewhere in the country. The Yemeni Revolution came to an apparently successful conclusion in 2012 for
8362-895: The death of Hussein Badreddin al-Houthi , the Yemeni government turned over the remains of the Houthi patriarch to his family and he was buried in northern Yemen in June 2013, with a representative of the Hadi administration in attendance. Hadi visited the United States , a key overseas ally, in July 2013. The U.S. also lifted a ban on transferring detainees from its Guantanamo Bay detention camp in Cuba to Yemen. Meanwhile, Saudi Arabia deported as many as 300,000 to 400,000 Yemeni migrant workers to their home country during 2013, causing an influx of poor, landless Yemenis into northern Yemen. The conflict between Houthis and Salafis in Saada Governorate
8475-545: The end to corruption, regular utilities, fair fuel prices, job opportunities for ordinary Yemenis and the end of Western influence." In an interview with the Yemen Times , Hussein Al-Bukhari, a Houthi insider, said that the Houthis' preferred political system is a republic with a system of elections where women can also hold political positions and furthering that they do not seek to form a cleric-led government after
8588-562: The fighting took place in Sa'dah Governorate in northwestern Yemen, but some of the fighting spread to neighbouring governorates Hajjah , 'Amran , al-Jawf and the Saudi province of Jizan . After the Houthi takeover of the capital city Sanaa in late 2014, the insurgency became a full-blown civil war with a major Saudi-led intervention in Yemen beginning in March 2015. In 1962, a revolution in North Yemen ended over 1,000 years of rule by Zaidi Imams , who claimed descent from
8701-405: The first time in 2004, the then Yemeni president accused Houthis and other Islamic opposition parties of trying to overthrow the government and the republican system. As such, the Yemeni government alleged that the Houthis were seeking to overthrow it and to implement Zaidi religious law . Houthi leaders for their part rejected the accusation, stating that they had never rejected the president or
8814-535: The first to be recorded using khat in the 14th century by Arab historian Ibn Fadlallah al-Umari . The khat plant likely originated in the Horn of Africa specifically Ethiopia-Somali area, from there it spread to Kenya and the Arabian Peninsula . According to nineteenth century British explorer Richard Burton , khat originated in the Emirate of Harar . Muslim Sufis in the surrounding areas also used it to intensify their mystical experience and to facilitate
8927-399: The fresh leaves and stems in plastic bags or wrapping them in banana leaves to preserve their moisture and keep the cathinone potent. It is also common for them to sprinkle the plant with water frequently or use refrigeration during transportation. When the khat leaves are chewed, cathine and cathinone are released and absorbed through the mucous membranes of the mouth as well as the lining of
9040-651: The global distribution of this perishable commodity and, as a result, the plant has been found in places such Australia, Amsterdam , Canada, England , the Levant , Rome (Italy) , New Zealand, and Wales . and the United States. In the US, freshly-packed khat leaves are sold in the African and Middle Eastern markets of Boston , Dallas , Los Angeles , and New York City , where the demand is highest. Traditionally, khat
9153-428: The government for the recent round of fighting but said that: "Nevertheless, and for the fourth time, I announce our acceptance of the [government's] five conditions [for an end to the conflict] after the aggression stops ... the ball is now in the other party's court." After the truce was accepted on 30 January, there were still some clashes between the Houthis and both Saudi and Yemeni forces. Therefore, on 31 January
9266-573: The government released estimates of the impact of the insurgency, announcing that the insurgency was responsible for 552 deaths, 2,708 injures, and over US$ 270 million in economic damages. On 23 June 2005, the Houthis' military commander Abdullah al-Ruzami surrendered to Yemeni authorities after tribal mediators worked out a deal with the government. Fighting broke out again on 9 November 2005 and continued until early 2006. The pro-government Hamdan tribe , led by Sheikh Abdullah al-Awjari, battled with pro-Houthi tribes and Houthis tried to assassinate
9379-567: The government was preparing for another offensive against the Houthis. They said the government had been digging trenches from the Sanaʽa to Sa'ada. They claimed the army was trying to amass servicemen in villages and that soldiers in Amshia Bsfian region were creating an army stronghold on Mount Guide. The report came as the Yemeni government blamed Houthi fighters for recent ethnic clashes which had killed 11 people, including two soldiers, and for
9492-425: The group's spiritual leader. Between March and April 2005, around 1,500 people were killed in a resurgence of fighting between government forces and supporters of the slain cleric, now rebranded as Houthis. In May 2005, the rebels rejected an offer of a presidential pardon by President Ali Abdullah Saleh after their conditions for surrender were refused by the government, and minor clashes continued. On May 21,
9605-587: The highest degree, including in Australia , Canada , the European Union , India , Jordan , New Zealand , Saudi Arabia , the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and the United Kingdom (UK). In the United States (US) and Turkey , the botanical specimen (plant) Catha edulis is not prohibited, but the consumption and distribution of harvested leaves or possession for recreational use is illegal. In
9718-462: The kidnapping of two people in a market. The Houthis have denied these allegations and have claimed that it was the work of the government. On July 20, 2010, clashes broke out between Houthis and members of an army-backed tribe, led by Sheikh Sagheer Aziz , in the region of Souffian. A Houthi commander declared that the clashes had broken out because of Yemeni Army attacks on Houthis and local pro-Houthi tribes. Forty-nine people were reported killed in
9831-472: The local commander Ali al-Qatwani. U.S. President Barack Obama claimed he had authorised the strikes against al-Qaeda. On 20 December, Saudi air strike killed some civilians. According to a spokesman for the Houthis, a Saudi attack killed 54 people in the town of Al Nadheer in the northern province of Sa'dah. The group also claimed that Saudi forces were advancing on the nearby town of Zawa, also in Sa'dah, and had fired more than 200 shells. On 22 December,
9944-613: The manner of batan-alu . But khat is reddish with a slight blackish tinge. It is believed that batan-alu is red, coolant, relieves biliousness, and is a refrigerant for the stomach and the liver. It is mentioned again in a 13th-century publication by the physician Naguib Ad-Din. In 1854, Malay author Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir noted that the custom of chewing khat was prevalent in Al Hudaydah in Yemen: You observed
10057-408: The market to be chewed as a recreational stimulant. The world's largest consumers are Eastern Africans, particularly Somalis, and nearby Yemen, with the largest producers/exporters being Ethiopia and Kenya. Khat contains the alkaloid cathinone , a stimulant which causes greater sociability, excitement, mild loss of appetite and mild euphoria . Among communities from the areas where the plant
10170-537: The military to rally to him. On 27 March 2015, the BBC reported that Hadi had "fled rebel forces in the city of Aden" and subsequently "arrived in Saudi Arabia's capital Riyadh" as "Saudi authorities began air strikes in Yemen". Since 2017 the separatist Southern Transitional Council (STC) has also fought against the government. The wave of protests known as the Arab Spring did not take long to arrive in Yemen after
10283-669: The model of the Islamic Republic of Iran for "we cannot apply this system in Yemen because the followers of the Shafi doctrine are bigger in number than the Zaydis." From June to August 2004, government troops battled supporters of al-Houthi in the north. Estimates of the dead range from 500 to 1,000. On 10 September, Yemeni forces killed al-Houthi. Since then, the rebellion has been led by one of his brothers, Abdul-Malik al-Houthi , while his father, Badreddin al-Houthi , became
10396-468: The movement also includes Sunnis ) against the Yemeni military that began in Northern Yemen and has since escalated into a full-scale civil war . The conflict was sparked in 2004 by the government's attempt to arrest Hussein Badreddin al-Houthi , a Zaidi religious leader of the Houthis and a former parliamentarian on whose head the government had placed a $ 55,000 bounty. Initially, most of
10509-556: The neighboring Al Hudaydah Governorate . According to reports, the Houthis then blocked government troops from fully deploying throughout the territory, in spite of a signed agreement. Fighting in the Amran Governorate intensified during the year, with clashes between Houthis and supporters of the Islamist Islah Party eventually leading to a Houthi takeover of the entire governorate. The conflict spread to
10622-455: The next two weeks of fighting. On 25 January 2010, the Houthis offered a truce. Houthi leader Abdul Malek al-Houthi said they would stop fighting to prevent further civilian casualties and the withdrawal was a gesture for peace, but warned that if the Saudis were to continue fighting the Houthis would go over into open warfare. A Saudi general announced that the Houthis had stopped fighting and were not on Saudi land anymore and that in response
10735-418: The opposition and reportedly expressed openness to political reforms. However, he rejected the idea of forcing Saleh from power without the president's consent. The Gulf Co-operation Council applied no small amount of pressure on Saleh to negotiate an end to the uprising by stepping down. Weeks after returning from Saudi Arabia, Saleh finally agreed on 23 November to resign in exchange for immunity. As part of
10848-431: The opposition, as Saleh left office. However, unrest continued in both northern and southern Yemen. Hadi's election on 24 February 2012 peacefully introduced a new government in Yemen, with only a small percentage of voters spoiling their ballots in the single-candidate contest. Hadi, a southerner, especially enjoyed support in former South Yemen, quieting the murmurs of separatism, although the Southern Movement boycotted
10961-403: The plant was originally attributed to "katin", cathine , a phenethylamine -type substance isolated from the plant. However, the attribution was disputed by reports showing the plant extracts from fresh leaves contained another substance more behaviourally active than cathine. In 1975, the related alkaloid cathinone was isolated, and its absolute configuration , (S)-2-Amino-1-phenylpropan-1-one,
11074-413: The port of Mukalla on Yemen's south coast, where it caused catastrophic flash flooding. This storm, combined with the following Cyclone Megh , left enough moisture in the soil for locusts to breed. These locusts can fly 100 miles in a day and destroy any crop they encounter. Yemen's political crisis began in 2011, amid the Arab Spring and the ongoing Houthi insurgency , South Yemen insurgency , and
11187-632: The practice of khat-chewing is still primarily restricted to its original area of cultivation in the Red Sea area, the khat plant has, over the years, found its way to southern Africa as well as tropical areas, where it grows on rocky outcrops and in woodlands. The shrub is, today, scattered but still found wild in the KwaZulu-Natal , Eastern Cape , Western Cape and Mpumalanga provinces of South Africa , in addition to Eswatini and Mozambique . In recent years, however, improved roads, off-road motor vehicles, and air transportation have increased
11300-478: The presidential election, as did the Houthis. Hadi did not give the restive Houthis any seats in his cabinet. The conflict in Dammaj was renewed in April when fighting broke out between Houthi tribesmen and Salafi students. Both sides accused the other of breaking a truce agreement. National reconciliation talks were held with the participation of many separatist elements, as well as the Houthis. Nine years after
11413-402: The presidential palace and strategic military installations in Sana'a and shelling the president's private residence on 20 January. The following day, they took control of Hadi's home, stationing armed guards outside to keep him under virtual house arrest. Hadi, Prime Minister Khaled Bahah , and the cabinet resigned the following day, saying they could not continue to work under the conditions
11526-515: The protesters, beginning in March. Saleh was almost killed when a bomb went off in a mosque where he and other top government officials were praying on 3 June, apparently in an assassination attempt. While his condition initially appeared grave, Saleh recovered and returned to work on 23 September after several months of medical treatment in Saudi Arabia . He left Vice President Hadi in charge during his absence. As acting president, Hadi met with
11639-402: The release of epinephrine and norepinephrine. It has a half-life of about three hours in humans. The medication bromocriptine can reduce cravings and withdrawal symptoms within 24 hours. An estimated 5 to 10 million people globally use khat on a daily basis. It is grown principally by communities in the Horn of Africa and the Arabian peninsula, where khat-chewing has a long history as
11752-509: The remnants from these leaves would pile up in front of them. When they spat, their saliva was green. I then queried them on this matter: ‘What benefits are there to be gained from eating these leaves?’ To which they replied, ‘None whatsoever, it’s just another expense for us as we’ve grown accustomed to it’. Those who consume these leaves have to eat lots of ghee and honey , for they would fall ill otherwise. The leaves are known as Kad ." In 1856, English writer Charles Dickens also described
11865-436: The republican system but were only defending themselves against government attacks on their community. The Houthis said that they were "defending their community against discrimination" and government aggression. The Yemeni government has accused Iran of directing and financing the insurgency. According to a February 2015 Newsweek report, Houthis are fighting "for things that all Yemenis crave: government accountability,
11978-565: The resolution of the Economic and Social Council with respect to khat, confirming the view that the abuse of this substance is a regional problem and may best be controlled at that level." For this reason, khat was not scheduled under the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs . In 1980, the WHO classified the plant as a drug of abuse that can produce mild to moderate psychological dependence (less than tobacco or alcohol), although
12091-408: The stomach. The action of cathine and cathinone on the reuptake of epinephrine and norepinephrine has been demonstrated in lab animals, showing that one or both of these chemicals cause(s) the body to recycle these neurotransmitters more slowly, resulting in the wakefulness and insomnia associated with khat use. Receptors for serotonin show a high affinity for cathinone, suggesting this chemical
12204-508: The time. With more soldiers killed in subsequent clashes and missing soldiers being found dead, however, the casualties rose to 133 killed by 22 January 2010. The number of missing was put at six. In early January 2010, the Houthis chose the Iraqi cleric Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani to mediate in their political standoff with the Yemeni government and to find a solution to the conflict. Saudi cleric Mohamad al-Arefe criticized this choice,
12317-444: The use of kat, but among the more temperate Arabs it is so welcome a provocative to good humour, that about two hundred and eighty camel-loads of it are used every year in Aden only. Nowadays khat consumption is limited to East Africa and South Western Arabia . These countries include Djibouti , Ethiopia , Kenya , Somalia (includes Somaliland ), Uganda , and Yemen . The author Yousif Al Zarouni writes in his book: The plant
12430-580: The year. Dhamar Governorate also saw clashes between the Houthis and Salafis toward the end of the year. In a dramatic turn of events, the rebel Houthis took broad control of northern Yemen, including the capital of Sana'a itself, in 2014. Clashes in Dammaj spread to the Amran Governorate by January 2014. The Houthis achieved victory in Saada when the Yemeni government brokered a deal under which Salafi fighters and their families were evacuated to
12543-503: Was established in 1978. Cathinone is not very stable and breaks down to produce cathine and norephedrine . These chemicals belong to the PPA (phenylpropanolamine) family, a subset of the phenethylamines related to amphetamines and the catecholamines epinephrine and norepinephrine . In fact, cathinone and cathine have a very similar molecular structure to amphetamine. Khat is sometimes confused with methcathinone (also known as cat ),
12656-399: Was largely confined to the north-west mountains of the country, where khat grows. Yemenis spend an estimated 14.6 million man-hours per day chewing khat. Researchers have also estimated that families spend about 17% of their income on khat. In Ethiopia, khat is chewed by 19.5% of the population and is more commonly chewed by men than women. The inhabitants of Ifat Sultanate were
12769-696: Was renewed in October and November. Saada government officials accused Houthi fighters of attacking a Salafi mosque in Dammaj in an attempt to drive the Sunnis out, while the Houthis accused the Salafis of using the religious institute as a staging ground for foreign Sunni fighters. The government attempted to intervene to stop the fighting. Sectarian fighting in Al Jawf Governorate lasted throughout
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