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117-609: During the Xia dynasty and Shang dynasty , the area fell under the jurisdiction of Yangzhou and was known as Jingxi ( 荆溪 ; 荊溪 ; Jīngxī ). The area was subsequently known as Jingyi ( 荆邑 ; 荊邑 ; Jīngyì ) during the Zhou dynasty . The area was first organized as a county in 221 BCE, during the Qin dynasty , under the name of Yangxian County ( 阳羡县 ; 陽羨縣 ; Yángxiàn Xiàn ). Between 303 and 310 CE, local general Zhou Qi  [ zh ] ,

234-516: A qing sounding stone, two small clapper bells (one earthenware , one bronze) and a xun with one finger hole. Due to this extreme scarcity of surviving instruments and the general uncertainty surrounding most of the Xia, creating a musical narrative of the period is impractical. Archaeological evidence of a large outburst flood at Jishi Gorge that destroyed the Lajia site on the upper reaches of

351-520: A diameter of 10 micrometers (μm) or less; fine particles, designated PM 2.5 , with a diameter of 2.5 μm or less; ultrafine particles , with a diameter of 100 nm or less; and soot . Airborne particulate matter is a Group 1 carcinogen . Particulates are the most harmful form (other than ultra-fines ) of air pollution as they can penetrate deep into the lungs and brain from blood streams, causing health problems such as heart disease , lung disease , cancer and preterm birth . There

468-695: A 4.4% and 6.6% increase from the previous year, respectively. The city is served by three railway stations : the Yixing railway station , the Yixing North railway station  [ zh ] , and the Dingshan railway station  [ zh ] . Yixing railway station is located on the Nanjing–Hangzhou high-speed railway , while the latter two are part of the Xinyi–Changxing railway . In 2020,

585-502: A climate feedback) by the IPCC due to the interdependence between it and the hydrological cycle. However, it has previously been classified as a negative radiative forcing. Sulfate aerosols are mostly inorganic sulfur compounds like (SO 4 ),HSO 4 and H 2 SO 4 , which are mainly produced when sulfur dioxide reacts with water vapor to form gaseous sulfuric acid and various salts (often through an oxidation reaction in

702-522: A completely enclosed system or facility, and fit any vent or exhaust with an effective fabric filter or equivalent air pollution control system or equipment, enclose the scaffolding of the building with dust screens, use impervious sheeting to enclose both material hoist and debris chute, wet debris with water before it is dumped into a debris chute, have water sprayed on the facade surface before and during grinding work, use grinder equipped with vacuum cleaner for facade grinding work, spray water continuously on

819-627: A danger to health. Particulate toxicity has been found to vary by region and source contribution which affects the particles chemical composition. The chemical composition of the aerosol directly affects how it interacts with solar radiation. The chemical constituents within the aerosol change the overall refractive index . The refractive index will determine how much light is scattered and absorbed. The composition of particulate matter that generally causes visual effects, haze , consists of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, mineral dust, and organic matter. The particles are hygroscopic due to

936-410: A first step or "pre-cleaner" to other more efficient collectors. Well-designed cyclonic separators can be very efficient in removing even fine particulates, and may be operated continuously without requiring frequent shutdowns for maintenance. Fabric filters or baghouses are the most commonly employed in general industry. They work by forcing dust-laden air through a bag-shaped fabric filter leaving

1053-523: A global mean radiative forcing of +0.2 W/m (was +0.1 W/m in the Second Assessment Report of the IPCC, SAR), with a range +0.1 to +0.4 W/m . A study published in 2013 however, states that "the best estimate for the industrial-era (1750 to 2005) direct radiative forcing of atmospheric black carbon is +0.71 W/m with 90% uncertainty bounds of (+0.08, +1.27) W/m " with "total direct forcing by all-black carbon sources, without subtracting

1170-562: A high sulfur content, primarily coal and certain less-refined fuels, like aviation and bunker fuel , had dominated. By 1990, global human-caused emissions of sulfur into the atmosphere became "at least as large" as all natural emissions of sulfur-containing compounds combined , and were at least 10 times more numerous than the natural aerosols in the most polluted regions of Europe and North America, where they accounted for 25% or more of all air pollution. This led to acid rain , and also contributed to heart and lung conditions and even

1287-479: A joke, and many Chinese scholars in the field will lose all sense of direction and not know how to get back on the right track. However, as Chen Chun and Gong Xin point out, the debate upon the Xia dynasty's historical existence stems from different research orientations between Chinese and Western scholars. The authors assert that overseas scientific communities are hesitant to accept the results of Chinese researchers because their studies used traditional narratives of

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1404-562: A mixture of both, monthly. The size distribution time series shows that in the planet's most southerly latitudes, nearly all the aerosols are large, but in the high northern latitudes, smaller aerosols are very abundant. Most of the Southern Hemisphere is covered by the ocean, where the largest source of aerosols is natural sea salt from dried sea spray. Because the land is concentrated in the Northern Hemisphere,

1521-426: A net negative radiative forcing. The magnitude of the resultant radiative forcing due to the direct effect of an aerosol is dependent on the albedo of the underlying surface, as this affects the net amount of radiation absorbed or scattered to space. For example, if a highly scattering aerosol is above a surface of low albedo it has a greater radiative forcing than if it was above a surface of high albedo. The converse

1638-408: A particle. The SSA tends to unity if scattering dominates, with relatively little absorption, and decreases as absorption increases, becoming zero for infinite absorption. For example, the sea-salt aerosol has an SSA of 1, as a sea-salt particle only scatters, whereas soot has an SSA of 0.23, showing that it is a major atmospheric aerosol absorber. The Indirect aerosol effect consists of any change to

1755-479: A period of family or clan control. It is believed that Zhenxun (modern Gongyi ) and Yangcheng (modern Gaocheng ) were two of the capitals of the dynasty. The third Xia king was Tai Kang , described as an avid hunter but ineffective ruler. The Bamboo Annals describe the Xia capital at Zhenxun being attacked by Hou Yi while Tai Kang was on a hunt beyond the Luo River . The occupation of Zhenxun marked

1872-457: A possible location of Xia capitals. Among his discoveries was the large Bronze Age site of Erlitou near modern Yanshi . The site was an urban centre, with rammed-earth foundations of several buildings, which were interpreted as palaces or temples. Radiocarbon dating in the late 20th century had wide error margins, and placed the Erlitou culture between 2100 and 1300 BC, which fit well with

1989-772: A regional scale. The failure of the Indian monsoon has been linked to the suppression of evaporation of water from the Indian Ocean due to the semi-direct effect of anthropogenic aerosol. Recent studies of the Sahel drought and major increases since 1967 in rainfall in Australia over the Northern Territory , Kimberley , Pilbara and around the Nullarbor Plain have led some scientists to conclude that

2106-503: Is a first order effect and therefore classified as a radiative forcing by the IPCC . An increase in cloud droplet number due to the introduction of aerosol acts to reduce the cloud droplet size, as the same amount of water is divided into more droplets. This has the effect of suppressing precipitation, increasing the cloud lifetime, known as the cloud lifetime aerosol effect, second indirect effect or Albrecht effect. This has been observed as

2223-531: Is a historic stone arch bridge in the city. Xia dynasty The Xia dynasty ( / ʃ i ɑː / SHEE-ə ; Chinese : 夏朝 ; pinyin : Xià cháo ) is the first dynasty in traditional Chinese historiography . According to tradition, it was established by the legendary figure Yu the Great , after Shun , the last of the Five Emperors , gave the throne to him. In traditional historiography,

2340-428: Is also dependent upon air flow rates and the partial pressure of the gases in the inspired air. The fate of a specific contaminant is dependent upon the form in which it exists (aerosol or particulate). Inhalation also depends upon the breathing rate of the subject. Another complexity not entirely documented is how the shape of PM can affect health, except for the needle-like shape of asbestos fibres which can lodge in

2457-409: Is classified as the direct effect. It encompasses many individual mechanisms, and in general is more poorly defined and understood than the direct and indirect aerosol effects. For instance, if absorbing aerosols are present in a layer aloft in the atmosphere, they can heat surrounding air which inhibits the condensation of water vapour, resulting in less cloud formation. Additionally, heating a layer of

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2574-483: Is composed of pure carbon clusters, skeleton balls and fullerenes , and is one of the most important absorbing aerosol species in the atmosphere. It should be distinguished from organic carbon (OC): clustered or aggregated organic molecules on their own or permeating an EC buckyball. Black carbon from fossil fuels is estimated by the IPCC in the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC, 4AR, to contribute

2691-483: Is divided into 5 subdistricts , 14 towns , and 2 other township-level divisions . These township-level divisions are then further divided into 102 residential communities and 207 administrative villages . The city's government is seated in Yicheng Subdistrict  [ zh ] . Yixing administers the following 5 subdistricts: Yixing administers the following 14 towns: Yixing administers

2808-462: Is higher in the south, and lower in the north. The city's highest point is Huangta Peak ( 黄塔顶 ; Huángtǎ Dǐng ), which rises 611.5 metres (2,006 ft) above sea level. In 2020, the city's government recorded an average PM2.5 level of 30.4 micrograms per cubic meter , an 18.9% improvement from 2019. 82.5% of days in Yixing during 2020 had good air quality, as judged per the government. Yixing

2925-672: Is highest near the source of emission. Any information regarding DPM and the atmosphere, flora, height, and distance from major sources is useful to determine health effects. Particulate matter emissions are highly regulated in most industrialized countries. Due to environmental concerns , most industries are required to operate some kind of dust collection system. These systems include inertial collectors ( cyclonic separators ), fabric filter collectors (baghouses) , electrostatic filters used in facemasks, wet scrubbers , and electrostatic precipitators . Cyclonic separators are useful for removing large, coarse particles and are often employed as

3042-433: Is highly speculative because Huangfu Mi reached his conclusion by extrapolating from demographic statuses of the Qin , Han , Jin dynasties . Modern Chinese scholars estimated the Xia's population by employing records from ancient texts. Records have it that when Tai Kang established Lun as his capital, the settlement had about one lu , which was 500 people according to Du Yu, and this number includes only soldiers. Modifying

3159-481: Is home to 42 different ethnic minorities , who comprise a population of about 15,000 (1.39% of Yixing's total population). As of 2020, Yixing has a gross domestic product (GDP) of 183.221 billion renminbi (RMB). This represented a 3% increase from the previous year. The city's per capita disposable income stands as 50,987 RMB, a 5.1% increase from the previous year. This figure stands at 61,090 RMB for urban residents, and 32,430 RMB for rural residents, reflecting

3276-537: Is located in the far south of Jiangsu province, lying in between the cities of Shanghai , Nanjing , and Hangzhou . The city is border to the east by Lake Tai , by Changxing County in neighboring Zhejiang province to the southeast, the county-level city of Guangde in neighboring Anhui province to the southwest, the county-level city of Liyang in Changzhou to the west, Jintan District in Changzhou to

3393-727: Is mainly because the presence of sulfate and nitrate causes the aerosols to increase to a size that scatters light effectively. Organic matter (OM) found in aerosols can be either primary or secondary, the latter part deriving from the oxidation of volatile organic compounds (VOCs); organic material in the atmosphere may either be biogenic or anthropogenic . Organic matter influences the atmospheric radiation field by both scattering and absorption. Some aerosols are predicted to include strongly light-absorbing material and are thought to yield large positive radiative forcing . Some secondary organic aerosols (SOAs) resulting from combustion products of internal combustion engines, have been identified as

3510-851: Is no safe level of particulates. Worldwide, exposure to PM 2.5 contributed to 4.1 million deaths from heart disease, stroke, lung cancer, chronic lung disease, and respiratory infections in 2016. Overall, ambient particulate matter is one of the leading risk factor for premature death globally. Human activities generate significant amounts of particulates. For example: Some types of dust, e.g., ashes , soot , paint , glass , plastic and dust from certain man-made fibres, which are brittle and break easily (can fragment and "proliferate"), can pose greater threats and irritations to humans. Those with sharp edges may be even more problematic. The number, shapes, stickiness, etc. of particulates may also be altered by different meteorological conditions. Human-made (anthropogenic) aerosols account for about 10 percent of

3627-445: Is true of absorbing aerosol, with the greatest radiative forcing arising from a highly absorbing aerosol over a surface of high albedo. The direct aerosol effect is a first-order effect and is therefore classified as a radiative forcing by the IPCC . The interaction of an aerosol with radiation is quantified by the single-scattering albedo (SSA), the ratio of scattering alone to scattering plus absorption ( extinction ) of radiation by

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3744-560: The Han River area. This victory strengthened the Xia tribe's power even more. As Shun aged, he thought of a successor and relinquished the throne to Yu , whom he deemed worthy. Yu's succession marks the start of the Xia dynasty. As Yu neared death he passed the throne to his son, Qi , instead of passing it to the most capable candidate, thus setting the precedent for dynastic rule or the Hereditary System. The Xia dynasty began

3861-518: The Huaxia people who populated the Xia represent the direct ancestors of the Han Chinese . Traditional histories trace the development of the Xia to the mythical Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors . According to ancient Chinese texts, before the Xia dynasty was established, battles were frequent between Yellow Emperor 's tribe and Chiyou 's tribe. The Shiji and Book of Rites say that Yu

3978-596: The Qing dynasty , the area was split into two counties: Yixing County ( 宜兴县 ; 宜興縣 ; Yíxìng Xiàn ), and Jingxi County ( 荆溪县 ; 荊溪縣 ; Jīngxī Xiàn ). In 1912, the Republican government abolished Jingxi County and merged it back into Yixing County. From June 1949 to January 1953, Yixing belonged to Changzhou Prefecture  [ zh ] . From January 1953 to February 1956, Yixing belonged to Suzhou Prefecture  [ zh ] . Following this, Yixing fell under

4095-573: The air . The term aerosol refers to the particulate/air mixture , as opposed to the particulate matter alone, though it is sometimes defined as a subset of aerosol terminology. Sources of particulate matter can be natural or anthropogenic . They have impacts on climate and precipitation that adversely affect human health , in ways additional to direct inhalation. Types of atmospheric particles include suspended particulate matter; thoracic and respirable particles; inhalable coarse particles, designated PM 10 , which are coarse particles with

4212-485: The clouds ), which are then thought to experience hygroscopic growth and coagulation and then shrink through evaporation . Some of them are biogenic (typically produced via atmospheric chemical reactions with dimethyl sulfide from mostly marine plankton ) or geological via volcanoes or weather-driven from wildfires and other natural combustion events, but in the recent decades anthropogenic sulfate aerosols produced through combustion of fossil fuels with

4329-440: The fangguo tribes were polities outside the Xia clan's direct rule. They were mostly large tribal peoples, but some were massive enough to become small states with more complex social structures, rivaling that of the Xia. Many of the tribes were described as in regular relationships with the Xia court, being either allies or enemies. Eventually, some of the tribal chiefs joined the force of Tang to overthrow Jie's regime. During

4446-452: The 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo which caused a global cooling of approximately 0.5 °C lasting several years. Research tracking the effect of light-scattering aerosols in the stratosphere during 2000 and 2010 and comparing its pattern to volcanic activity show a close correlation. Simulations of the effect of anthropogenic particles showed little influence at present levels. Aerosols are also thought to affect weather and climate on

4563-761: The Changyi Expressway ( 常宜高速 ), a section of the S39 Jiangyi Expressway  [ zh ] linking Yixing to Jiangdu District in Yangzhou , was completed. The same year, the Yichang Expressway ( 宜长高速 ), a section of the S14/45 Hangchangyi Expressway  [ zh ] linking Yixing to Changxing County and Hangzhou in neighboring Zhejiang province, was also completed. Dongcang Bridge

4680-638: The Earth's radiative budget due to the modification of clouds by atmospheric aerosols and consists of several distinct effects. Cloud droplets form onto pre-existing aerosol particles, known as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN). Droplets condensing around human-produced aerosols such as found in particulate pollution tend to be smaller and more numerous than those forming around aerosol particles of natural origin (such as windblown dust ). For any given meteorological conditions, an increase in CCN leads to an increase in

4797-747: The Erlitou period. They further argue that the timing is further evidence for the identification of the Xia with the Erlitou culture. However, no evidence of contemporaneous widespread flooding in the North China Plain has yet been found. The Cambridge History of Ancient China (1999) takes the beginning of Chinese history as the Xia's successor Shang dynasty ( c.  1600  – c.  1046 BC ). Xie Weiyang responded to this standpoint unfavorably towards efforts in China to link archaeological research to historical records: The Cambridge History of Ancient China adopted this standpoint with

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4914-464: The Great , the founder of the Xia dynasty, was the grandson of Zhuanxu , who was the grandson of the Yellow Emperor . But there are also other records, like Ban Gu 's, that say Yu's father is a fifth generation descendant of Zhuanxu. Other sources such as Classic of Mountains and Seas mention Yu's father Gun was the son of Luoming, who was the son of the Yellow Emperor . Sima Qian traced

5031-518: The Great's controlling of the floods, he renewed the transportation system. Sima Qian wrote in his Records of the Grand Historian that Yu used carriages to travel on land, boats to travel on rivers, sleds to travel on mud, and horses to cross the mountains. He surveyed the lands and opened up routes through geographical locations so that tributes from tribal chiefs to the Xia would be more convenient. He organized people to build roads connecting

5148-498: The Nine Provinces, helping to improve tributary and economic relations between the tribes. Traditional texts record that the transport system of the Xia clan extended at least 500 – 600 li horizontally and 300 – 400 li vertically. The Guoyu also records that the Xia dynasty ordered the roads to be opened up in the 9th month, the bridges to be finished in the 10th month. The calculation of

5265-549: The Shang. Other scholars also argue that Shang political class's remnants still existed during the early Zhou dynasty, Zhou rulers could not simply justify their succession to pacify Shang remnants if it had been entirely fabricated since the Shang remnants, who remembered prior histories, would not believe it in the first place. For example, the Classic of Poetry preserves the "Eulogies of Shang" (商頌 Shāng sòng ) which represents

5382-490: The United States alone. Yet, around the same time, research had shown that sulfate aerosols were affecting both the visible light received by the Earth and its surface temperature , and as the so-called global dimming ) began to reverse in the 1990s in line with the reduced anthropogenic sulfate pollution, climate change accelerated. As of 2021, state-of-the-art CMIP6 models estimate that total cooling from

5499-483: The Xia are simply the opposite of traits held to be emblematic of the Shang. The implied dualism of the Shang myth system, Allan argues, is that while the Shang represent the suns, sky, birds, east and life, the Xia represent the moons, watery underworld, dragons, west and death. Allan argues that this mythical Xia was re-interpreted by the Zhou as a ruling dynasty replaced by the Shang, a parallel with their own replacement of

5616-436: The Xia as a guide that instructed them on what to find, and because they quickly linked newly discovered artifacts, constructions and other evidences as representing the proof for the Xia's actual existence. They claim that mainland Chinese scholars focused mainly on extrapolations of excavated evidence to establish a historical perspective, and overlooked other complex factors in ancient human activities. This method, according to

5733-704: The Xia as a pretext, to justify their conquest of the Shang, by noting that just as the Shang had supplanted the Xia, they had supplanted the Shang. The existence of the Xia remains unproven, despite efforts by Chinese archaeologists to link them with the Bronze Age Erlitou culture . Among other points, Gu and other historians note certain parallels between the traditional narrative of Xia history and Shang history that would suggest probable Zhou-era fabrication or at least embellishment of Xia history. Yun Kuen Lee's criticism of nationalist sentiment in developing an explanation of Three Dynasties chronology focuses on

5850-404: The Xia clan in managing the state. There were also laws set forth to maintain social stability within the country. Traditional narratives describe the Xia as enjoying prosperity in agriculture. The Analects contends that Yu the Great devoted himself to irrigation, improving the drainage system for cultivating crops. The texts also say that the people of Xia was gifted in producing alcohol, with

5967-404: The Xia dynasty legendary or at least unsubstantiated, but others identify it with the archaeological Erlitou culture ( c.  1900–1700 BC ). According to the traditional chronology, based upon calculations by Liu Xin , the Xia ruled between 2205 and 1766 BC. According to the chronology based on the "current text" Bamboo Annals , it ruled between 1989 and 1558 BC. Comparing

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6084-511: The Xia dynasty's population attracted interests during the Han dynasty. However, all calculations are speculations and extrapolations, due to difficulties stemming from time intervals. The Book of the Later Han quotes Huangfu Mi 's work Diwang Shiji, which claims that when Yu the Great finished establishing the Nine Provinces, the total population was 13,553,923 individuals; however, this number

6201-630: The Xia was succeeded by the Shang dynasty . There are no contemporaneous records of the Xia, who are not mentioned in the oldest Chinese texts, since the earliest oracle bone inscriptions date from the Late Shang period (13th century BC). The earliest mentions occur in the oldest chapters of the Book of Documents , which report speeches from the early Western Zhou period and are accepted by most scholars as dating from that time. The speeches justify

6318-523: The Xia, the scope of direct jurisdiction of the state is limited to within the clan. Beyond the Xia's own tribe, other tribal leaders enjoyed relatively independent management and ruling rights in their own territories; for the Xia Hou, they expressed their mutual relations in the form of submission and tribute. The Book of Documents says that Yu the Great determined the relationships between Xia and Fangguo tribes, dividing them into 5 categories according to

6435-435: The Xia. Upon reaching adulthood, Shao Kang began organizing with local lords who hated Han Zhuo's rule. Shao Kang emerged victorious in the military confrontation that followed, and Han Zhuo committed suicide. The reign of Shao Kang and his son Zhu is traditionally characterized as one of the most prosperous periods in the Xia's history. Jie was the final King of Xia—he was said to be immoral, lascivious, and tyrannical. He

6552-494: The Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project produced a narrower range for the Erlitou culture of 1880 to 1520 BC. The project assigned all four phases of Erlitou to the Xia, and identified the transition to the Shang with the construction of walled cities at Yanshi and Zhengzhou around 1600 BC. Since the project had settled on a start date for the Xia of 2070 BC, based on received texts, this forced them to designate

6669-701: The Yellow River has been dated to c.  1920 BC . This date is shortly before the rise of the Erlitou culture in the middle Yellow River valley and the Yueshi culture in Shandong, following the decline of the Longshan culture in the North China Plain . The authors suggest that this flood may have been the basis for the later myth of Yu the Great, and contributed to the cultural transition into

6786-640: The Zhou conquest of the Shang as the passing of the Mandate of Heaven and liken it to the succession of the Xia by the Shang. That political philosophy was promoted by the Confucian school in the Eastern Zhou period. The succession of dynasties was incorporated into the Bamboo Annals and Shiji and became the official position of imperial historiography and ideology. Some scholars consider

6903-470: The aerosol haze over South and East Asia has been steadily shifting tropical rainfall in both hemispheres southward. The size of particulate matter (PM) is a key determinant of its potential to cause health problems. Particles of different sizes deposit in different regions of the respiratory tract , leading to various health effects. The particles are grouped by sizes: Particles can cause health effects through several mechanisms: inflammation in

7020-711: The amount of small aerosols from fires and human activities is greater there than in the Southern Hemisphere. Overland, patches of large-radius aerosols appear over deserts and arid regions, most prominently, the Sahara Desert in North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, where dust storms are common. Places where human-triggered or natural fire activity is common (land-clearing fires in the Amazon from August–October, for example, or lightning-triggered fires in

7137-479: The atmosphere relative to the surface results in a more stable atmosphere due to the inhibition of atmospheric convection . This inhibits the convective uplift of moisture, which in turn reduces cloud formation. The heating of the atmosphere aloft also leads to a cooling of the surface, resulting in less evaporation of surface water. The effects described here all lead to a reduction in cloud cover i.e. an increase in planetary albedo. The semi-direct effect classified as

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7254-444: The beginning of a significant interregnum. In the eighth year of the reign of Tai Kang's nephew Xiang , Hou Yi was killed by his former chief minister Han Zhuo . 20 years later, Han Zhuo's forces killed King Xiang and usurped the throne, but the royal family escaped. Xiang's son Shao Kang was sheltered by a tribal chief, surviving for years as a fugitive despite the efforts of Han Zhuo to eliminate him and prevent any reemergence of

7371-451: The climate of the Earth by changing the amount of incoming solar radiation and outgoing terrestrial longwave radiation retained in the Earth's system. This occurs through several distinct mechanisms which are split into direct, indirect and semi-direct aerosol effects. The aerosol climate effects are the biggest source of uncertainty in future climate predictions. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) stated in 2001: While

7488-473: The composition of sea water , and thus include magnesium , sulfate , calcium , potassium , and others. In addition, sea spray aerosols may contain organic compounds like fatty acids and sugars, which influence their chemistry. Some secondary particles derive from the oxidation of primary gases such as sulfur and nitrogen oxides into sulfuric acid (liquid) and nitric acid (gaseous) or from biogenic emissions. The precursors for these aerosols—i.e.

7605-457: The cooling from sulfate pollution while minimizing the negative effects on health through deploying in the stratosphere , where only a fraction of the current sulfur pollution would be needed to avoid multiple degrees of warming, but the assessment of costs and benefits remains incomplete, even with hundreds of studies into the subject completed by the early 2020s. Black carbon (BC), or carbon black, or elemental carbon (EC), often called soot,

7722-560: The currently present aerosols is between 0.1 °C (0.18 °F) to 0.7 °C (1.3 °F); the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report uses the best estimate of 0.5 °C (0.90 °F), with the uncertainty mainly caused by contradictory research on the impacts of aerosols of clouds . Some are certain that they cool the planet, though, and this led to solar geoengineering proposals known as stratospheric aerosol injection , which seeks to replicate and enhance

7839-542: The dichotomy of evidence provided by archaeological versus historical research, in particular, the claim that the archaeological Erlitou culture is also the historical Xia dynasty. "How to fuse the archaeological dates with historical dates is a challenge to all chronological studies of early civilization." In The Shape of the Turtle: Myth, Art, and Cosmos in Early China , Sarah Allan noted that many aspects of

7956-507: The dirty air through a scrubbing solution (usually a mixture of water and other compounds) allowing the particulate to attach to the liquid molecules. Electrostatic precipitators electrically charge the dirty air as it passes through. The now charged air then passes through large electrostatic plates which attract the charged particle in the airstream collecting them and leaving the now clean air to be exhausted or recirculated. For general building construction, some places that have acknowledged

8073-466: The early 20th century. The earliest methods included relatively crude Ringelmann charts , which were grey-shaded cards against which emissions from smokestacks could be visually compared, and deposit gauges , which collected the soot deposited in a particular location so it could be weighed. Automated, modern methods of measuring particulates include optical photodetectors , tapered element oscillating microbalances , and Aethalometers . Besides measuring

8190-493: The eldest son of General Zhou Chu , suppressed three rebellions. Yangxian County was then renamed Yixing Commandery ( 义兴郡 ; 義興郡 ; Yìxìng Jùn ), in honor of Zhou Qi. Yixing Commandery remained under the jurisdiction of Yangzhou. In 589 CE, under the Sui dynasty , Yixing was re-designated from a commandery back to a county, and was placed under the jurisdiction of Changzhou . In 976 CE, Yixing County ( 义兴县 ; 義興縣 ; Yìxìng Xiàn )

8307-412: The figures and adding other types of people, Song Zhenhao postulated that this supposed city had between 1500 and 2500 individuals by the time of Tai Kang, a number he classified as medium. Estimating the number of populous cities, Song finally calculated the result of over 2 million. Wang Yumin, using description of demography during the reign of Emperor Shun who directly preceded the Xia, concluded that

8424-437: The following 2 other township-level divisions: As of 2020, the city government estimates Yixing's registered hukou population to be 1,075,800 people. Of this, 529,300 residents are male , and 546,500 are female . The city saw 7,038 births in 2020, giving it a birth rate of 6.53‰ ( per thousand ), and 9,694 deaths, giving it a death rate of 8.99‰. This gave Yixing a rate of natural increase of -2.46‰ in 2020. The city

8541-407: The forests of northern Canada in Northern Hemisphere summer) are dominated by smaller aerosols. Human-produced (fossil fuel) pollution is largely responsible for the areas of small aerosols over developed areas such as the eastern United States and Europe, especially in their summer. Satellite measurements of aerosols, called aerosol optical thickness, are based on the fact that the particles change

8658-517: The founder of the Shang dynasty, Tang, overthrew the Xia dynasty. Shu Yi, the owner of this artifact, was a high officer of the state of Qi during the Spring and Autumn period ( c.  600 BC ), was actually a direct descendant of the Song rulers, which means he himself was a descendant of Shang people. This bronze artifact was used to memorialize his Shang ancestors. The inscription contradicts

8775-562: The gases from which they originate—may have an anthropogenic origin (from biomass and fossil fuel combustion ) as well as a natural biogenic origin. In the presence of ammonia , secondary aerosols often take the form of ammonium salts; i.e. ammonium sulfate and ammonium nitrate (both can be dry or in aqueous solution ); in the absence of ammonia, secondary compounds take an acidic form as sulfuric acid (liquid aerosol droplets) and nitric acid (atmospheric gas). Secondary sulfate and nitrate aerosols are strong light-scatterers . This

8892-607: The ground by gravity in a matter of hours. The smallest particles (less than 1 micrometer) can stay in the atmosphere for weeks and are mostly removed by precipitation . There are evidence that aerosols can "travel across the ocean". For example, in September 2017 wildfires burning across the western United States and Canada, and the smoke was found to have arrived over the United Kingdom and northern France in three days, as shown by satellite images. Diesel particulate matter

9009-498: The hypothesis that the Zhou manufactured the existence of the Xia. Although the Shang oracle bone inscriptions contain no mention of the Xia, some scholars have suggested that polities they mention might be remnants of the Xia. Guo Moruo suggested that an enemy state called Tufang state of the Fang states mentioned in many inscriptions might be identified with the Xia. Historian Shen Changyun points to four inscriptions mentioning Qi,

9126-498: The jurisdiction of Zhenjiang Prefecture  [ zh ] until March 1983. Beginning in March 1983, Yixing County was placed under the jurisdiction of the prefecture-level city of Wuxi , which it remains part of today. In January 1988, Yixing County was abolished, and Yixing was reorganized as a county-level city , which it remains today. Yixing's area spans from 31°07′ to 31°37′ north, and from 119°31′ to 120°03′ east. The city

9243-527: The late part of the Henan Longshan culture , including the Xinzhai phase, as the early part of the Xia period. No corresponding cultural transition in the archaeological record has yet been discovered. Even more refined carbon dating in 2005 and 2006 produced more tightly defined ranges, dating Xinzhai at 1870–1720 BC and Erlitou at 1735–1530 BC. The only musical instruments found at Erlitou are

9360-623: The lesser banishment. Five hundred li (the most remote) constituted the Wild Domain. The (first) three hundred were occupied by the tribes of the Man; the (other) two hundred, by criminals undergoing the greater banishment. Texts like the Book of Documents , the Book of Rites , and the Mencius describe that the Xia had already established a distinguished official system with positions helping

9477-566: The local council. The composition and toxicity of aerosols , including particles, depends on their source and atmospheric chemistry and varies widely. Wind-blown mineral dust tends to be made of mineral oxides and other material blown from the Earth's crust ; this particulate is light-absorbing . Sea salt is considered the second-largest contributor in the global aerosol budget, and consists mainly of sodium chloride originated from sea spray ; other constituents of atmospheric sea salt reflect

9594-408: The lungs. Geometrically angular shapes have more surface area than rounder shapes, which in turn affects the binding capacity of the particle to other, possibly more dangerous substances. The table below lists the colours and shapes of some common atmospheric particulates: Composition of particles can vary greatly depending on their sources and how they are produced. For example, dust emitted from

9711-515: The northwest, and Wujin District in Changzhou to the north. To its north, situated between Yixing and Wujin District, lies Ge Lake . Yixing's urban area is also rich in lakes, with the San Jiu  [ zh ] lake formation, comprising East Lake  [ zh ] , West Lake  [ zh ] , and Tuan Lake  [ zh ] , lying in Yixing's urban core. Yixing's terrain

9828-440: The notable legendary figure of Du Kang who is usually identified with Shao Kang. The population was described to have had vegetables and rice as the staple crop, and meat was usually reserved for sacrifices. Additionally, manufacture of goods and trade with outside tribes flourished. The site at Erlitou contains many metallic fragments, suggesting that the time assigned to the Xia was characterized by bronze metallurgy. During Yu

9945-408: The number of cloud droplets. This leads to more scattering of shortwave radiation i.e. an increase in the albedo of the cloud, known as the cloud albedo effect, First indirect effect or Twomey effect . Evidence supporting the cloud albedo effect has been observed from the effects of ship exhaust plumes and biomass burning on cloud albedo compared to ambient clouds. The Cloud albedo aerosol effect

10062-474: The origin of the dynasty to the name of a fief granted to Yu, who would use it as his own surname and his state's name. Gun , the father of Yu the Great, is the earliest recorded member of the Xia clan. When the Yellow River flooded, many tribes united together to control and stop the flooding. Gun was appointed by Emperor Yao to stop the flooding. He ordered the construction of large levees to block

10179-422: The particulate to collect on the outer surface of the bag and allowing the now clean air to pass through to either be exhausted into the atmosphere or in some cases recirculated into the facility. Common fabrics include polyester and fiberglass and common fabric coatings include PTFE (commonly known as Teflon). The excess dust buildup is then cleaned from the bags and removed from the collector. Wet scrubbers pass

10296-533: The path of the water. The attempts of Gun to stop the flooding lasted for nine years, but ultimately failed because the floods strengthened. After nine years, Yao had already given his throne to Shun . Gun was ordered to be imprisoned for life by Shun at Yushan ( 羽山 , 'Feather Mountain'), a mountain located between modern Donghai County in Jiangsu, and Linshu County in Shandong. Yu was highly trusted by Shun, so Shun appointed him to finish his father's work, which

10413-430: The pollution control facilities and retain the videos for one month for future inspections. Besides removing particulates from the source of pollution, they may also be cleaned in the open air (e.g. smog tower , moss wall , and water truck), while other control measures employ the use of barriers. Particulates have been measured in increasingly sophisticated ways since air pollution was first systematically studied in

10530-400: The population of the dynasty was around 2.1 million. The time gap between the supposed time of the Xia and the first written references to it have meant that the historicity of the Xia dynasty itself and the traditional narrative of its history are at best uncertain. The Doubting Antiquity School led by Gu Jiegang in the 1920s were the first scholars within China to systematically question

10647-511: The possible health risks of construction dust for decades legally require the relevant contractor to adopt effective dust control measures, although inspections, fines and imprisonments are rare in recent years (for example, two prosecutions with a total fines of HKD$ 6000 in Hong Kong in the year 2021). Some of the mandatory dust control measures include load, unload, handle, transfer, store or dispose of cement or dry pulverized fuel ash in

10764-411: The powerful state of Song , whose rulers were the direct descendants of Shang dynasty. Among those eulogies, the eulogy Chang Fa ( 長發 ) celebrated victories by the "martial king" Tang of Shang against Wei ( 韋 ), Gu ( 顧 ), Kunwu ( 昆吾 ), and Jie of Xia . During the later Song dynasty (960–1279 AD), an ancient bronze artifact, Shu Yi Zhong ( 叔夷鐘 ), was unearthed with an inscription describing how

10881-466: The preindustrial background, is estimated as +0.88 (+0.17, +1.48) W/m ". Volcanoes are a large natural source of aerosol and have been linked to changes in the Earth's climate often with consequences for the human population. Eruptions linked to changes in climate include the 1600 eruption of Huaynaputina which was linked to the Russian famine of 1601–1603 , leading to the deaths of two million, and

10998-465: The presence of sulfur, and SO 2 is converted to sulfate when high humidity and low temperatures are present. This causes reduced visibility and red-orange-yellow colors. Human-produced aerosols such as particle pollution tend to have a smaller radius than aerosol particles of natural origin (such as windblown dust). The false-color maps in the map of distribution of aerosol particles on the right show where there are natural aerosols, human pollution, or

11115-504: The problem some new laws were introduced since 2021. In some towns and cities in New South Wales wood smoke may be responsible for 60% of fine particle air pollution in the winter. There are a few ways to reduce wood smoke, e.g., buying the right wood heater and maintaining it well, choosing the right firewood and burning it the right way. There are also regulations in some countries where people can report smoke pollution to

11232-412: The promise of providing a commonly accepted synthesis based on an exhaustive discussion of the latest pre-Qin material available at the end of the 1990s. This is of extraordinary significance, because if this book aims to provide a commonly accepted synthesis, then the blood, sweat, and tears of Chinese scholars over the past decade that brought about countless achievements in Xia period research will become

11349-494: The radiative forcing due to greenhouse gases may be determined to a reasonably high degree of accuracy... the uncertainties relating to aerosol radiative forcings remain large, and rely to a large extent on the estimates from global modeling studies that are difficult to verify at the present time. The direct aerosol effect consists of any direct interaction of radiation with atmospheric aerosols, such as absorption or scattering. It affects both short and longwave radiation to produce

11466-856: The respiratory tract oxidative stress via reactive oxygen species, leading to cellular damage, and systemic effects, such as translocation of ultrafine particles into circulation affects organs beyond the lungs. Exposure to particulate matter is linked to various diseases across body systems, such as respiratory system (asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), lung cancer, and rhinosinusitis), cardiovascular system (heart attacks, hypertension, arrhythmias, and atherosclerosis), nervous system (cognitive decline and neurodegenerative diseases), metabolic system (diabetes and metabolic syndrome due to inflammatory pathways). The World Health Organization (WHO) provides guidelines to limit exposure: The site and extent of absorption of inhaled gases and vapors are determined by their solubility in water. Absorption

11583-517: The risk of preterm birth and low birth weight . Sulfate pollution also has a complex relationship with NOx pollution and ozone, reducing the also harmful ground-level ozone , yet capable of damaging the stratospheric ozone layer as well. Once the problem became clear, the efforts to remove this pollution through flue-gas desulfurization measures and other pollution controls were largely successful, reducing their prevalence by 53% and causing healthcare savings valued at $ 50 billion annually in

11700-450: The same name as the state of Qi, which according to traditional accounts was established by the defeated royal house of Xia. Inspired by the discovery of the late Shang capital ( Yinxu ) near modern Anyang , Chinese archaeologists searched the Yellow River basin for earlier capitals. In 1959, Xu Xusheng conducted a survey of the Yi – Luo basin, which he had identified from received texts as

11817-527: The same text with dates of five-planet conjunctions , David Pankenier, supported by David Nivison , proposed dates of 1953 and 1555 BC. The Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project , commissioned by the Chinese government in 1996, proposed that the Xia existed between 2070 and 1600 BC. The Xia dynasty was described in several Chinese classics , including the Book of Documents , the Bamboo Annals , and Sima Qian 's Shiji . According to tradition,

11934-546: The suppression of drizzle in ship exhaust plume compared to ambient clouds, and inhibited precipitation in biomass burning plumes. This cloud lifetime effect is classified as a climate feedback (rather than a radiative forcing) by the IPCC due to the interdependence between it and the hydrological cycle. However, it has previously been classified as a negative radiative forcing. The Semi-direct effect concerns any radiative effect caused by absorbing atmospheric aerosol such as soot, apart from direct scattering and absorption, which

12051-524: The surface for any pneumatic or power-driven drilling, cutting, polishing or other mechanical breaking operation that causes dust emission, unless there is the operation of an effective dust extraction and filtering device, provide hoarding of not less than 2.4 m in height along the whole length of the site boundary, have hard paving on open area and wash every vehicle that leaves the construction sites. Use of automatic sprinkler equipment, automatic carwash equipment and installation of video surveillance system for

12168-520: The third, the straw, but the people had to perform various services; from the fourth, the grain in the husk; and from the fifth, the grain cleaned. Five hundred li (beyond) constituted the Domain of the Nobles. The first hundred li was occupied by the cities and lands of the (sovereign's) high ministers and great officers; the second, by the principalities of the barons; and the (other) three hundred, by

12285-591: The total mass of aerosols in the atmosphere as estimated in 2010. The remaining 90 percent comes from natural sources such as volcanoes , dust storms , forest and grassland fires, living vegetation and sea spray , emitting particulates such as volcanic ash, desert dust, soot and sea salt. In the United Kingdom domestic combustion is the largest single source of PM 2.5 and PM 10 annually, with domestic wood burning in both closed stoves and open fires responsible for 38% of PM 2.5 in 2019. To tackle

12402-422: The total mass of particles per unit volume of air (particle mass concentration), sometimes it is more useful to measure the total number of particles per unit volume of air ( particle number concentration ). This can be done by using a condensation particle counter (CPC). To measure the atomic composition of particulate samples, techniques such as X-ray spectrometry can be used. Atmospheric aerosols affect

12519-438: The traditional dates of the Xia. Most Chinese archaeologists identify the Xia with Erlitou, while many western archaeologists argue that the identification, and indeed the very existence of Xia, is unprovable, due to the lack of testable detail in the traditional accounts. For a time, archaeologists debated which of the four phases of Erlitou should be interpreted as Xia and which as Shang. The refined dating techniques used by

12636-422: The traditional story of its early history. By critically examining the development of the narrative of early Chinese history throughout history, Gu concluded, "the later the time, the longer the legendary period of earlier history [...] early Chinese history is a tale told and retold for generations, during which new elements were added to the front end". Some historians have suggested that the Zhou rulers invented

12753-465: The tribes' relative locations from the Xia clan's residence: He [Yu] conferred lands and surnames. (He said), 'Let me set the example of a reverent attention to my virtue, and none will act contrary to my conduct, Five hundred li formed the Domain of the Sovereign. From the first hundred they brought as revenue the whole plant of the grain; from the second, the cars, with a portion of the stalk; from

12870-816: The two authors, resulted in high levels of subjectivity and contradicted the common trend among Western researchers, which took the physical discoveries as not necessarily representing real social or political units. The following table lists the rulers of Xia according to the Records of the Grand Historian . Unlike Sima's list of Shang kings, which is closely matched by inscriptions on oracle bones from late in that period, records of Xia rulers have not yet been found in archaeological excavations of contemporary sites, or records on later Shang dynasty oracle bones. PM2.5 Particulates or atmospheric particulate matter (see below for other names) are microscopic particles of solid or liquid matter suspended in

12987-538: The various other princes. Five hundred li (still beyond) formed the Peace−securing Domain. In the first three hundred, they cultivated the lessons of learning and moral duties; in the other two, they showed the energies of war and defence. Five hundred li (remoter still) formed the Domain of Restraint. The (first) three hundred were occupied by the tribes of the Yi; the (other) two hundred, by criminals undergoing

13104-441: The way the atmosphere reflects and absorbs visible and infrared light. As shown in this page , an optical thickness of less than 0.1 (palest yellow) indicates a crystal clear sky with maximum visibility, whereas a value of 1 (reddish-brown) indicates very hazy conditions. In general, the smaller and lighter a particle is, the longer it will stay in the air. Larger particles (greater than 10 micrometers in diameter) tend to settle to

13221-517: The work to stop the floods, he never went back to his home village to stop and rest, even though he passed by his house three times. Yu's success in stopping the flooding increased agricultural production. The Xia tribe's power increased and Yu became the leader of the surrounding tribes. Soon afterwards Shun sent Yu to lead an army to suppress the Sanmiao tribe, which continuously abused the border tribes. After defeating them, he exiled them south to

13338-425: Was briefly described by the Book of Documents in terms of their soil quality, their productivity and other geographical characteristics. According to the chapter "Tribute of Yu" in the text, the Nine Provinces respectively correspond to modern regions of China as: The Xia dynasty moved the capital many times. According to traditional records, these capitals are as follows: According to traditional Chinese records,

13455-489: Was overthrown by Tang , who inaugurated the new Shang dynasty . King Tang is said to have given the remnants of the Xia clan a fief comprising the small state of Qi . This practice was referred to as "the two crownings and the three respects". According to the Book of Documents , Yu the Great divided his state into nine provinces ( 九州 ). These are Ji ( 冀 ), Yan ( 兗 ), Qing ( 青 ), Xu ( 徐 ), Yang ( 揚 ), Jing ( 荊 ), Yu ( 豫 ), Liang ( 梁 ) and Yong ( 雍 ). Each province

13572-528: Was renamed to the similar sounding Yixing County ( 宜兴县 ; 宜興縣 ; Yíxìng Xiàn ), because of the naming taboo of Emperor Taizong of Song , who went by the personal name of Zhao Guangyi. The renaming perhaps to be the allusion of a sentence in Doctrine of the Mean : "Righteousness is the accordance of actions ( 義者宜也 )". During this time, Yixing County remained under the jurisdiction of Changzhou. In 1725, under

13689-438: Was to stop the flooding. Yu's method was different from his father's: he organized people from different tribes and ordered them to help him build canals in all the major rivers that were flooding and lead the water out to the sea. Yu was dedicated to his work. The populace praised his perseverance and were inspired, so much so that other tribes joined in the work. Legend says that in the 13 years it took him to successfully complete

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