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147-540: Yubu , translated as Pace(s) of Yu or Step(s) of Yu , is the basic mystic dance step of religious Daoism . This ancient walking or dancing technique typically involves dragging one foot after another, and is explained in reference to the legendary Yu the Great , who became lame on one side of his body from exerting himself while establishing order in the world after the Great Flood . Daoist religions, especially during

294-548: A " liturgical framework for the development of local cults", in other words a scheme or structure for Chinese religion, proposed first by the scholar and Taoist initiate Kristofer Schipper in The Taoist Body (1986). Taoshi are comparable to the non-Taoist ritual masters ( 法師 ) of vernacular traditions (the so-called Faism ) within Chinese religion. The term dàojiàotú ( 道教徒 ; 'follower of Dao'), with

441-546: A " pictograph " ( 蟲也从厹象形 ). The bronzeware script for 禹 depicts a head, legs, and tail. Shuowen commentators interpret this as meaning qu 齲 (clarified with the 齒 "teeth" radical ) "decayed and missing teeth; bad teeth". Axel Schuessler reconstructs Old Chinese * waʔ 禹 "insect; reptile", and gives an etymology from Proto-Tibeto-Burman * was "bee; honey" or Proto-Waic * wak "insect" (cf. Proto-Palaungic * ʋaːk ). Bu 步 means " walk; step; stride; tread; pace (off)". In this Chinese character 步 ,

588-503: A Western or Japanese background, who often use distinct interpretive models and techniques. This point of view characterizes the religious and philosophical characteristics of the Taoist tradition as being inseparable. Sinologists such as Isabelle Robinet and Livia Kohn state that "Taoism has never been a unified religion, and has constantly consisted of a combination of teachings based on a variety of original revelations." The distinction

735-481: A bifurcated 'philosophy' versus 'religion' model. Daojia was a taxonomical category for Taoist texts, that was eventually applied to Taoist movements and priests in the early medieval period. Meanwhile, daojiao was originally used to specifically distinguish Taoist tradition from Buddhism. Thus, daojiao included daojia . Komjathy notes that the earliest Taoist texts also "reveal a religious community composed of master-disciple lineages", and therefore, that "Taoism

882-515: A contentless and nonconceptual apophatic meditation as a way of achieving union with the Tao. According to Louis Komjathy, their worldview "emphasized the Dao as sacred, and the universe and each individual being as a manifestation of the Dao." These communities were also closely related to and intermixed with the fangshi (method master) communities. Other scholars, like Russell Kirkland, argue that before

1029-564: A famous mountain in search of the divine process leading to geniehood, choose one of the six kuei [ 六癸 ] days and hours, also known as Heaven-public Days, and you will be sure to become a genie." Again, "On the way to the mountains or forests you must take some superior ch'ing-lung [ 青龍 ] grass in your left hand, break it and place half under feng-hsing [ 逢星 ]. Pass through the ming-t'ang [ 明堂 ] and enter yin-chung [ 陰中 ]. Walking with Yü's Pace, pray three times as follows: 'May Generals No-kao and T'ai-yin [ 諾皋大陰 ] open

1176-815: A key Taoist work on inner cultivation, the Baopuzi ( Master Embracing Simplicity ). The Six Dynasties (316–589) era saw the rise of two new Taoist traditions, the Shangqing and Lingbao schools. Shangqing was based on a series of revelations by gods and spirits to a certain Yang Xi between 364 and 370. As Livia Kohn writes, these revelations included detailed descriptions of the heavens as well as "specific methods of shamanic travels or ecstatic excursions, visualizations, and alchemical concoctions." The Shangqing revelations also introduced many new Taoist scriptures. Similarly, between 397 and 402, Ge Chaofu compiled

1323-573: A long neck and a (mouth like a) bird’s beak, and (his) face was likewise ugly, (but) the world followed him and considered him a worthy and enjoyed learning (from him). Fischer calls this "one of the most famous stories in all of Chinese mythology", and notes the "'Pace of Yu' would go on to have an important place in early medicine and later Daoist ritual." This descriptive term is Chinese pianku 偏枯 "paralyzed on one side, hemiplegia ". The Exemplary Sayings ( Fa yan 法言 ) by Yang Xiong mentions Yu (using his surname, Sishi 姒氏 "Mr. Si ) and

1470-587: A new set of liturgies, which continue to influence Taoist practice to the present day." This period also saw the development of the Three Pure Ones , which merged the high deities from different Taoist traditions into a common trinity that has remained influential until today. The new Integrated Taoism, now with a united Taoist identity, gained official status in China during the Tang dynasty . This tradition

1617-437: A number of examples of the flood myth motif around the world. Flood narratives in Chinese mythology share certain common features, despite being somewhat lacking in internal consistency as well as incorporating various magical transformations and divine or semi-divine interventions like Nüwa . For example, the flood usually results from natural causes rather than "universal punishment for human sin ". Another distinct motif of

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1764-435: A positive philosophy aims for the holistic unification of an individual's reality with everything that is not only real but also valuable, encompassing both the natural world and society. But the earliest references to 'the Tao' per se are largely devoid of liturgical or explicitly supernatural character, used in contexts either of abstract metaphysics or of the ordinary conditions required for human flourishing. This distinction

1911-481: A separate examination system based on Taoism. Another important Taoist figure of the Tang dynasty was Lu Dongbin , who is considered the founder of the jindan meditation tradition and an influential figure in the development of neidan (internal alchemy) practice. Likewise, several Song dynasty emperors, most notably Huizong , were active in promoting Taoism, collecting Taoist texts, and publishing updated editions of

2058-573: A series of scriptures that later served as the foundation of the Lingbao school , which was most influential during the later Song dynasty (960–1279) and focused on scriptural recitation and the use of talismans for harmony and longevity. The Lingbao school practiced purification rituals called "purgations" in which talismans were empowered. Lingbao also adopted Mahayana Buddhist elements. According to Kohn, they "integrated aspects of Buddhist cosmology , worldview, scriptures, and practices, and created

2205-505: A similar nature to all other life. Roughly contemporaneously to the Tao Te Ching , some believed the Tao was a force that was the "basis of all existence" and more powerful than the gods, while being a god-like being that was an ancestor and a mother goddess . Early Taoists studied the natural world in attempts to find what they thought were supernatural laws that governed existence. Taoists created scientific principles that were

2352-500: A state of marital harmony together with Yao's two daughters , Shun took on administrative responsibilities as co-emperor. Among these responsibilities, Shun had to deal with the Great Flood and its associated disruptions, especially in light of the fact that Yao's reluctant decision to appoint Gun to handle the problem had failed to fix the situation, despite having been working on it for the previous nine years. Shun took steps over

2499-540: A theoretical foundation for politics, warfare, and Taoist organizations. Taoist secret societies precipitated the Yellow Turban Rebellion during the late Han dynasty , attempting to create what has been characterized as a Taoist theocracy . Today, Taoism is one of five religious doctrines officially recognized by the Chinese government, also having official status in Hong Kong and Macau . It

2646-596: A vast new collection of Taoist texts in close imitation of Buddhist sutras ." Louis Komjathy also notes that they adopted the Mahayana Buddhist universalism in its promotion of "universal salvation" (pudu). During this period, Louguan , the first Taoist monastic institution (influenced by Buddhist monasticism ) was established in the Zhongnan mountains by a local Taoist master named Yin Tong. This tradition

2793-413: Is self-cultivation , a deeper appreciation of the Tao, and more harmonious existence. Taoist ethics vary, but generally emphasize such virtues as effortless action , naturalness , simplicity , and the three treasures of compassion, frugality, and humility. The core of Taoist thought crystallized during the early Warring States period ( c.  450  – c.  300 BCE ), during which

2940-453: Is a modern Chinese construction largely rooted in earlier Chinese literati, European colonialist, and Protestant missionary interpretations. Contemporaneous Neo-Confucianists, for example, often self-identify as Taoist without partaking in any rituals. In contrast, Komjathy characterizes Taoism as "a unified religious tradition characterized by complexity and diversity", arguing that historically, none of these terms were understood according to

3087-658: Is a narrative fundamental to Chinese culture . Among other things, the Great Flood of China is key to understanding the history of the founding of both the Xia dynasty and the Zhou dynasty , it is also one of the main flood motifs in Chinese mythology , and it is a major source of allusion in Classical Chinese poetry . The story of the Great Flood plays a dramatic role in Chinese mythology , and its various versions present

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3234-768: Is attributed to the Syncretist philosopher Shi Jiao 尸佼 (c. 390–330 BCE) could contain one of the first references to Yubu . The "Ruler's Governance" chapter says, Formerly, (when) the Longmen (Mountains) were not yet opened up (for crossing), and the Lüliang (Mountains) were not yet tunneled through, the (Huang) river emerged from high in the Mengmen (Mountains). (It) greatly overflowed (until it) backed up, (until) there were no hills or mounds (left unsubmerged), (until even) tall hillocks were destroyed by it: (this was) called

3381-566: Is central to Chinese fortune telling and Fengshui . Yu supposedly used the Luoshu to divide ancient China into Nine Provinces ; Michael Saso says the "Steps of Yu" dance is thought to ritually imitate Yu's lamely walking throughout the Nine Provinces, stopping the floods, and restoring the order and blessing of nature. Andersen describes the symbolic relation between Yubu , Steps of Yu, and legends about Yu. In Chinese mythology Yu

3528-562: Is considered a major religion in Taiwan , and also has significant populations of adherents throughout the Sinosphere and Southeast Asia. In the West, Taoism has taken on various forms , both those hewing to historical practice, as well as highly synthesized practices variously characterized as new religious movements . "Taoism" and "Daoism" are alternate spellings of the same word. "Tao"

3675-445: Is depicted as a hero, selflessly working on behalf of humankind, and succeeding in his task." According to early Chinese mythological and historical texts, a Great Flood inundated China during the reign of Emperor Yao (c. 2356 – c. 2255 BCE). Yao appointed Yu's father Gun to control the flooding, and he spent nine years constructing dikes and dams, which collapsed and killed many people. After reigning for one century, Yao abdicated

3822-489: Is fraught with hermeneutic difficulties when attempting to categorize different schools, sects, and movements. Russell Kirkland writes that "most scholars who have seriously studied Taoism, both in Asia and in the West" have abandoned this "simplistic dichotomy". Louis Komjathy writes that this is an untenable misconception because "the association of daojia with "thought" ( sixiang ) and of daojiao with "religion" ( zongjiao )

3969-475: Is generally not understood as a variant of Chinese folk religion per se: while the two umbrella terms have considerable cultural overlap, core themes of both also diverge considerably from one another. Traditionally, the Chinese language does not have terms defining lay people adhering to the doctrines or the practices of Taoism, who fall instead within the field of folk religion. Taoist, in Western sinology ,

4116-598: Is in the Wade-Giles romanization system, which was predominant in English-speaking countries until the late 20th century, and remains in use for certain terms with strongly established spellings. "Dao" is the spelling in the Hanyu Pinyin system, officially adopted in China in the 1950s, which has largely replaced Wade–Giles. The Standard Chinese pronunciation of both romanizations of the character "Dao"

4263-403: Is known first of all as the one who regulated the waters after the great flood, a fact he accomplished by walking through the world. His steps provide the exemplary model for the ritual form of Yubu . The flood may be equated with primordial chaos or, in a more synchronic mode of thought, the chaos underlying the existing state of order. And the cosmic order established by Yu may be identified with

4410-487: Is particularly characteristic of the Chinese Gun Yu flood myth, namely the acquisition of the agricultural civilization. In some versions, this includes the appointment of Ji Qi (later called Houji ) as Minister of Agriculture. Other versions go into the details of how a tiny remnant of people consisting of only two or a few individuals managed to survive the flood and the re-population/civilization process following

4557-515: Is related to the words Yuxing 禹行 "Yu walk" and Wubu 巫步 "shaman steps" (see the Fayan below). The (3rd century BCE) Confucian classic Xunzi (6) uses the phrase Yuxing er Shunqu 禹行而舜趨 "Yu walk and Shun run" to mock the Confucian disciples of Zizhang 子張 : "Their caps bent and twisted, their robes billowing and flowing, they move to and fro as thought they were a Yu or a Shun—such are

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4704-470: Is still understood in everyday contexts among Chinese people, echoed by early modern scholars of Chinese history and philosophy such as Feng Youlan and Wing-tsit Chan . Use of the term daojia dates to the Western Han c.  100 BCE , referring to the purported authors of the emerging Taoist canon, such as Lao Dan and Zhuang Zhou . Neither the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi themselves, or

4851-561: Is supposed to have provided Yu with a map of the river and its surroundings which helped him make his plans. Alternatively, the Yellow River map is said to have been provided to Yu by Houtu . After his work in controlling the flood waters, Yu became sole respected emperor and went on to found the Xia dynasty , when his son Qi of Xia succeeded him, thus establishing the beginning of a tradition of dynastic succession through primogeniture. But, before this, after ending his work against

4998-434: Is syncretic and deeply rooted in Chinese culture for millennia, it is often unclear which denominations should be considered "Taoist". The status of daoshi , or 'Taoist master', is traditionally attributed only to clergy in Taoist organizations, who distinguish between their traditions and others in Chinese folk religion . Though generally lacking motivation for strong hierarchies, Taoist philosophy has often served as

5145-486: Is the same; that is, /daʊ/ , much like the English "dow". One authority calls the pronunciation with a <t> as in "tie" to be a "mispronunciation" originally caused by the "clumsy Wade-Giles system," which misled most readers. The word Taoism is used to translate two related but distinct Chinese terms. The distinction between Taoism in philosophy and Taoist religion is an ancient, deeply-rooted one. Taoism as

5292-478: Is traditionally used to translate daoshi /taoshih ( 道士 ; 'master of the Tao';), thus strictly defining the priests of Taoism, ordained clergymen of a Taoist institution who "represent Taoist culture on a professional basis", are experts of Taoist liturgy, and therefore can employ this knowledge and ritual skill for the benefit of a community. This role of Taoist priests reflects the definition of Taoism as

5439-446: The I Ching and Spring and Autumn Annals . Although Taoism and Confucianism developed significant differences, they are not seen as mutually incompatible or exclusive. The relationship between Taoism and Buddhism upon the latter's introduction to China is characterized as one of mutual influence, with long-running discourses shared between Taoists and Buddhists; the distinct Mahayana tradition of Zen that emerged during

5586-599: The Daozang . The Song era saw new scriptures and new movements of ritualists and Taoist rites, the most popular of which were the Thunder Rites (leifa). The Thunder rites were protection and exorcism rites that evoked the celestial department of thunder, and they became central to the new Heavenly Heart (Tianxin) tradition as well as for the Youthful Incipience (Tongchu) school. In the 12th century ,

5733-522: The Zhuangzi , and the Tao Te Ching . The Tao Te Ching , attributed to Laozi , is dated by scholars to sometime between the 4th and 6th century BCE. A common tradition holds that Laozi founded Taoism. Laozi's historicity is disputed, with many scholars seeing him as a legendary founding figure. While Taoism is often regarded in the West as arising from Laozi, many Chinese Taoists claim that

5880-604: The bagua "eight trigrams" of the Yijing from seeing the Hotu 河圖 " Yellow River Map " on a turtle (or a dragon-horse ), and Yu devised the basic magic square from seeing the Luoshu 雒書 " Luo River writing" on a giant turtle shell. "The Great Treatise" commentary to the Yijing has an early reference to the Luoshu . Heaven creates divine things; the holy sage takes them as models. Heaven and earth change and transform;

6027-591: The Quanzhen (Complete Perfection) School was founded in Shandong by the sage Wang Chongyang (1113–1170) to compete with religious Taoist traditions that worshipped " ghosts and gods " and largely displaced them. The school focused on inner transformation, mystical experience , monasticism , and asceticism . Quanzhen flourished during the 13th and 14th centuries and during the Yuan dynasty . The Quanzhen school

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6174-747: The School of Naturalists (from which Taoism draws its main cosmological ideas, yin and yang and the five phases ), and the Chinese classics , especially the I Ching and the Lüshi Chunqiu . Meanwhile, Isabelle Robinet identifies four components in the emergence of Taoism: the teachings found in the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi , techniques for achieving ecstasy, practices for achieving longevity and becoming an immortal ( xian ), and practices for exorcism . Robinet states that some elements of Taoism may be traced to prehistoric folk religions in China. In particular, many Taoist practices drew from

6321-654: The Six Dynasties period (220–589), incorporated Yubu into rituals, such as the Bugang 步罡 "pace the Big Dipper ", in which a Taoist priest would symbolically walk the nine stars of the Beidou 北斗 "Big Dipper" in order to acquire that constellation's supernatural energy. The term Yubu 禹步 , defined as boxing 跛行 "limp; walk lame" ( Hanyu Da Cidian 1993 1.664), compounds two Chinese words. Yu 禹

6468-445: The Tang dynasty (607–917) incorporates many ideas from Taoism. Many Taoist denominations recognize deities , often ones shared with other traditions, which are venerated as superhuman figures exemplifying Taoist virtues. They can be roughly divided into two categories of "gods" and xian (or "immortals"). Xian were immortal beings with vast supernatural powers, also describing a principled, moral person. Since Taoist thought

6615-578: The Tao 道 ( pinyin : dào ; Wade–Giles : tao ). With a range of meaning in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', 'path', or 'technique', generally understood in the Taoist sense as an enigmatic process of transformation ultimately underlying reality . Taoist thought has informed the development of various practices within the Taoist tradition and beyond, including forms of meditation , astrology , qigong , feng shui , and internal alchemy . A common goal of Taoist practice

6762-819: The Tao Te Ching was to be a topic in the imperial examinations. During the reign of the 7th century Emperor Taizong , the Five Dragons Temple (the first temple at the Wudang Mountains ) was constructed. Wudang would eventually become a major center for Taoism and a home for Taoist martial arts ( Wudang quan ). Emperor Xuanzong (r. 712–755) was also a devoted Taoist who wrote various Taoist works, and according to Livia Kohn , "had frequent meetings with senior masters, ritual specialists, Taoist poets, and official patriarchs, such as Sima Chengzhen." He reorganized imperial rituals based on Taoist forms, sponsored Taoist shrines and monasteries, and introduced

6909-753: The Tao Te Ching were written: the Heshang Gong commentary and the Xiang'er commentary. The first organized form of Taoism was the Way of the Celestial Masters , which developed from the Five Pecks of Rice movement at the end of the 2nd century CE. The latter had been founded by Zhang Daoling , who was said to have had a vision of Laozi in 142 CE and claimed that the world was coming to an end. Zhang sought to teach people to repent and prepare for

7056-738: The Three Steps of Vishnu across earth, air, and heaven in the Rigveda . The fact that already in the early Han dynasty, the steps seem to have been connected with the three pairs of stars that are situated under the Northern Dipper and referred to as the Three Steps ( santai 三台 ), or the Celestial Staircase ( tianjie 天階 ), would seem to support this. It would appear, in other words, that even in this early period

7203-521: The Yangtze valleys flooded. The alleged nature of the flood is shown in the following quote: Like endless boiling water, the flood is pouring forth destruction. Boundless and overwhelming, it overtops hills and mountains. Rising and ever rising, it threatens the very heavens. How the people must be groaning and suffering! According to both historical and mythological sources, the flooding continued relentlessly. Yao sought to find someone who could control

7350-614: The Yellow Emperor formulated many of their precepts, including the quest for "long life". Traditionally, the Yellow Emperor's founding of Taoism was said to have been because he "dreamed of an ideal kingdom whose tranquil inhabitants lived in harmonious accord with the natural law and possessed virtues remarkably like those espoused by early Taoism. On waking from his dream, Huangdi sought to" bring about "these virtues in his own kingdom, to ensure order and prosperity among

7497-608: The " three vehicles " of Buddhism. The three caverns were: Perfection (Dongzhen), associated with the Three Sovereigns ; Mystery (Dongxuan), associated with Lingbao; and Spirit (Dongshen), associated with the Supreme Clarity tradition. Lu Xiujing also used this schema to arrange the Taoist scriptures and Taoist deities. Lu Xiujing worked to compile the first edition of the Daozang (the Taoist Canon), which

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7644-417: The "magically-expanding" xirang soil can be understood as representing a type of floating garden, made up of soil, brushwood, and similar materials. Yu and his work in controlling the flood would symbolize a later type of society, a one which possessed of technological innovations allowing a much larger scale approach to transforming wetlands to arable fields. Hawkes explains the miraculous transformations of

7791-579: The "second batch" or "new" texts comprising this collection of documents, which despite the problematic nature of their textual transmission, and that they appear to be reconstructed or heavily edited and interpolated, as compared with the "first" or "old" batch, which supposedly survived the Fires of Qin (the Burning of books and burying of scholars together with the destruction by fire of the Qin imperial library at

7938-667: The (c. 217 BCE) Rishu and (c. 168 BCE) Wushi'er Bingfang . A third text, the (c. 300 BCE) Chu Silk Manuscript, describes the Great Flood survivors (but not Yu) bu "stepping" to calculate time. The Chinese term zhubo 竹帛 (lit. "bamboo silk") means "bamboo ( slips ) and silk (for writing); ancient books". These excavated tomb texts help to confirm Marcel Granet's proposal that Daoist Yubu went back to ancient shamanistic traditions. Granet pointed to accounts of Yu's lameness in Warring States philosophical texts as indirect evidence of an original shamanic trance-inducing limp like

8085-490: The Dipper asterism" and liujia : "treading the Dipper and pacing the asterisms, using the six jia as markers of time" ( 履行步斗宿 六甲以日辰 ). The discovery of medical and divinatory books in late Warring States period tomb libraries has confirmed the (c. 320 CE) Baopuzi description of Yubu as a series of three steps. Recent archaeology brought to light manuscripts, written on bamboo and silk, documenting early Yubu practices:

8232-472: The Four Mountains and the heads, lords, or princes of the realm's houses, clans, surnames , tribes, and nations. Shun then went to Mount Tai as the beginning of his tour of inspection of the flood-ravaged realm. Here, at Taishan, he met with the princes of the eastern regions; and, after certain religious ceremonies, he standardized weights, measures, and ritual. Then he went on to do the same to

8379-645: The Golden Flower . The Longmen school synthesized the Quanzhen and neidan teachings with the Chan Buddhist and Neo-Confucian elements that the Jingming tradition had developed, making it widely appealing to the literati class. Great Flood (China) However, archaeological evidence of an outburst flood at Jishi Gorge on the Yellow River, comparable to similar severe events in the world in

8526-504: The Han dynasty, there were no real "Taoists" or "Taoism". Instead, there were various sets of behaviors, practices, and interpretative frameworks (like the ideas of the Yijing , yin-yang thought , as well as Mohist , " Legalist ", and " Confucian " ideas), which were eventually synthesized into the first organized forms of "Taoism". Some of the main early Taoist sources include: the Neiye ,

8673-527: The Han. As such, they grew and became an influential religion during the Three Kingdoms period, focusing on ritual confession and petition, as well as developing a well-organized religious structure. The Celestial Masters school was officially recognized by the warlord Cao Cao in 215 CE, legitimizing Cao Cao's rise to power in return. Laozi received imperial recognition as a divinity in the mid-2nd century BCE. Another important early Taoist movement

8820-523: The Lo sent forth a divine tortoise; on its back there were riven veins, like writing of character pictures." The Luoshu is a 3x3 grid of dots representing the numbers 1-9, with the sum in each of the rows, columns, and diagonals equal to 15 (which is the number of days in each of the 24 solar terms in the traditional Chinese calendar ). The Luoshu , also known as the Jiugongtu 九宮圖 "Nine Halls Diagram",

8967-592: The Ming, the legends of the Eight Immortals (the most important of which is Lü Dongbin ) rose to prominence, being part of local plays and folk culture. Ming emperors like the Hongwu Emperor continued to invite Taoists to court and hold Taoist rituals that were believed to enhance the power of the throne. The most important of these were connected with the Taoist deity Xuanwu ("Perfect Warrior"), which

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9114-432: The Neolithic gave way to the Bronze Age in the Yellow River valley. The authors suggest that this coincided with the beginning of the Xia, several centuries later than traditionally thought, and that the Erlitou culture is an archaeological manifestation of the Xia dynasty. The historian K. C. Wu believes that the "Canon of Yao" (" yaodian ") in the Book of History ( Shujing ) has historical value, despite being one of

9261-447: The Pace of Yu had already become part of the fund of magico-religious knowledge regularly employed by the elite. It was probably in this more popular milieu that the Pace of Yu found its way into religious Daoism. Daoism Taoism or Daoism ( / ˈ t aʊ . ɪ z əm / , / ˈ d aʊ . ɪ z əm / ) is a diverse philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to China , emphasizing harmony with

9408-427: The Paces of Yu constituted a close parallel to the three Strides Viṣṇu in early Vedic mythology, which are thought to have taken the god through the three levels of the cosmos (thereby establishing the universe), and which indeed, just like the Paces of Yu in Taoist ritual, are known to have been imitated by Vedic priests as they approached the altar—and in the same form as the Paces of Yu, that is, dragging one foot after

9555-555: The Warring States era phenomena of the wu ( Chinese shamans ) and the fangshi ("method masters", which probably derived from the "archivist-soothsayers of antiquity"). Both terms were used to designate individuals dedicated to "...magic, medicine, divination,... methods of longevity and to ecstatic wanderings" as well as exorcism. The fangshi were philosophically close to the School of Naturalists and relied greatly on astrological and calendrical speculations in their divinatory activities. Female shamans played an important role in

9702-407: The Yellow Emperor; but one who was living in obscurity, despite his royal lineage. Yao proceeded to put Shun through a series of tests, beginning with marrying his two daughters to Shun and ending by sending him down from the mountains to the plains below where Shun had to face fierce winds, thunder, and rain. After passing all of Yao's tests, not the least of which being establishing and continuing

9849-408: The Yellow River has been dated to about 1920 BCE, and is suggested to have been the basis for the later myth. A colossal landslide created a natural dam across the river which was breached about a year later. The resulting flood could plausibly have travelled 2,000 km (1,200 mi) down the river and the resulting instability of river channels might have lasted up to twenty years. About this time,

9996-468: The base Ru of Zizhang's school." The Korean Buddhist monk and scholar Honggi 洪基 (1822–1881) was also known as Yuxing 禹行 . Yu the Great is the subject of many mythological stories. Anne Birrell says, "The myth of Yü and the flood is the greatest in the Chinese tradition. This is not just because the narratives tell how he managed to control the flood, but also because numerous myths, legends, and folk tales became attached to his name. In every case, Yü

10143-482: The calendar accordingly adjusted. K. C. Wu cites references from two modern astronomers that largely confirm a date of around 2200 for Yao's reign, which is in accord with traditional, accepted dating. In view of Yao and his reign, this evidence for accurate astronomical observations could be interpreted as an intrusion of archeoastronomy into the realm of mythology ; in other words, ancient astronomical observations have been incorporated with mythological material, or

10290-400: The clinching factor which K. C. Wu claims is objective, extra-textual confirmation of "Yao's Canon" (and by implication, the rest of the second batch documents) has directly to do with dating the Great Flood, specifically to around the year 2200 BCE. This is based on comparing astronomical data from the text with modern astronomical or astrophysical analysis. At the beginning of his reign, Yao

10437-418: The collapse of its dynasty). The first batch documents allegedly remained hidden for about a century, until accidentally discovered and handed over to a descendant of Confucius. Wu accepts that the " yaodian " is not a direct copy of the original, however he argues that it was based on the same, authentic sources as the first batch documents, perhaps even being to some extent based on the actual original. However,

10584-527: The coming cataclysm, after which they would become the seeds of a new era of great peace. It was a mass movement in which men and women could act as libationers and tend to the commoners. A related movement arose in Shandong called the " Way of Great Peace ", seeking to create a new world by replacing the Han dynasty. This movement led to the Yellow Turban Rebellion , and after years of bloody war, they were crushed. The Celestial Masters movement survived this period and did not take part in attempting to replace

10731-474: The details of Gun's demise; but, in any case, the sources seem to agree that he met the end of his human existence at Feather Mountain (although again accounts vary as to whether this end was death, through execution by Zhurong , or through a metamorphic transformation into — depending on account — a yellow bear, a three-footed tortoise, or a yellow dragon. ) Somehow, Gun had a son, Yu. Various myths suggest that this occurred under circumstances that would not meet

10878-436: The differences, between Gun, the father, and his son, Yu. Hawkes proposes a symbolic interpretation of a societal transition. In this case, Gun represents a society at an earlier technological stage, which engages in small scale agriculture which involves raising areas of arable land sufficiently above the level of the marshes existing then in the flood plains of the Yellow River system, including tributaries: from this perspective

11025-570: The earliest and most detailed descriptions of the Paces of Yu, in which "each pace comprises three steps, and the movement thus appears like the waddle of a three-legged creature". The three paces of Yubu were associated with the performer's movement through the three levels of the cosmos, the Santai 三台 "Three Steps; stars within Ursa Major " ( ι UMa through 61 UMa ) in Chinese astronomy , and

11172-436: The early Taoist tradition, which was particularly strong in the southern state of Chu . Early Taoist movements developed their own tradition in contrast to shamanism while also absorbing shamanic elements. During the early period, some Taoists lived as hermits or recluses who did not participate in political life, while others sought to establish a harmonious society based on Taoist principles. Zhuang Zhou (c. 370–290 BCE)

11319-520: The early physician Bian Que (d. 310 BCE) as examples of falsely borrowing names. In the past, Yu controlled the waters flooding the land, and now shamans dance the many Steps of Yu. Bian Qiao was a man of Lu, and now many healers and called men of Lu. Those who want to sell what is fake inevitably borrow from the genuine. [ 昔者姒氏治水土而巫步多禹 ] (10) Since the original literally reads "[ wubu 巫步 ] "shaman's steps" many Yu", an alternate translation is: "Formerly Sishi 姒氏 (i.e., Yu) regulated

11466-639: The early secondary sources written about them, put forward any particular supernatural ontology. Nonetheless, that religious Taoism emerged from a synthesis of folk religion with philosophical Taoist precepts is clear. The earlier, naturalistic was employed by pre-Han and Han thinkers, and continued to be used well into the Song, including among those who explicitly rejected cults, both private and state-sanctioned, that were often either labeled or self-identified as Taoist. However, this distinction has been challenged or rejected by some scholars of religion, often those from

11613-404: The efforts of Gun, the flood continued to rage on, leading to the increase of all sorts of social disorders. The administration of the empire was becoming increasingly difficult; so, accordingly, at this point, Yao offered to resign the throne in favor of his special adviser(s), Four Mountains: however, Four Mountains declined, and instead recommended Shun – another distant relative to Yao through

11760-607: The epigrammatic Tao Te Ching and the anecdotal Zhuangzi —widely regarded as the fundamental texts of Taoist philosophy—were largely composed. They form the core of a body of Taoist writings accrued over the following centuries, which was assembled by monks into the Daozang canon starting in the 5th century CE. Early Taoism drew upon diverse influences, including the Shang and Zhou state religions, Naturalism , Mohism , Confucianism , various Legalist theories, as well as

11907-477: The first of their kind in China, and the belief system has been known to merge scientific, philosophical, and religious conceits from close to its beginning. By the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), the various sources of Taoism had coalesced into a coherent tradition of ritualists in the state of Shu (modern Sichuan ). One of the earliest forms of Taoism was the Han era ( 2nd century BCE ) Huang–Lao movement, which

12054-453: The flood and its immediate effects. According to legend, a comprehensive approach to societal development resulted not only in wide-scale cooperation and large-scale efforts to control the flood but also led to the establishment of the first dynastic state of China , the Xia dynasty (c.2070–c.1600 BCE). A study on the ~1920 BCE flood published in 2016 suggested that the concurrence of these major natural and sociopolitical events known through

12201-469: The flood hero and legendary founder of Xia, indicate his importance in Warring States magico-religious and occult traditions. Yu's legendary circumambulation and pacification of a world in chaos appear to have made Yu the archetypal pacifier of the spirit world that continued to exist alongside mankind." The Chinese classics provide important information about Yubu "Paces of Yu". The (c. 3rd-4th century CE) Shizi 尸子 "Writings of Master Shi", which

12348-515: The flood, and turned for advice to his special adviser, or advisers, the Four Mountains ( 四嶽 or 四岳 , Sìyuè ); who, after deliberation, gave Emperor Yao some advice which he did not especially welcome. Upon the insistence of Four Mountains, and over Yao's initial hesitation, the person Yao finally consented to appoint in charge of controlling the flood was Gun , the Prince of Chong, who

12495-469: The flood. Yu thereupon dredged the Huang and Jiang rivers, and for ten years did not (even) glance at his home. (He worked so hard that his) hands had no nails and (his) lower legs had no hair. (He) contracted a partial-paralysis sickness, (such that when he) walked (one foot could) not step past the other, which people (thereafter) called the "Pace of Yu". [ 君治, 禹於是疏河决江十年未闞其家手不爪脛不毛生偏枯之疾步不相過人曰禹步 ] Yu had

12642-407: The flooding, Yu was said to have assembled all of the heroes/gods involved in fighting the flood together on Mount Guiji (in modern Zhejiang ) at a certain time; but, when Fangfeng arrived late Yu had him executed — later it turned out that Fangfeng was late because he had stopped to fight a local flood which he encountered on his way. Besides the motif of controlling the flood waters another motif

12789-479: The geological, historiographical, and archaeological records may not simply be coincidence but rather an illustration of a profound and complicated cultural response to an extreme natural disaster that connected many groups living along the Yellow River. It was during the reign of Emperor Yao that the Great Flood began, a flood so vast that no part of Yao's territory was spared, and both the Yellow River and

12936-412: The great mounds, so that the people were bewildered and overwhelmed. I opened passages for the streams throughout the nine provinces and conducted them to the seas. I deepened the channels and conducted them to the streams. Various myths, or versions of myths, specify that Yu received help from various sources which helped him to succeed in controlling the Great Flood. Hebo , the god of the Yellow River

13083-471: The highest mountain within that area. This was doubtlessly a useful expedient in the face of the rising and unpredictable flood waters. Another of Shun's acts was administrative reform. With Gun's overwhelming failure to control the flood waters and his questioning of the legitimacy of Shun's rule, he became labeled as an intransigent. Accordingly, as part of his administrative reforms, Shun had Gun banished to Feather Mountain . Accounts vary considerably about

13230-508: The holy sage imitates them. In the heavens hang images that reveal good fortune and misfortune; the holy sage reproduces these. The Yellow River brought forth a map and the Lo River brought forth a writing; the holy men took these as models. The Yijing sub-commentary explains, "The water of the Ho sent forth a dragon horse; on its back there was curly hair, like a map of starry dots. The water of

13377-423: The human situation despite the disaster of the deluge. During the course of fighting, surviving, and eventually getting the inundation problems under control, much progress was also made in terms of land management, beast control, and agricultural techniques. These and other developments are integral to the narrative, and exemplify a wider approach to human health and societal well being than emergency management of

13524-517: The ideology of the Da Dai liji , which agrees with other ritual classics of the period such as the Liji , Poul Andersen explains, "the walk through the world done by Yu, as well as by other model emperors, is symbolic of the orderly movement of time. It is at the same time a transfer of the patterns of heaven — the movements of the celestial bodies and various divine forces — to earth, as expressed in one of

13671-409: The inhabitants". Afterwards, Taoism developed and grew into two sects; One is Zhengyi Taoism, which mainly focuses on spells, and the other is Quanzhen Taoism, which mainly focuses on practicing inner alchemy. Overall, traditional Taoist thought, content, and sects are varied, reflecting the ideal of "absorbing everything inside and mixing everything outside". Early Taoism drew on the ideas found in

13818-400: The landscape which appear in the mythological descriptions as symbolically representative of a gridded drainage system engineered to permanently eliminate entire marsh areas, in favor of agriculturally exploitable fields. Recent archaeological and geological discoveries may have some bearing on the story of the Great Flood. Archaeological evidence of a large outburst flood at Jishi Gorge on

13965-414: The left foot and the right foot, so that they are both side by side. This constitutes pace No. 1. Advance the right foot, then the left, then bring the right side by side with the left. This constitutes pace No. 2. Advance the left foot, then the right, then bring the left side by side with the right. This constitutes pace No. 3, with which a Yü's Pace is completed. It should be known by all who are practicing

14112-675: The left hand extend forward. Walk with Yü's Pace, and on attaining the Six-Kuei site, hold your breaths and stay where you are. Neither men nor ghosts will be able to see you." As a general rule, the Six Chia [ 六甲 ] constitute the ch'ing-lung ; the Six I [ 六乙 ], the feng-hsing ; the Six Ping [ 六丙 ], the ming-t'ang ; and the Six Ting [ 六丁 ], the yin-chung . "As you proceed with

14259-434: The lucky day on which you will offer a sacrifice of wine and dried meat, and then pluck them with a prayer on your lips, always approaching from the east using Yü's Pace and with your vital breaths well retained. Yü' s Pace: Advance left foot, then pass it with the right. Bring the left up to the right foot. Advance right foot, then pass it with the left. Bring the right up to the left foot. Advance left foot, then pass it with

14406-484: The magical Xirang earth in attempt to block and barricade the flood waters with dams, dikes, and embankments (which he built with the special powers of the magic soil). However, Gun was never able to abate the problems of the Great Flood. Whether his failure to abate the flood was due to divine wrath or to engineering defects remains an unanswered question – although one pointed out over two thousand years ago by Qu Yuan, in his " Heavenly Questions ". Even after nine years of

14553-476: The meaning of "Taoist" as "lay member or believer of Taoism", is a modern invention that goes back to the introduction of the Western category of "organized religion" in China in the 20th century, but it has no significance for most of Chinese society in which Taoism continues to be an "order" of the larger body of Chinese religion. Scholars like Harold Roth argue that early Taoism was a series of "inner-cultivation lineages" of master-disciple communities, emphasizing

14700-535: The mind's original purity and clarity (which could become obscured by desires and emotions). Key figures of this school include Xu Xun, Liu Yu, Huang Yuanji, Xu Yi, and Liu Yuanran. Some of these figures taught at the imperial capital and were awarded titles. Their emphasis on practical ethics and self-cultivation in everyday life (rather than ritual or monasticism) made it very popular among the literati class. The Qing dynasty (1644–1912) mainly promoted Buddhism as well as Neo-Confucianism . Thus, during this period,

14847-407: The more fancily embellished versions of the story it was also necessary for him to subdue various supernatural beings as well as recruit the assistance of others, for instance a channel-digging dragon and a giant mud-hauling tortoise (or turtle). 洪水滔天，浩浩懷山襄陵，下民昏墊。予乘四載，隨山刊木，暨益奏庶鮮食。予決九川，距四海，濬畎澮距川。 The inundating waters seemed to assail the heavens, and in their extent embraced the hills and overtopped

14994-496: The most important figure of the Tang was the court Taoist and writer Du Guangting (850–933). Du wrote numerous works about Taoist rituals, history, myth, and biography. He also reorganized and edited the Taotsang after a period of war and loss. During the Tang, several emperors became patrons of Taoism, inviting priests to court to conduct rituals and enhance the prestige of the sovereign. The Gaozong Emperor even decreed that

15141-404: The myth of the Great Flood of China is an emphasis on the heroic and praiseworthy efforts to mitigate the disaster; flooding is alleviated by constructing dikes and dams (such as the efforts of Gun ), digging canals (as devised by Yu the Great ), widening or deepening existing channels, and teaching these skills to others. Another key motif is the development of civilization and bettering

15288-399: The next four years to reorganize the empire, in such a way as to solve immediate problems and to put the imperial authority in a better position to deal with the flood and its effects. Although Shun's organization (or reorganization) of the flooded and increasingly flooded lands into zhou or islands (the political ancestors of the modern zhou or provinces, both of which may be written with

15435-505: The nine heavens on his head. He made his ears and eyes perceptive and regulated the world. He elevated Gao Yao 臯陶 and Yi 益 to his service. He made use of shield and spear in order to punish the insubordinate and reckless. Within the four seas, wherever boat or cart could reach, all submitted and gave allegiance to him. (62) This context similarly says Yu's grandfather Gaoyang or Zhuanxu , "walked [the patterns of] time in order to resemble (i.e., be in accordance with) heaven 履時以象天 ." In

15582-426: The nine provinces and opened up the nine roads. He dammed the nine marshes and measured the nine mountains. He was the host of the gods, the father and mother of the people. To his left was the level and plumb-line, to his right the compass and square. He set the four seasons in motion (literally, "walked the four seasons," lü sishi 履四時 ) and took possession of the four seas. He pacified the nine provinces and carried

15729-615: The nine regions. There were three hundred famous rivers, three thousand branch rivers, and countless smaller ones. Yü personally handled the basket and the shovel, interconnecting the rivers of all under heaven, till there was no down on his calves and no hair on his shins. He was bathed by the pouring rains and combed by the gusting winds as he laid out the myriad states. Yü was a great sage, and he wearied his physical form on behalf of all under heaven like this." Chinese origin myths have stories about two primordial sage-rulers being divinely inspired by patterns on turtle shells . Fu Xi devised

15876-665: The normal criteria for historical fact. Yu would continue the struggle to contain the flood waters. Yu tried a different approach to the project of flood control; which in the end having achieved success, earned Yu renown throughout Chinese history, in which the Gun-Yu Great Flood is commonly referred to as "Great Yu Controls the Waters" ( Chinese : 大禹治水 ; pinyin : Dà Yǔ Zhìshuǐ ). Yu's approach seems to have involved an approach more oriented toward drainage and less towards containment with dams and dikes. According to

16023-636: The one described in the Baopuzi . Occurrences of the Pace of Yu in both the Shuihudi and Fangmatan almanacs concern travel, but the Pace of Yu is employed seven times in the Mawangdui Wushier bingfong as part of the magical strategy for exorcising demons blamed for ailments. Granet is surely correct about its shamanic origins. However, the excavated manuscripts show that in the third century B.C.,

16170-520: The other. The Big Dipper had central importance in Han cosmology, and was seen as the instrument of the emperor of heaven, Taiyi 太一 , who resides in the bright, reddish star Kochab ( Beta Ursae Minoris ) near the pole of heaven. In the so-called "apocryphal texts" or weishu 緯書 "glosses on the classics that allege esoteric meanings", the Big Dipper or Shendou 神斗 "Divine Dipper" is described as, "the throat and tongue of heaven", which "contains

16317-402: The past 10,000 years, has been dated to about 1920 BCE (a few centuries later than the traditional beginning of the Xia dynasty which came after Emperors Shun and Yao), and is suggested to have been the basis for the myth. Treated either historically or mythologically, the story of the Great Flood and the heroic attempts of the various human characters to control it and to abate the disaster

16464-405: The people work even harder and to continue to build more and higher. Not only that, but Gun questioned the legitimacy of Shun as a ruler due to his modest background. After the solemnities of his final accession to power, the first thing Shun did was to reform the calendar. Next, for the period of a month, Shun convoked a series of meetings, ceremonies, and interviews at the imperial capital with

16611-429: The prescribed Yü's Pace you will keep forming hexagram No. 63. Initial one foot forward, Initial two side by side, Prints not enough. Nine prints are the count, Successively up to snuff. One pace (or three prints) equals seven feet; total, twenty-one feet; and on looking back you will see nine prints." Method for walking Yu's Pace. Stand straight. Advance the right foot while the left remains behind. Then advance in tum

16758-423: The primordial breath and dispenses it by means of the Dipper". The Baopuzi "Genie's Pharmacopoeia" chapter tells Daoist adepts how to go into the mountains and gather supernatural, invisible shizhi 石芝 "rock mushrooms/excrescences ". Whenever excrescences are encountered, an initiating and an exorcising amulet are placed over them, then they can no longer conceal or transform themselves. Then patiently await

16905-401: The properties of plants and geology , diviners , early environmentalists , tribal chieftains, court scribes and commoner members of governments, members of the nobility in Chinese states, and the descendants of refugee communities. Significant movements in early Taoism disregarded the existence of gods, and many who believed in gods thought they were subject to the natural law of the Tao, in

17052-574: The religion of the Shang dynasty and the Zhou dynasty , such as their use of divination , ancestor worship , and the idea of Heaven ( Tian ) and its relationship to humanity. According to modern scholars of Taoism, such as Kirkland and Livia Kohn , Taoist philosophy also developed by drawing on numerous schools of thought from the Warring States period (4th to 3rd centuries BCE), including Mohism , Confucianism , Legalist theorists (like Shen Buhai and Han Fei , which speak of wu wei ),

17199-467: The right. Bring the left up to the right foot. In this way three paces are made, a total of 21 linear feet, and nine footprints will be made. (11) The "Into Mountains: Over Streams" chapter describes Yubu as an element in the Daoist astrological celestial stem -based "magic invisibility" system of Qimen Dunjia "Irregular Gate, Hidden Stem". The Dunjia 遁甲 "Hidden Stem" calculates the position within

17346-454: The rise of the Xuanxue (Mysterious Learning or Deep Wisdom) tradition, which focused on philosophical inquiry and integrated Confucian teachings with Taoist thought. The movement included scholars like Wang Bi (226–249), He Yan (d. 249), Xiang Xiu (223?–300), Guo Xiang (d. 312), and Pei Wei (267–300). Another later influential figure was the 4th century alchemist Ge Hong , who wrote

17493-403: The same character, 州 ) alleviated some of the administrative difficulties, the fact remained that despite the additional four years of effort, Gun still had not only failed to achieve any success towards solving the main problem of the ongoing flooding, but the water even kept on rising. Gun insisted on staying the course with the dikes, insisting that despite the overwhelming failure so far that

17640-559: The societal order instituted by the emperor in accordance with the patterns of the universe. Thus, one explanation for the Yubu is as a ritual reenactment in imitation of Yu's gait as the lamed flood-hero. An alternative origin myth for the Yu Pace is that Yu himself invented it, inspired by the movements of a divine bird; and, that when Yu assembled the gods together, he used this dance. Donald Harper says, "Forms of magic related to Yu 禹 ,

17787-399: The south, the west, and the north, meeting at the sacred mountains of each region with the princes and leaders of each region, and standardizing their rules, measures, and practices. All of these acts can be seen as preparatory to the fighting of the flood, as this was an effort requiring extraordinary levels of synchronized and coordinated activity over a relatively large territory: the timing

17934-485: The space-time structure of the liuding 六丁 ("six ding ") "spirits that define the place of the Qimen 奇門 "Irregular Gate". Andersen says, "This gate represents a "crack in the universe," so to speak, which must be approached through performing the Paces of Yu, and through which the adept may enter the emptiness of the otherworld and thereby achieve invisibility to evil spirits and dangerous influences." "When entering

18081-451: The standard phrases about the mythical emperors, "He carried heaven on his head and walked the earth," daitian lüdi 戴天履地 ." The (c. 2nd century) Cantong qi neidan "internal alchemy" classic, which is attributed to Wei Boyang , gives the earliest recorded criticism of yubu or bugang . The Cantong qi section on "Incorrect practices" warns against improper or unproductive Daoist techniques, including performing budouxiu "pace

18228-730: The status and influence of Taoism declined. During the 18th century, the Qing imperial library excluded virtually all Taoist books. The Qing era also saw the birth of the Longmen ("Dragon Gate" 龍門 ) school of Wang Kunyang (1552–1641), a branch of Quanzhen from southern China that became established at the White Cloud Temple . Longmen authors like Liu Yiming (1734–1821) and Min Yide (1758–1836) worked to promote and preserve Taoist inner alchemy practices through books like The Secret of

18375-463: The throne to Shun , the last of the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors , who fired or killed (according to version) Gun and appointed Yu to replace his father. Yu the Great devised a successful flood control system through undamming rivers, dredging riverbeds, and constructing irrigation canals . In fighting the floods for thirteen years, Yu sacrificed his body, resulting in thick calluses on his hands and feet, and partial paralysis. Shun abdicated

18522-510: The throne to Yu, who founded the Xia dynasty . The (c. 3rd century BCE) Daoist classic Zhuangzi quotes philosophical rival Mozi , founder of Mohism , to tell the myth of Yu controlling the flood. Master Mo declared, "Long ago, when Yü was trying to stem the flood waters, he cut channels from the Yangtze and the Yellow rivers and opened communications with the four uncivilized tribes and

18669-436: The top element is 止 "foot" and the bottom was originally 止 backwards. Early bronzeware and oracle script characters depicted bu 步 as a "left foot" and "right foot". Schuessler reconstructs Old Chinese * bâh 步 , which has Sino-Tibetan cognates of Mru pak "go; walk" and Lushai vaak / vaʔ "go; walk". Thus, two millennia ago, the ancient Chinese pronounced Yubu something like * waʔbâh . Yubu "Yu steps"

18816-474: The various recipes in our world; it is not enough to know only the recipes. (17) This Yijing Hexagram 63 , Jiji 既濟 "Already Fording" is composed of the trigrams li 離 (☲) Fire and kan 坎 (☵) Water. The (c. 2nd century CE) Da Dai Liji 大戴禮記 version of the Yu legend uses a synonym of bu "step; pace; walk": lü 履 "step/tread on; shoes; follow" (also Yijing Hexagram 10 "Treading"). He

18963-462: The waters and the earth, and the steps of shamans in many cases are those of Yu". The French sinologist Marcel Granet hypothesized that Yubu dancing, which enabled Daoist priests to achieve a state of trance and become the instrument of a spirit, derived from ancient Wu (shaman) techniques of ecstasy, such as tiaoshen 跳神 (lit. "jump spirit") "perform a shaman's trance-dance". Ge Hong 's (c. 320 CE) Daoist classic Baopuzi contains some of

19110-414: The way solely for me, their great-grandson, so-and-so by name. Let it not be opened for others. If anyone sees me, he is to be considered a bundle of grass; those that do not see me, non-men.' Then break the grass that you are holding and place it on the ground. With the left hand take some earth and apply it to the first man in your group. Let the right hand take some grass with which to cover itself, and let

19257-573: The western parts of the Yuan dynasty's land), and Tibetan Buddhism . Under the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), aspects of Confucianism, Taoism, and East Asian Buddhism were consciously synthesized in the Neo-Confucian school, which eventually became Imperial orthodoxy for state bureaucratic purposes. Taoist ideas also influenced Neo-Confucian thinkers like Wang Yangming and Zhan Ruoshui . During

19404-454: The worldwide disaster, and/or how grain seeds or fire were obtained. Another figure in this regard is Yi , also known as Boyi or Bo Yi. The narrative of the Great Flood of prehistoric China may provide some insight into social development during this era. David Hawkes comments on the way that the various versions of the Gun-Yu story seem to contrast the relative success or failure, or at least

19551-443: Was Taiqing (Great Clarity), which was a tradition of external alchemy (weidan) that sought immortality through the concoction of elixirs, often using toxic elements like cinnabar , lead , mercury , and realgar , as well as ritual and purificatory practices. After this point, Taoism did not have nearly as significant an effect on the passing of law as the syncretic Confucian - Legalist tradition. The Three Kingdoms period saw

19698-792: Was Zhang Boduan, author of the Wuzhen pian , a classic of internal alchemy, and the founder of the southern branch of Quanzhen. During the Song era, the Zhengyi Dao tradition properly developed in Southern China among Taoists of the Chang clan. This liturgically focused tradition would continue to be supported by later emperors and survives to this day. In the Yuan dynasty, Taoism in Northern China took inspiration from Tibetan cultural practices, Chinese folk religion (often from

19845-655: Was a distant relative of Yao's through common descent from the Yellow Emperor. According to the main mythological tradition, Gun's plan of flood control was through the use of a miraculously continuously self-expanding soil, Xirang . Gun chose to obtain the Xirang by stealing it from the Supreme Divinity , which he did; however, the Supreme Divinity became quite angered at this importunity. Year in and year out, many times, and to great extents; Gun applied

19992-502: Was a religious tradition from the beginning." Philosopher Chung-ying Cheng likewise views Taoism as a religion embedded into Chinese history and tradition, while also assuming many different "forms of philosophy and practical wisdom". Chung-ying Cheng also noted that the Taoist view of 'heaven' mainly from "observation and meditation, [though] the teaching of [the Tao] can also include the way of heaven independently of human nature". Taoism

20139-457: Was an influential school of thought at this time. The Huainanzi and the Taipingjing are important sources from this period. An unorganized form of Taoism was popular in the Han dynasty that syncretized many preexisting forms in multiple ways for different groups existed during a rough span of time throughout the 2nd century BCE. Also during the Han, the earliest extant commentaries on

20286-536: Was called the Northern Celestial masters , and their main scripture was the Xisheng jing ( Scripture of Western Ascension ). During the sixth century, Taoists attempted to unify the various traditions into one integrated Taoism that could compete with Buddhism and Confucianism. To do this they adopted the schema known as the "three caverns", first developed by the scholar Lu Xiujing (406–477) based on

20433-416: Was published at the behest of the Chinese emperor . Thus, according to Russell Kirkland, "in several important senses, it was really Lu Hsiu-ching who founded Taoism, for it was he who first gained community acceptance for a common canon of texts, which established the boundaries, and contents, of 'the teachings of the Tao' (Tao-chiao). Lu also reconfigured the ritual activities of the tradition, and formulated

20580-416: Was supposed to have appointed four ministerial officials (two sets of two brothers) to make the necessary astronomical observations for a reformed calendar. Each of these individuals were sent to the limits of the royal territory, one in each of the cardinal directions , where they were supposed to observe certain stars at sunset on each of the solstices and equinoxes, so the results could then be compared, and

20727-477: Was synchronized through the calendar reform and the engineering measures were made possible by standardizing the weights and measures. Towards the end of the year, Shun returned to the imperial seat, and after a sacrificial offering of a bullock at his ancestral temple, he then put into action the plan that he had developed during his working tour of inspection. One of these was to divide the empire into twelve administrative units ( zhou ), each one administered from

20874-496: Was syncretic, combining elements from Buddhism and Confucianism with Taoist tradition. According to Wang Chongyang, the " three teachings " (Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism), "when investigated, prove to be but one school". Quanzhen became the largest and most important Taoist school in China when master Qiu Chuji met with Genghis Khan who ended up making him the leader of all Chinese religions as well as exempting Quanzhen institutions from taxation. Another important Quanzhen figure

21021-508: Was termed daojiao (the teaching of the Tao). The Tang was the height of Taoist influence, during which Taoism, led by the Patriarch of Supreme Clarity, was the dominant religion in China. According to Russell Kirkland, this new Taoist synthesis had its main foundation in the Lingbao school's teachings, which was appealing to all classes of society and drew on Mahayana Buddhism. Perhaps

21168-415: Was the grandson of Gaoyang 高陽 and the son of Gun 鯀 . His name was Wenming 文命 . He was generous and capable of helping; his virtue was unfailing. Attractive in his humanity and reliable in speech, his voice created the standards of sound and his body those of measure. He was praised as a superior person. Indefatigable and reverent he laid down the basic principles ( gang 綱 and ji 紀 ). He inspected

21315-435: Was the legendary founder of the Xia dynasty (c. 2070 BCE-c. 1600 BCE), and worked so long and hard fighting the mythical Great Flood that he became partially paralyzed. Yu was also called Dayu 大禹 (with 大 "big; great") or Xiayu 夏禹 (with 夏 "Xia dynasty"). The (121 CE) Shuowen Jiezi gives the earliest Chinese dictionary definition of yu 禹 : "a "bug; reptile", from the "animal trampling tracks" radical ,

21462-415: Was the main dynastic protector deity of the Ming. The Ming era saw the rise of the Jingming ("Pure Illumination") school to prominence, which merged Taoism with Buddhist and Confucian teachings and focused on "purity, clarity, loyalty and filial piety ". The school derided internal and external alchemy, fasting ( bigu ), and breathwork. Instead, the school focused on using mental cultivation to return to

21609-425: Was the most influential of the Taoist hermits. Some scholars holds that since he lived in the south, he may have been influenced by Chinese shamanism . Zhuang Zhou and his followers insisted they were the heirs of ancient traditions and the ways of life of by-then legendary kingdoms. Pre-Taoist philosophers and mystics whose activities may have influenced Taoism included shamans, naturalists skilled in understanding

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