The ZF41 was an optical sight produced in Germany during the Second World War .
78-488: Starting from 1941, the short 1.5× Zielfernrohr 41 (ZF41) telescopic sight was fitted to some Karabiner 98k rifles for designated marksman use. The ZF41 was the first attempt to provide the ordinary infantryman with a rifle capable of being used, if not for pure sniping , then at least for sharpshooting. It was initially planned to equip most combat units with the ZF41 scopes, but only 6% of German weapons production could fit
156-408: A White-tailed deer buck by adjusting magnification until the area between the backbone and the brisket fits between the crosshairs and the top thick post of the reticle. Once that is done, the range be read from the scale printed on the magnification adjustment ring. Although FFP designs are not susceptible to magnification-induced errors, they have their own disadvantages. It's challenging to design
234-542: A mastodon skeleton (which in Peale's time were referred to as mammoth bones; these common names were amended by Georges Cuvier in 1800, and his proposed usage is that employed today) that Peale found in New York . Peale worked with his son to mount the skeleton for display. The display of the mammoth bones entered Peale into a long-standing debate between Thomas Jefferson and Comte de Buffon . Buffon argued that Europe
312-500: A mathematical formula "[Target size] ÷ [Number of mil intervals] × 1000 = Distance", the user can easily calculate the distance to a target, as a 1-meter object is going to be exactly 1 milliradian at a 1000-meter distance. For example, if the user sees an object known to be 1.8 meters tall as something 3 mils tall through the telescopic sight, the distance to that object will be 600 meters (1.8 ÷ 3 × 1000 = 600). Some milling reticles have additional marking patterns in
390-602: A scope informally, is an optical sighting device based on a refracting telescope . It is equipped with some form of a referencing pattern – known as a reticle – mounted in a focally appropriate position in its optical system to provide an accurate point of aim. Telescopic sights are used with all types of systems that require magnification in addition to reliable visual aiming, as opposed to non-magnifying iron sights , reflector (reflex) sights , holographic sights or laser sights , and are most commonly found on long-barrel firearms , particularly rifles, usually via
468-491: A scope mount . Similar devices are also found on other platforms such as artillery , tanks and even aircraft . The optical components may be combined with optoelectronics to add night vision or smart device features. The first experiments directed to give shooters optical aiming aids go back to the early 17th century. For centuries, different optical aiming aids and primitive predecessors of telescopic sights were created that had practical or performance limitations. In
546-450: A zoom mechanism behind the erector lenses . Variable-power sights offer more flexibility when shooting at varying distances, target sizes and light conditions, and offer a relative wide field of view at lower magnification settings. The syntax for variable sights is the following: minimal magnification – maximum magnification × objective lens , for example "3-9×40" means a telescopic sight with variable magnification between 3× and 9×, and
624-416: A 40 mm objective lens. The ratio between the maximum and minimum magnifications of a variable-power sight is known as its "zoom ratio". Confusingly, some older telescopic sights, mainly of German or other European manufacture, have a different classification where the second part of the designation refers to light-gathering power. In these cases, a 4×81 (4× magnification) sight would be presumed to have
702-429: A brighter sight picture than a 2.5×70 (2.5× magnification), but the objective lens diameter would not bear any direct relation to picture brightness, as brightness is affected also by the magnification factor. Typically objective lenses on early sights are smaller than modern sights, in these examples the 4×81 would have an objective 36 mm diameter and the 2.5×70 should be approximately 21 mm (relative luminosity
780-445: A combination of the above, that are added to a crosshair to help with easier aiming. Many modern reticles are designed for (stadiametric) rangefinding purposes. Perhaps the most popular and well-known ranging reticle is the mil-dot reticle , which consists of a duplex crosshair with small dots marking each milliradian (or "mil") intervals from the center. An alternative variant uses perpendicular hash lines instead of dots, and
858-405: A complex production process. The main tube of telescopic sights varies in size, material, the applied production process and surface finish. The typical outside diameters vary between 19.05 mm (0.75 in) and 40 mm (1.57 in), although 25.4 mm (1 in), 30 mm and recently 34 mm are by far the most common sizes. The internal diameter of the main tube influences
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#1732783237825936-466: A correspondence with Thomas Hall, of the Finsbury Museum, City Road, Finsbury, London proposing to purchase British stuffed items for his museum. Eventually, an exchange system was established between the two, whereby Peale sent American birds to Hall in exchange for an equal number of British birds. This arrangement continued until the end of the century. The Peale Museum was the first to display
1014-662: A crisp tactile feedback corresponding to each graduation of turn, often accompanied by a soft but audible clicking sound. Each indexing increment is thus colloquially called a "click", and the corresponding angular adjustment of the optical axis is known as the click value . The most commonly seen click values are 1 ⁄ 4 MOA (often expressed in approximations as " 1 ⁄ 4 inch at 100 yards") and 0.1 mil (often expressed as "10 mm at 100 meters"), although other click values such as 1 ⁄ 2 MOA, 1 ⁄ 3 MOA or 1 ⁄ 8 MOA and other mil increments are also present on
1092-409: A descendant of Johannes de Peyster , the next year. With his second wife, he had six additional children, including: In 1805, Peale married Hannah Moore, a Quaker from Philadelphia, who became his third wife. She helped to raise the younger children from his previous two marriages. Peale's slave, Moses Williams , was also trained in the arts while growing up in the Peale household and later became
1170-445: A first focal plane reticle expands and shrinks along with the rest of the image as the magnification is adjusted, while a second focal plane reticle would appear the same size and shape to the user as the target image grows and shrinks. In general, the majority of modern variable-power sights are SFP unless stated otherwise. Every European high-end telescopic sight manufacturer offers FFP reticles on variable power telescopic sights, since
1248-470: A fixed magnification factor of 10×, with a 50 mm objective lens. In general terms, larger objective lens diameters, due to their ability to gather a higher luminous flux , provide a larger exit pupil and hence provide a brighter image at the eyepiece . Most early telescopic sights were fixed-power and were in essence specially designed viewing telescopes. Telescopic sights with variable magnifications appeared later, and were varied by manually adjusting
1326-665: A great interest in natural history , and organized the first U.S. scientific expedition in 1801. These two major interests combined in his founding of the Philadelphia Museum in 1784. It housed a diverse collection of botanical, biological, and archaeological specimens. In 1786, Peale was elected to the American Philosophical Society . The museum contained a large variety of birds which Peale himself acquired, and in many instances mounted, having taught himself taxidermy. In 1792, Peale initiated
1404-733: A light source to provide an illuminated reticle for low-light condition aiming. In sights such as the SUSAT or Elcan C79 Optical Sight tritium-illuminated reticles are used. The Trijicon Corporation, famous for their ACOG prism sights that are adopted by various assault infantry branches of the United States military , uses tritium in their combat and hunting-grade firearm optics. The tritium light source has to be replaced every 8–12 years, since it gradually loses brightness due to radioactive decay . Charles Willson Peale Charles Willson Peale (April 15, 1741 – February 22, 1827)
1482-584: A long-eye relief (LER) telescopic sight is the German ZF41 which was used during World War II on Karabiner 98k rifles. An early example of a man-portable sight for low visibility/night use is the Zielgerät (aiming device) 1229 (ZG 1229), also known by its code name Vampir ("vampire"). The ZG 1229 Vampir was a Generation 0 active infrared night vision device developed for the Wehrmacht for
1560-664: A noted artist. In 1775, Peale's enthusiasm for the American Revolution and the new national government led him to move from Maryland to Philadelphia , then the national capital, where he began painting portraits of notable Americans and visitors from overseas. His estate, now located at La Salle University in Philadelphia, is now open to the public. Peale also recruited troops for the Pennsylvania militia , which ultimately joined with other militias to create
1638-752: A professional silhouette artist. In 1810, Peale purchased a farm in Germantown , where he intended to retire. He named this estate Belfield and cultivated extensive gardens there. After Hannah's death in 1821, Peale lived with his son Rubens and sold Belfield in 1826. Peale died on February 22, 1827, and was buried at St. Peter's Episcopal Church in Philadelphia alongside his wife Elizabeth DePeyster. A Renaissance man , Peale had expertise not only in painting but also in many diverse fields, including carpentry , dentistry , optometry , shoemaking , and taxidermy . In 1802, John Isaac Hawkins patented
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#17327832378251716-423: A record for the highest price paid for a North American portrait. In 1794, Peale designed the first state seal of Maryland . One of his most celebrated paintings is The Staircase Group (1795), a double portrait of his sons Raphaelle and Titian, is painted in the trompe-l'œil style and appears today in the Philadelphia Museum of Art . This painting is said to have fooled even George Washington. Peale had
1794-474: A reticle that is visible through the entire range of magnification: a reticle that looks fine and crisp at 24× magnification may be very difficult to see at 6×. On the other hand, a reticle that is easy to see at 6× may be too thick at 24× to make precision shots. Shooting in low light conditions also tends to require either illumination or a bold reticle, along with lower magnification to maximize light gathering. In practice, these issues tend to significantly reduce
1872-703: A round dot, small cross , diamond , chevron and/or circle in the center (in some prism sights and reflex / holographic sights ), or a pointed vertical bar in a " T "-like pattern (such as the famous "German #1" reticle used on the Wehrmacht ZF41 sights during the Second World War , or the SVD -pattern reticle used on the Soviet PSO-1 sights during the Cold War ) that essentially imitates
1950-595: A sight made by gunsmith Morgan James of Utica, New York . Chapman worked with James on the concepts and design of the Chapman-James sight. In 1855, optician William Malcolm of Syracuse, New York began producing his own telescopic sight, used an original design incorporating achromatic lenses such as those used in telescopes, and improved the windage and elevation adjustments. These Malcolm sights were between 3× and 20× magnification (possibly more). Malcolm's sights and those made by Vermont jeweller L. M. Amidon were
2028-781: A target of a known diameter of 16 inches fills just half of the total post-to-post distance (i.e. filling from sight center to post), then the distance to target is approximately 200 yards (180 m). With a target of a diameter of 16 inches that fills the entire sight picture from post to post, the range is approximately 100 yards. Other ranges can be similarly estimated accurately in an analog fashion for known target sizes through proportionality calculations. Holdover, for estimating vertical point of aim offset required for bullet drop compensation on level terrain, and horizontal windage offset, for estimating side to side point of aim offsets required for wind effect corrections, can similarly be compensated for through using approximations based on
2106-518: A telescope to a rifle as a sighting aid, but was unable to mount it sufficiently far forward to prevent the eyepiece impacting with the operator's eye during recoil . In the same year, James Lind and Captain Alexander Blair described a gun which included a telescopic sight. The first rifle sight was created in 1835 -1840. In the book The Improved American Rifle , written in 1844, British-American civil engineer John R. Chapman described
2184-417: A typical Leupold brand 16 minute of angle (MOA) duplex reticle (similar to image B) on a fixed-power telescopic sight, the distance from post to post, between the heavier lines of the reticle spanning the center of the sight picture, is approximately 32 inches (810 millimeters) at 200 yards (180 m), or, equivalently, approximately 16 inches (410 millimeters) from the center to any post at 200 yards. If
2262-409: Is essential that its brightness can be adjusted. A reticle that is too bright will cause glare in the operator's eye, interfering with their ability to see in low-light conditions. This is because the pupil of the human eye closes quickly upon receiving any source of light. Most illuminated reticles provide adjustable brightness settings to adjust the reticle precisely to the ambient light. Illumination
2340-406: Is etched onto one of the prism's internal reflection surfaces, which allows an easy way to illuminate the reticle (from the back side of the prism) even when active illumination is turned off. Being optical telescopes , prism sights can focally compensate for a user's astigmatism . Prismatic sights are lighter and more compact than conventional telescopic sights, but are mostly fixed-powered in
2418-465: Is known as the mil-hash reticle . Such graduated reticles, along with those with MOA -based increments, are collectively and unofficially called " milling reticles ", and have gained significant acceptance in NATO and other military and law enforcement organizations. Mil-based reticles, being decimal in graduations, are by far more prevalent due to the ease and reliability of ranging calculations with
ZF41 - Misplaced Pages Continue
2496-675: Is that admirable secret, which, as all other things, appeared when it pleased the All Disposer, at whose direction a spider's line drawn in an opened case could first give me by its perfect apparition, when I was with two convexes trying experiments about the sun, the unexpected knowledge...if I .... placed a thread where that glass [the eyepiece] would best discern it, and then joining both glasses, and fitting their distance for any object, I should see this at any part that I did direct it to ..." — William Gascoigne In 1776, Charles Willson Peale collaborated with David Rittenhouse to mount
2574-470: Is the square of the exit pupil as measured in mm; a 36 mm objective lens diameter divided by the 4× magnification gives an exit pupil of 9 mm; 9×9=81) A relatively new type of telescopic sight, called prismatic telescopic sight , prismatic sight or " prism scope ", replaces the image-erecting relay lenses of a traditional telescope with a roof prism design commonly found in compact binoculars , monoculars and spotting scopes . The reticle
2652-463: Is usually provided by a battery -powered LED , though other electric light sources can be used. The light is projected forward through the sight, and reflects off the back surface of the reticle. Red is the most common colour used, as it least impedes the shooter's natural night vision . This illumination method can be used to provide both daytime and low-light conditions reticle illumination. Radioactive isotopes such as tritium can also be used as
2730-594: The Cartesian coordinate system , which the shooter can use as a simple reference for rough horizontal and vertical calibrations. Crosshair reticles typically do not have any graduated markings, and thus are unsuitable for stadiametric rangefinding . However some crosshair designs have thickened outer sections that help with aiming in poor contrast situations when the fine crosshair center cannot be seen clearly. These "thin-thick" crosshair reticles, known as duplex reticles , can also be used for some rough estimations if
2808-749: The Continental Army , commanded by George Washington . In the Pennsylvania militia, Peale rose to the rank of captain by 1776, after participating in several battles. While in combat, he painted miniature portraits of various officers in the Continental Army. He produced enlarged versions of these in later years. After the Revolutionary War, he served in the Pennsylvania state assembly for a year, from 1779 to 1780, and then returned to painting full-time in Philadelphia. Peale
2886-619: The G33/40 equipped with the ZF41. These were photographed for inclusion in the ZF41 manual in 1942. However the Brno factory switched over to the Karabiner 98k in 1943. Approximately 350 to 400 scoped G33/40 rifles were made in total. As of 2013 only one has been examined and found to be a real test batch scoped rifle: it is a late dot 1942 production rifle with serial number 3962C. Telescopic sight A telescopic sight , commonly called
2964-495: The StG 44 assault rifle, intended primarily for night use. The issuing of the ZG 1229 Vampir system to the military started in 1944 and it was used on a small scale in combat from February 1945 until the final stages of World War II. Telescopic sights are classified in terms of the optical magnification (i.e. "power") and the objective lens diameter . For example, "10×50" would denote
3042-965: The Thirteen Colonies that proved influential in organizing and paving the way for the American Revolution . He proved unsuccessful in saddle making as a career and then tried fixing clocks and working with metals, but both of these endeavors also failed. He then took up painting. Finding that he had a talent for painting, especially portraiture, Peale studied for a time under John Hesselius and John Singleton Copley . John Beale Bordley and friends eventually raised enough money for him to travel to England to take instruction from Benjamin West . Peale studied with West for three years beginning in 1767, afterward returning to North America and settling in Annapolis, Maryland . There, he taught painting to his younger brother, James Peale , who in time also became
3120-519: The eyepiece , since the image illuminance is often sufficient without needing an enlarged objective bell to enhance light-gathering. Most LPVOs have reticles mounted at the second focal plane, but recently first-focal plane LPVOs have become popular, especially those with high zoom ratios above 6×. LPVOs are also informally referred to as " AR scopes" or " carbine scopes", due to the recently increasing popularity of modern sporting rifles and compact "tactical"-style semi-automatic rifles used among
3198-501: The law enforcement , home defense and practical shooting enthusiasts crowd. Telescopic sights are usually designed for the specific application for which they are intended. Those different designs create certain optical parameters. Those parameters are: Because a typical telescopic sight has several optical elements with special characteristics and several air-to-glass surfaces, telescopic sight manufacturers use different types of optical coatings for technical reasons and to improve
ZF41 - Misplaced Pages Continue
3276-539: The Pennsylvania State Assembly from 1779 to 1780. Peale's portraits of leading American figures of the late 18th century are some of the most recognizable and prominent from that era. In 1784, he founded the Philadelphia Museum , one of the first American museums. More than two centuries after Peale painted his 1779 portrait Washington at Princeton , the painting sold for $ 21.5 million, the highest price ever paid for an American portrait. Peale
3354-647: The ZF39 was used by snipers at the early stages of the war in the Eastern Front , but many snipers preferred captured Soviet rifles and custom-equipped German rifles with civilian scopes such as the vintage Gewehr 98 . By the end of the war in 1945, more than 100,000 ZF41 scopes had been produced, the largest production of German optical sights during the war. Approximately 3,000 were marked ZF40, 29,000 were marked ZF41 (ZF40 and ZF41 later had this etched out and ZF41/1 added when they came back for service or repair) and
3432-437: The aim high and away from the target, are therefore called holdover reticles . Such aiming technique can quickly correct for ballistic deviations without needing to manually readjust the sight's zero, thus enabling the shooter to place rapid, reliably calibrated follow-up shots. When shooting at extended distances , the farther the target, the greater the bullet drops and wind drifts that need to be compensated. Because of this,
3510-412: The amount of "lost" light present inside the telescopic sight which would otherwise make the image appear hazy (low contrast). A telescopic sight with good optical coatings may yield a brighter image than uncoated telescopic sights with a larger objective lens, on account of superior light transmission through the assembly. The first transparent interference-based coating Transparentbelag (T) used by Zeiss
3588-451: The amount of space within which the relay lens group and other optical elements can be mounted, the maximum size of the erector tube, and the maximum angular ranges for elevation and windage adjustments. Telescopic sights intended for long-range and/or low-light usage generally feature larger main tube diameters. Besides optical, spatial and attainable range of elevation and windage adjustments considerations, larger diameter main tubes offer
3666-532: The available magnification range on FFP sights compared to SFP, and FFP sights are much more expensive compared to SFP models of similar quality. Most high-end optics manufacturers leave the choice between a FFP or SFP mounted reticle to the customer or have sight product models with both setups. Variable-power telescopic sights with FFP reticles have no problems with point of impact shifts. Variable-power telescopic sights with SFP reticles can have slight point-of-impact shifts through their magnification range, caused by
3744-437: The bottom two quadrants , consisting of elaborate arrays of neatly spaced fine dots, "+" marks or hashed lines (usually at 0.2 mil or ½ MOA intervals), to provide accurate references for compensating bullet drops and wind drifts by simply aiming above (i.e. "hold [the aim] over" the target) and upwind of the target (i.e. deflection shooting , or " Kentucky windage "). This type of reticles, designed to hold
3822-475: The coating, the character of the image seen in the telescopic sight under normal daylight can either "warmer" or "colder" and appear either with higher or lower contrast. Subject to the application, the coating is also optimized for maximum color fidelity through the visible spectrum . A common application technique is physical vapor deposition of one or more superimposed very thin anti-reflective coating layer(s) which includes evaporative deposition , making it
3900-414: The commercial and military and law enforcement sights. Older telescopic sights often did not offer internal windage and/or elevation adjustments in the telescopic sight. In case the telescopic sight lacked internal adjustment mechanisms adjustable mounts are used (on the scope rings or the mounting rail itself) for sighting-in . Telescopic sights come with a variety of different reticles , ranging from
3978-446: The front post on iron sights . However, most reticles have both horizontal and vertical lines to provide better visual references. The crosshair is the most rudimentary reticle, represented as a pair of smooth, perpendicularly intersecting lines in the shape of a " + ", and the crosshair center is used for aiming the weapon. The crosshair lines geometrically resemble the X- and Y-axis of
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#17327832378254056-418: The highest power. Some long-range shooters and military snipers use fixed-power telescopic sights to eliminate this potential for error. Some SFP sights take advantage of this aspect by having the shooter adjust magnification until the target fits a certain way inside the reticle and then extrapolate the range based on the power adjustment. Some Leupold hunting sights with duplex reticles allow range estimation to
4134-604: The human eye luminous efficiency function variance. Maximal light transmission around wavelengths of 555 nm ( green ) is important for obtaining optimal photopic vision using the eye cone cells for observation in well-lit conditions. Maximal light transmission around wavelengths of 498 nm ( cyan ) is important for obtaining optimal scotopic vision using the eye rod cells for observation in low light conditions. These allow high-quality 21st century telescopic sights to practically achieve measured over 90% light transmission values in low light conditions. Depending on
4212-402: The image they produce. Lens coatings can increase light transmission, minimize reflections, repel water and grease and even protect the lens from scratches. Manufacturers often have their own designations for their lens coatings. Anti-reflective coatings reduce light lost at every optical surface through reflection at each surface. Reducing reflection via anti-reflective coatings also reduces
4290-434: The late 1630s, English amateur astronomer William Gascoigne was experimenting with a Keplerian telescope and left it with the case open. Later he found that a spider had spun its web inside the case, and when he looked through the telescope he found that the web was in focus with distant objects. Gascoigne realised that he could use this principle to make a telescopic sight for use in his astronomical observations. "This
4368-432: The low magnification range (1–4×, 1–6×, 1–8×, or even 1–10×) are known as low-power variable optics or LPVOs . These telescopic sights are often equipped with built-in reticle illumination and can be dialed down to 1× magnification. As low magnifications are mostly used in close- and medium ranges, LPVOs typically have no parallax compensation (though a few rare models do) and have a completely cylindrical shape ahead of
4446-614: The low magnification ranges (usually 2×, 2.5×, 3× or more commonly 4×, occasionally 1× or 5× or more), suitable for shooting at short/medium distances. One of the best known examples is the battle-proven Trijicon ACOG used by the USMC , US Army, and USSOCOM , although variable-magnification prism sights do also exist, such as the ELCAN Specter DR/TR series used by the Canadian Army . Variable-zoom telescopic sights in
4524-547: The oldest type of reticles and are made out of metal wire or thread, mounted in an optically appropriate position in the telescopic sight's tube. Etched reticles are an optic element, often a glass plate, with inked patterns etched onto it, and are mounted as an integrated part of the lightpath . When backlit through the ocular, a wire reticle will reflect incoming light and cannot present a fully opaque (black) reticle with high contrast. An etched reticle will stay fully opaque (black) if backlit. Reticle patterns can be as simple as
4602-468: The optical needs of European hunters who live in jurisdictions that allow hunting at dusk, night and dawn differ from hunters who traditionally or by legislation do not hunt in low light conditions. The main disadvantage of SFP designs comes with the use of range-finding reticles such as mil-dot. Since the proportion between the reticle and the target is dependent on selected magnification, such reticles only work properly at one magnification level, typically
4680-912: The positioning of the reticle in the mechanical zoom mechanism in the rear part of the telescopic sight. Normally these impact shifts are insignificant, but accuracy-oriented users, who wish to use their telescopic sight trouble-free at several magnification levels, often opt for FFP reticles. Around the year 2005 Zeiss was the first high-end European telescopic sight manufacturer who brought out variable magnification military grade telescopic sight models with rear SFP mounted reticles. They get around impermissible impact shifts by laboriously hand-adjusting every military grade telescopic sight. The American high-end telescopic sight manufacturer U.S. Optics Inc. also offers variable magnification military grade telescopic sight models with SFP mounted reticles. Either type of reticle can be illuminated for use in low-light or daytime conditions. With any illuminated low-light reticle, it
4758-709: The possibility to increase the tube walls thickness (hence a more robust sight) without sacrificing a lot of internal diameter. A telescopic sight can have several manual adjustment controls in the form of control knobs or coaxial rings. All telescopic sights have the first three (diopter, elevation, windage) adjustment controls, and the fourth (magnification) control is offered on variable-power sights. The remaining two adjustments are optional and typically only found on higher-end models with additional features. The windage and elevation adjustment knobs (colloquially called "tracking turrets") often have internal ball detents to help accurately index their rotation, which provide
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#17327832378254836-528: The reference arrays of holdover reticles are typically much wider at the lower portion, shaping into an isosceles triangle / trapezium that resembles the canopy of a spruce , the ornamental tree traditionally used to make Christmas trees . Holdover reticles therefore are colloquially also known as " Christmas tree reticles ". Well-known examples of these reticles include GAP G2DMR, Horus TReMoR series and H58/H59, Vortex EBR-2B and Kahles AMR. Telescopic sights based on image erector lenses (used to present to
4914-539: The rest designated ZF41/1. The G-41(m) and G-41(w) semi-automatic rifles had ZF40 scopes added in small quantities for test and evaluation in the field. MP-43, MP-44 , FG-42 automatic select fire weapons had the ZF41/1 fitted for test only, these were not produced past prototype stage, the ZF4 scope was then used on these weapons instead. The Germans also produced a small amount of prototype and pre-production test batch of
4992-616: The second official physiognotrace , a mechanical drawing device, and partnered with Peale to market it to prospective buyers. Peale sent a watercolor sketch of the physiognotrace, along with a detailed explanation, to Thomas Jefferson . The drawing is now held with the Jefferson Papers in the Library of Congress. Around 1804, Peale obtained the American patent rights to the polygraph from its inventor John Isaac Hawkins, about
5070-426: The sight. Though useful for sharpshooting with normal infantry units, the design was generally rejected by sniper schools and disliked by snipers , because the 1.5x magnifying scope was deemed insufficient for shooting effectively at point targets over long distances. Problems were the scope's extreme eye relief, poor functioning in bad light and low magnifying power. Nonetheless, lack of better telescopic sights meant
5148-409: The simple crosshairs to complex reticles designed to allow the shooter to range a target, to compensate for the bullet drop, and to adjust windage required due to crosswinds. A user can estimate the range to objects of known size, the size of objects at known distances, and even roughly compensate for both bullet drop and wind drifts at known ranges with a reticle-equipped sight. For example, with
5226-657: The standard sharpshooter equipment during the American Civil War . Other telescopic sights of the same period were the Davidson and the Parker Hale . An early practical refracting telescope based telescopic sight was built in 1880 by August Fiedler (of Stronsdorf , Austria ), forestry commissioner of German Prince Reuss . Later telescopic sights with extra long eye relief became available for use on handguns and scout rifles . A historic example of
5304-462: The transition point between thinner and thicker lines are at a defined distance from the center, as seen in designs such as the common 30/30 reticles (both the fine horizontal and vertical crosshair lines are 30 MOAs in length at 4× magnification before transition to thicker lines). There can be additional features such as enlarged center dot (frequently also illuminated ), concentric circle (solid or broken/dashed), chevron , stadia bars, or
5382-812: The ubiquitous metric units , as each milliradian at each meter of distance simply corresponds to a subtension of 1 millimeter; while MOA-based reticles are more popular in civilian usage favoring imperial units (e.g. in the United States), because by coincidence 1 MOA at 100 yards (the most common sight-in distance) can be confidently rounded to 1 inch. To allow methodological uniformity, accurate mental calculation and efficient communication between spotters and shooters in sniper teams , mil-based sights are typically matched by elevation/windage adjustments in 0.1 mil increments. There are however military and shooting sport sights that use coarser or finer reticle increments. By means of
5460-551: The user with an upright image) have two planes of focus where a reticle can be placed: at the focal plane between the objective and the image erector lens system (the First Focal Plane (FFP)), or the focal plane between the image erector lens system and the eyepiece (the Second Focal Plane (SFP)). On fixed power telescopic sights there is no significant difference, but on variable power telescopic sights
5538-447: The wind speed, from observing flags or other objects, by a trained user through using the reticle marks. The less-commonly used holdunder, used for shooting on sloping terrain, can even be estimated by an appropriately-skilled user with a reticle-equipped sight, once both the slope of the terrain and the slant range to target are known. There are two main types of reticle constructions: wire reticle and etched reticle . Wire reticles are
5616-598: Was a prolific artist. He completed portraits of scores of historic figures, including Benjamin Franklin , John Hancock , Thomas Jefferson , Alexander Hamilton , James Mitchell Varnum , and George Washington. In 1771, Washington sat for a portrait with Peale, and he later sat for six additional sittings. Using the seven portraits he painted of Washington, Peale produced close to 60 portraits of Washington. In January 2005, one of them, Peale's Washington at Princeton sold for $ 21.3 million (~$ 31.9 million in 2023), setting
5694-477: Was among the first to adopt Linnaean taxonomy . This system drew a stark contrast between Peale's museum and his competitors who presented their artifacts as mysterious oddities of the natural world. The museum underwent several moves during its existence. At various times it was located in several prominent buildings, including Independence Hall and the original home of the American Philosophical Society . The museum eventually failed, in large part because Peale
5772-660: Was an American painter, military officer, scientist, and naturalist. In 1775, inspired by the American Revolution , Peale moved from his native Maryland to Philadelphia , where he set up a painting studio and joined the Sons of Liberty . During the American Revolutionary War , Peale served in the Pennsylvania Militia and the Continental Army , participating in several military campaigns. In addition to his military service, Peale also served in
5850-736: Was born on April 15, 1741, in Chester, Maryland . He was the son of Charles Peale (1709–1750) and his wife Margaret Triggs (1709–1791). Peale had a younger brother, James Peale (1749–1831), and was the brother-in-law of Nathaniel Ramsey , who would go on to serve as a delegate to the Congress of the Confederation . Four years after his father's death in 1750, Peale, at age 13, became an apprentice to saddle maker Nathan Waters. When he reached maturity, Peale opened his own saddle shop. In 1764, Peale joined Sons of Liberty , an organization of
5928-478: Was invented in 1935 by Olexander Smakula . A classic lens-coating material is magnesium fluoride , which reduces reflected light from 5% to 1%. Modern lens coatings consist of complex multi-layers and reflect only 0.25% or less to yield an image with maximum brightness and natural colors. Determined by the optical properties of the lenses used and intended primary use of the telescopic sight, different coatings are preferred, to optimize light transmission dictated by
6006-556: Was superior to the Americas biologically, which was illustrated through the size of animals found there. Jefferson referenced the existence of these "mammoths" (which he believed still roamed northern regions of the continent) as evidence for a greater biodiversity in North America. Peale's display of these bones drew attention from Europe, as did his method of re-assembling large skeletal specimens in three dimensions. The museum
6084-455: Was unsuccessful at obtaining government funding. After his death, the museum was sold to, and split up by, showmen P. T. Barnum and Moses Kimball . In 1762, Peale married Rachel Brewer (1744–1790), who bore him ten children, most of them named for Peale's favorite male and female artists. Several of his sons and daughters also pursued careers as painters, including: After Rachel's death in 1790, Peale married Elizabeth de Peyster (1765–1804),
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