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119-654: The Romanian zmeu could also be deemed a "Slavic" dragon, but a non-cognate etymology has been proposed. A zmei may be beast-like or human-like (assuming dragon form in air, human form on ground), sometimes wooing women, but often plays the role of chief antagonist in Russian literature . In the Balkans , the zmei type is overall regarded as benevolent, as opposed to malevolent dragons known variously as lamia  [ bg ] , ala or hala , or aždaja . The Polish smok (e.g. Wawel Dragon of Kraków ) or

238-488: A samovila (Macedonia). A woman may conceive a zmei with a serpent (Macedonia), but may suffer a prolonged period of pregnancy. Locally in Ukraine, around Lutsk , the rainbow is called tsmok ("sucker") which is said to be a tube that guzzles water from the sea and rivers and carries the moisture up into the clouds. There is the notion (thought to be inspired by the tornado) of a Slavic dragon that dips its tail into

357-488: A lexicon of over 150,000 words in its contemporary form, Romanian showed a high degree of lexical permeability, reflecting contact with Thraco-Dacian , Slavic languages (including Old Slavic , Serbian , Bulgarian , Ukrainian , and Russian ), Greek , Hungarian , German , Turkish , and to languages that served as cultural models during and after the Age of Enlightenment , in particular French . This lexical permeability

476-978: A "flying serpent" is always implicit, and similarly for the Belarussian zmiej , hence "dragon". There is dissenting opinion that the Romanian zmeu may not be a loan word from the Slavic zmei group of words, but rather an early borrowing from the Thracian language . The forms and spellings are Russian: zmei or zmey змей (pl. zmei зме́и ); Ukrainian: zmiy змій (pl. zmiyi змії ); Belarussian : zmiej ( змей ); Bulgarian: zmei змей (pl. zmeiove змейове ; female zmeikinya змейкиня ); Polish zmiy żmij (pl. żmije ); Serbo-Croatian zmaj змај (pl. зма̀јеви ); Slovene : zmaj zmáj or zmàj (pl. zmáji or zmáji ), or Macedonian : zmev ( змев ; pl. zmevovi змевови ).

595-572: A "regional language" alongside Ukrainian as per the 2012 legislation on languages in Ukraine . Romanian is an official or administrative language in various communities and organisations, such as the Latin Union and the European Union . Romanian is also one of the five languages in which religious services are performed in the autonomous monastic state of Mount Athos , spoken in the monastic communities of Prodromos and Lakkoskiti . In

714-597: A dragon, but also just an ordinary snake. There are Slavic folk tales in which a smok , when it reaches a certain age, grows into a dragon ( zmaj , etc.). Similar lore is widespread across Slavic countries, as described below. The folklore that an ancient snake grows into a dragon is fairly widespread in Slavic regions. This is also paralleled by similar lore in China. In Russian lore, the grass snake ] ( уж ) or some other serpent, lizard, rooster, or carp achieves certain longevity, such as 9 years or 40 years, it transmutes into

833-429: A flying zmei . In Bulgaria is a similar folk belief that the smok (" Aesculapian snake ") begins its life-cycle as a non-venomous snake but later grows into a zmei dragon after living 40 years. Or, if the body of a decapitated snake ( zmiya ) is joined to an ox or buffalo horn, it grows into a lamia after just 40 days, according to Bulgarian folk tradition published by Racho Slaveykov  [ bg ] in

952-741: A foreign language, for example the Nicolae Bălcescu High-school in Gyula , Hungary. Romanian is taught as a foreign language in tertiary institutions, mostly in European countries such as Germany, France and Italy, and the Netherlands, as well as in the United States. Overall, it is taught as a foreign language in 43 countries around the world. Romanian has become popular in other countries through movies and songs performed in

1071-542: A house where the serpent has already visited may help; or making the sign of the cross at entry points, such as window, door or stovepipe. Mythology also tells that the Fiery Serpent had a son by a human woman, and she bore a werewolf ( оборотень ), the Fiery Serpent Wolf ( Zmei Ognennyi Volk ; Змей Огненный Волк ). This son combatted and defeated his father. In Serbian epic literature, around

1190-511: A long life, because it resulted in suicide. Zmeys would kidnap girls and lead them into their mountain caves where she would serve him. There is a pan-Balkan notion that the zmei (known by various cognates) is a sort of "guardian-spirit dragon" against the "evil" types of dragon, given below. One explanation is that the Balkan zmej symbolized the patriotic dragon fighting the Turkish dragon,

1309-472: A name for a specific type of dragon at all, but rather a fanciful term for a generic "monster". According to this explanation, the term is to be understood as a poetic form of chudovishche ( чудовище ) meaning "monster", with a -iudo ending appended simply for the rhyme. Chudo in modern Russian means "a wonder", and once also had the meaning of "a giant"; "yudo" may relate to Iuda , the Russian form of

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1428-530: A name that was extended to the literature and writers around this time such as Vasile Alecsandri , Grigore Alexandrescu , Nicolae Bălcescu , Timotei Cipariu . Between 1830 and 1860 "transitional alphabets" were used, adding Latin letters to the Romanian Cyrillic alphabet . The Latin alphabet became official at different dates in Wallachia and Transylvania - 1860, and Moldova -1862. Following

1547-482: A river or lake and siphons up the water, ready to cause floods. In Romanian folklore, dragons are ridden by weather-controlling wizards called the Solomonari . The type of dragon they ride may be the zmeu or the balaur , depending on the source. The lamia and the hala (explained further below) are also generally perceived as weather dragons or demons. In Bulgarian lore, the zmei is sometimes described as

1666-456: A scale-covered serpent-like creature with four legs and bat's wings, at other times as half-man, half-snake, with wings and a fish-like tail. In Bulgaria, this zmei tends to be regarded as a benevolent guardian creature, while the lamya and hala were seen as detrimental towards humans. A fying zmei may appear as a "mythological lover", i.e., a mythical creature behaving as a suitor and lover of human females. A favorite topic of folk songs

1785-473: A serpent or "flying serpent". The creature that hatches is in the shape of a cat, according to Pavel Vasilievich Shejn , though it make take on the shape of either a cat, a train of fire, fire-sparks, or a young chicken according to a different source. At any rate, it transforms into a fiery streak at night to steal money, or grain for the house or landlady who hosts it, and in return it is expected to be fed Scrambled eggs or omelettes ). In Belarus, it

1904-578: A significant share of the local population (districts in Chernivtsi , Odesa and Zakarpattia oblasts ) Romanian is taught in schools as a primary language and there are Romanian-language newspapers, TV, and radio broadcasting. The University of Chernivtsi in western Ukraine trains teachers for Romanian schools in the fields of Romanian philology, mathematics and physics. In Hertsa Raion of Ukraine as well as in other villages of Chernivtsi Oblast and Zakarpattia Oblast , Romanian has been declared

2023-421: A snake which has lived for 9 years (belief found at "Hatzeger Thal" or Hațeg ). There are other accounts of how the zmei is engendered. A hen-hatched egg unbeknownst to a human may turn into a zmei (Bulgaria). Or a dragon may be born when a grass snake is swept up by whirlwind (Bulgaria). It is also explained as a cross hybrid between a serpent and grass snake (Macedonia), serpent and ram (Serbia), serpent and

2142-656: A stroke of his fiery finger, according to one of these tales, comparable to the regenerative power of the Lernaean hydra that grows its head back. Folktales often depict Chuda-yuda as living beyond the River Smorodina  [ ru ] (the name may suggest "Stench River")—that is, in the realm of the dead, reached by crossing over the Kalinov Bridge  [ ru ] ("White-hot Bridge"). The terms smok ("dragon") and tsmok ("sucker") can signify

2261-887: A type of dragon, alongside the folklore that the smok (roughly equated with "grass snake" but actually the Aesculapian snake ) was a crag-dwelling whirlwind. These hala were also known in East and Central Serbia . Similar lore occur in Croatia , Bosnia and Herzegovina , Montenegro . The demon hala was also called by other names regionally, in some parts of Bulgaria they were known as aždarha ( Bulgarian : аждарха ) or ažder ( аждер ), in Macedonian as aždaja or ažder ( аждаја , аждер ), in Bosnian and Serbian as aždaja ( аждаја ). The word aždaja or aždaha

2380-639: A way to vent the local population's frustration at not being able to overthrow the long-time Turkish rule . The zmaj dragon in Serbian fairy tales nevertheless have sinister roles in a number of instances. In the well-known tale "A Pavilion Neither in the Sky nor on the Earth" the youngest prince succeeds in killing the dragon ( zmaj ) that guards the three princesses held captive. Vuk Karadžić 's collection of folktales have other examples. In " The Golden Apple-tree and

2499-500: Is lietučij zmiej ( летучий змей ) for "flying serpent". In the Serbian epic ballads, it is referred to as the ognyanik , or zmaj ognjeni "fiery dragon". The Polish cognate is latawiec , ('the flying one') which is associated with the wind. Demons took on various shapes, and the Fiery Serpent of the East and West Slavs, as well as the Flying Serpent (Russian: змей летающий ; zmey letayushchiy ) of

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2618-424: Is also spoken within communities of Romanian and Moldovan immigrants in the United States, Canada and Australia, although they do not make up a large homogeneous community statewide. Many are Moldavians who were deported Data only for the districts on the right bank of Dniester (without Transnistria and the city of Tighina). In Moldova, it is sometimes referred to as the " Moldovan language " In Transnistria, it

2737-536: Is borrowed from Persian azdahā ( اژدها ), and has its origins in the Indo-Iranian mythology surrounding the dragon azidahā . As an example, in some local Serbian icons, St. George is represented as slaying the aždaja and not a zmaj . A pozoj is a dragon of legends in Croatia. In Međimurje County , the Čakovec pozoj was said to dwell beneath the city, with its head under the church and tail under

2856-494: Is called Daco-Romanian as opposed to its closest relatives, Aromanian , Megleno-Romanian , and Istro-Romanian . It is also spoken as a minority language by stable communities in the countries surrounding Romania ( Bulgaria , Hungary , Serbia and Ukraine ), and by the large Romanian diaspora . In total, it is spoken by 25 million people as a first language . Romanian was also known as Moldovan in Moldova, although

2975-616: Is continuing today with the introduction of English words. Yet while the overall lexis was enriched with foreign words and internal constructs, in accordance with the history and development of the society and the diversification in semantic fields, the fundamental lexicon—the core vocabulary used in everyday conversation—remains governed by inherited elements from the Latin spoken in the Roman provinces bordering Danube , without which no coherent sentence can be made. Romanian descended from

3094-462: Is described as reptile- or lizard-like and covered with scales, with 3–9 heads which are like dog's heads with sharp teeth. It may also have sharp claws, webbed wings , and the scales may be yellow color. The Bulgarian lamia dwells in the bottoms of the seas and lakes, or sometimes mountainous caverns, or tree holes and can stop the supply of water to the human population, demanding sacrificial offerings to undo its deed. The lamia, bringer of drought,

3213-485: Is distinguished by the activity of Romanian literature classics in its early decades: Mihai Eminescu , Ion Luca Caragiale , Ion Creangă , Ioan Slavici . The current orthography, with minor reforms to this day and using Latin letters, was fully implemented in 1881, regulated by the Romanian Academy on a fundamentally phonological principle, with few morpho-syntactic exceptions. The first Romanian grammar

3332-538: Is not overly salty. An early sighting of the "fiery serpent" was recorded in a chronicle entry for the year 1092, which tells that the clouds darkened, and a great, three-headed snake with the heads aflame craned out of it, issuing fumes and noises, according to Ukraine writer Oleksiy Kononenko  [ uk ] . The year 1092 was one of calamaities in Kievan Russia and Polotsk in Belarus according to

3451-597: Is official only in the villages of Vojvodinci ( Voivodinț ), Markovac ( Marcovăț ), Straža ( Straja ), Mali Žam ( Jamu Mic ), Malo Središte ( Srediștea Mică ), Mesić ( Mesici ), Jablanka ( Iablanca ), Sočica ( Sălcița ), Ritiševo ( Râtișor ), Orešac ( Oreșaț ) and Kuštilj ( Coștei ). In the 2002 Census, the last carried out in Serbia, 1.5% of Vojvodinians stated Romanian as their native language. The Vlachs of Serbia are considered to speak Romanian as well. In parts of Ukraine where Romanians constitute

3570-666: Is officially called " Moldovan language " and is written in Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet . Officially divided into Vlachs and Romanians Most in Northern Bukovina and Southern Bessarabia; according to a Moldova Noastră study (based on the latest Ukrainian census). According to the Constitution of Romania of 1991, as revised in 2003, Romanian is the official language of the Republic. Romania mandates

3689-494: Is recollected by Aleksandr Aleksandrovich Cherkasov  [ ru ] , mine engineer and writer that when a meteor streaked the sky in the Siberian taiga , workers started shouting " zmei (serpent)!" as the meteor was called ognennyi zmei colloquially, and the older men took them to be either a good or bad omen . According to Eastern Ukrainian legends, whilst traveling, the fiery serpent strews beautiful gifts along

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3808-420: Is said that an egg laid by a (black) rooster (unusually shaped, like a snail ) must be carried in one's bosom for 1 to 7 years (var. under the armpit for 3 years ) for the small flying serpent to hatch. The Belarussian flying serpent is also referred to as in kletnik ( клетнік . cf. § Belarus ) and favours fried eggs or a scrambled eggs dish ( Belarusian : яечня, яешня ; yayechnya, yayeshnya ) that

3927-611: Is the adversary of the benevolent zmei, and the hala or ala takes its place in Western Bulgaria. This motif of hero against the evil dragon (lamia, ala/hala, or aždaja) is found more generally throughout the Balkan Slavic region. Sometimes this hero is a saint (usually St. George). And after the hero severs all its (three) heads, "three rivers of wheat, milk, and wine" flow out of the stumps. The demon or creature known as hala (or ala ), whose name derived from

4046-478: Is the example of the epic song Carica Milica i zmaj od Jastrepca ( Serbian : Царица Милица и змај од Јастрепца ) and its folktale version translated as "The Tsarina Militza and the Zmay of Yastrebatz". Zmey of Macedonian fairy tales In most Macedonian tales and folk songs they are described as extremely intelligent, having hypnotizing eyes. However, sometimes Zmey's could be men who would astrally project into

4165-606: Is the official and main language of Romania and Moldova . Romanian is part of the Eastern Romance sub-branch of Romance languages , a linguistic group that evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin which separated from the Western Romance languages in the course of the period from the 5th to the 8th centuries. To distinguish it within the Eastern Romance languages, in comparative linguistics it

4284-746: The Slovenski glasnik magazine, which also connected the creature to the črne škole dijak ("black school student"), which other Slovene sources call črnošolec ("sorcerer's apprentice"), and which some equate with a grabancijaš dijak Dragons in Slovenia are generally negative in nature, and usually appear in relation with St. George . The Slovene god-hero Kresnik is known as a dragonslayer . Romanian language Romanian (obsolete spelling: Roumanian ; endonym : limba română [ˈlimba roˈmɨnə] , or românește [romɨˈneʃte] , lit.   ' in Romanian ' )

4403-558: The Cannes Film Festival ). Also some artists wrote songs dedicated to the Romanian language. The multi-platinum pop trio O-Zone (originally from Moldova) released a song called "Nu mă las de limba noastră" ("I won't forsake our language"). The final verse of this song, "Eu nu mă las de limba noastră, de limba noastră cea română" , is translated in English as "I won't forsake our language, our Romanian language". Also,

4522-558: The Constitutional Court of Moldova ruled in 2013 that "the official language of Moldova is Romanian". On 16 March 2023, the Moldovan Parliament approved a law on referring to the national language as Romanian in all legislative texts and the constitution. On 22 March, the president of Moldova, Maia Sandu , promulgated the law. The history of the Romanian language started in the Roman provinces north of

4641-586: The Jireček Line in Classical antiquity but there are 3 main hypotheses about its exact territory: the autochthony thesis (it developed in left-Danube Dacia only), the discontinuation thesis (it developed in right-Danube provinces only), and the "as-well-as" thesis that supports the language development on both sides of the Danube. Between the 6th and 8th century, following the accumulated tendencies inherited from

4760-592: The Primary Chronicle . The preceding year, 1091, was also fraught with portents, such as the solar eclipse . Vsevolod Yaroslavich during hunt near Vyshgorod in 1091, witnessed a dragon-meteorite falling from the sky, as illustrated in the Radziwiłł Chronicle copy of the Primary Chronicle (Cf. fig. at top), which has been recognized as an instance of a "fiery dragon" sighting. The association of shooting stars, bolides , and comets, with

4879-467: The Romanian Academy . The third phase of the modern age of Romanian language, starting from 1880 and continuing to this day, is characterized by the prevalence of the supradialectal form of the language, standardized with the express contribution of the school system and Romanian Academy, bringing a close to the process of literary language modernization and development of literary styles. It

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4998-738: The Slovene zmaj , the Slovak drak and šarkan , Czech drak , In the legends of Russia and Ukraine , a particular dragon-like creature, Zmey Gorynych ( Russian : Змей Горыныч or Ukrainian : Змій Горинич ), has three to twelve heads , and Tugarin Zmeyevich (literally: "Tugarin Dragon-son"), known as zmei-bogatyr or "serpent hero", is a man-like dragon who appears in Russian (or Kievan Rus ) heroic literature. The name "Tugarin" may symbolize Turkic or Mongol steppe -peoples. Both

5117-628: The Ukrainian or Belarusian smok (смок), tsmok (цмок), can also be included. In some Slavic traditions smok is an ordinary snake which may turn into a dragon with age. Some of the common motifs concerning Slavic dragons include their identification as masters of weather or water source; that they start life as snakes; and that both the male and female can be romantically involved with humans. The Slavic terms descend from Proto-Slavic *zmьjь . The further derivation that Serbo-Croatian zmaj "dragon" and zemlja "earth" ultimately descend from

5236-552: The Vulgar Latin spoken in the Roman provinces of Southeastern Europe north of the Jireček Line (a hypothetical boundary between the dominance of Latin and Greek influences). Most scholars agree that two major dialects developed from Common Romanian by the 10th century. Daco-Romanian (the official language of Romania and Moldova) and Istro-Romanian (a language spoken by no more than 2,000 people in Istria ) descended from

5355-405: The perelesnyk is harmful, draining her by drinking blood, or suffocating her. He is difficult to eradicate, requiring the service of a vorozhbyt  [ uk ] ( ворожбит , soothsayer) with a spell or potion. (Cf. Legend of Russian letun above ). The fiery "flying serpent"（ летучий змей, лятучага змея ; lietučij zmiej, liatučaha zmiej of Belarus exhibit two aspects, that of

5474-435: The unification of Moldavia and Wallachia further studies on the language were made, culminating with the founding of Societatea Literară Română on 1 April 1866 on the initiative of C. A. Rosetti , an academic society that had the purpose of standardizing the orthography, formalizing the grammar and (via a dictionary) vocabulary of the language, and promoting literary and scientific publications. This institution later became

5593-492: The "liberty to teach in the mother language (Romanian language)". At the same time, Romanian-language newspapers and journals began to appear, such as Basarabia (1906), Viața Basarabiei (1907), Moldovanul (1907), Luminătorul (1908), Cuvînt moldovenesc (1913), Glasul Basarabiei (1913). From 1913, the synod permitted that "the churches in Bessarabia use the Romanian language". Romanian finally became

5712-498: The 15th century a mythical hero was transferred on to historical figures, namely, "Zmaj Ognjeni Vuk" ( Змај Огњени Вук "Vuk the Fire Serpent/Dragon"; Vuk means "wolf") became the double of Vuk Grgurević . Thus women can have the fiery serpent's children, and illegitimate births are still often explained as such devil spawn. If a woman conceives a child with such a devil, the pregnancy will be exceedingly long, and

5831-490: The 16th century, by various foreign travelers into the Carpathian Romance-speaking space, as well as in other historical documents written in Romanian at that time such as Cronicile Țării Moldovei  [ ro ] ( The Chronicles of the land of Moldova ) by Grigore Ureche . The few allusions to the use of Romanian in writing as well as common words, anthroponyms, and toponyms preserved in

5950-534: The 19th century. There are also among the East Slavic folk the tradition that a viper transforms into a dragon. In Ukrainian folklore the viper needs 7 years to metamorphosize into a dragon, while in Belarusian folklore the requisite time is 100 years, according to one comparison. The weather-making dragon, ismeju (or zmeu ), of Romanian Scholomance folklore is also locally believed to grow out of

6069-606: The 6th and 16th century, entire stages from its history are re-constructed by researchers, often with proposed relative chronologies and loose limits. From the 12th or 13th century, official documents and religious texts were written in Old Church Slavonic , a language that had a similar role to Medieval Latin in Western Europe. The oldest dated text in Romanian is a letter written in 1521 with Cyrillic letters , and until late 18th century, including during

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6188-541: The Assembly, the Executive Council and the provincial administrative bodies. The Romanian language and script are officially used in eight municipalities: Alibunar , Bela Crkva ( Biserica Albă ), Žitište ( Sângeorgiu de Bega ), Zrenjanin ( Becicherecu Mare ), Kovačica ( Covăcița ), Kovin ( Cuvin ), Plandište ( Plandiște ) and Sečanj ( Seceani ). In the municipality of Vršac ( Vârșeț ), Romanian

6307-643: The Cyrillic script, and the Latin script as stipulated by the law, the Croat , Hungarian , Slovak , Romanian and Rusyn languages and their scripts, as well as languages and scripts of other nationalities, shall simultaneously be officially used in the work of the bodies of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, in the manner established by the law. The bodies of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina are:

6426-745: The Estonian version fails to act as an ardent lover to human woman. (since the Estonian kratt is thus mostly a home helper spirit, the parallel is discussed somewhat at length under the article on the German Schrat , to which it is etymologically related.) Some commentators also see some parallel between the Belarus flying serpent, etc., with the Lithuanian aitvaras , which also brings riches, love to be fed egg dishes, and retributes using fire. But similar lore may be widespread simply due to

6545-602: The Greek word for "hail" took the appearance of a dense mist or fog , or a black cloud. Hala was believed to be the cause of strong winds and whirlwind in Eastern Bulgaria, whereas the lamya was blamed as the perpetrator in Southwestern Bulgarian lore. In Western Bulgarian tradition, the halla itself was regarded as the whirlwind, which guarded clouds and contained the rain, but was also regarded as

6664-579: The Moldovan autonomies of Gagauzia and Transnistria . Romanian is also an official language of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina in Serbia along with five other languages. Romanian minorities are encountered in Serbia ( Timok Valley ), Ukraine ( Chernivtsi and Odesa oblasts ), and Hungary ( Gyula ). Large immigrant communities are found in Italy, Spain, France, and Portugal. In 1995,

6783-449: The Moldovan musicians Doina and Ion Aldea Teodorovici performed a song called "The Romanian language". Romanian is also called Daco-Romanian in comparative linguistics to distinguish from the other dialects of Common Romanian : Aromanian , Megleno-Romanian , and Istro-Romanian . The origin of the term "Daco-Romanian" can be traced back to the first printed book of Romanian grammar in 1780, by Samuil Micu and Gheorghe Șincai . There,

6902-663: The Nine Peahens ", the dragon carries away the peahen maiden who is the hero's lover. In " Baš Čelik " the hero must contend with a dragon-king. The lamia  [ bg ] or lamya ( Bulgarian : ламя ), derived from the Greek lamia , is also seen as a dragon-like creature in Bulgarian ethnic population, currently inhabiting Bulgaria, with equivalents in Macedonia ( lamja , lamna ; ламја ), and South-East Serbian areas ( lamnia ламња ). The Bulgarian lamia

7021-401: The Old Church Slavonic religious writings and chancellery documents, attested prior to the 16th century, along with the analysis of graphemes show that the writing of Romanian with the Cyrillic alphabet started in the second half of the 15th century. The oldest extant document in Romanian precisely dated is Neacșu's letter (1521) and was written using the Romanian Cyrillic alphabet , which

7140-440: The Romanian dialect spoken north of the Danube is called lingua Daco-Romana to emphasize its origin and its area of use, which includes the former Roman province of Dacia , although it is spoken also south of the Danube, in Dobruja , the Timok Valley and northern Bulgaria. This article deals with the Romanian (i.e. Daco-Romanian) language, and thus only its dialectal variations are discussed here. The differences between

7259-724: The Romanian language. Examples of Romanian acts that had a great success in non-Romanophone countries are the bands O-Zone (with their No. 1 single Dragostea Din Tei , also known as Numa Numa , across the world in 2003–2004), Akcent (popular in the Netherlands, Poland and other European countries), Activ (successful in some Eastern European countries), DJ Project (popular as clubbing music) SunStroke Project (known by viral video " Epic Sax Guy ") and Alexandra Stan (worldwide no.1 hit with " Mr. Saxobeat ") and Inna as well as high-rated movies like 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days , The Death of Mr. Lazarescu , 12:08 East of Bucharest or California Dreamin' (all of them with awards at

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7378-426: The Romanian neuter became a mixture of masculine and feminine. The verb morphology of Romanian has shown the same move towards a compound perfect and future tense as the other Romance languages. Compared with the other Romance languages , during its evolution, Romanian simplified the original Latin tense system. Romanian is spoken mostly in Central , South-Eastern , and Eastern Europe , although speakers of

7497-456: The Russian flying serpent or dragon ( змей летающий ; zmei letayushchiy ) and fiery serpent ( Russian : змей Огненный ; zmei ognennyi ) are considered types of demons, which take on the shape of serpent/dragon in air, and a humanoid on land. The Chudo-Yudo (or Chudo-iudo, чудо-юдо ; pl. Chuda-Yuda ) is a multi-headed dragon that appears in some wondertale variants, usually considered to be water-dwelling. Some legends portray him as

7616-502: The Southern Slavs appeared as serpents in air, and as humans on ground. In East Slavic tradition, the Fiery Serpent generally resembles a fiery shaft (a "fiery carrying pole ", Russian: коромысло ), a flaming broom , or a glowing ball of blue fire. It releases sparks during its flight and enters (the woman's) house through the chimney . The serpent may bring gifts, but those gifts turn to horse manure at sunrise (Russian, west-Ukrainian). The evil spirit reputedly visits

7735-531: The Ukraine, the perelesnyk ( Перелесник , 'tempter, seducer'; var. perevésnyk переве́сник ), aka pervonach ( Первонач ), is a demon in the form of a fiery snake (meteor) that flies towards women. It is also called litávetsʹ ( літа́вець , 'flying one'), litún ( літу́н , 'flyer'), nalít ( налі́т , 'raid'), or nalítnyk ( налі́тник , 'raider'). The pan-Slavic "fiery serpent" has been termed vohnyanyy zmiy ( вогняний змій ) in Ukrainian. The Belarus form

7854-428: The atmosphere in the form of fiery serpents. One story recounts how the flying serpent had an affair with a certain woman, but would remove his wings and tuck them under the roof, before entering her house and making his dalliances. A gypsy ( cygán ) noticed and hid the wings, compelling the serpent never to see the woman again ( Tula Governorate ). A legend about the letun ("flyer"), i.e. fiery dragon recorded in

7973-447: The beginning of devoicing of asyllabic [u] after consonants. Text analysis revealed words that are now lost from modern vocabulary or used only in local varieties. These words were of various provenience for example: Latin ( cure - to run, mâneca - to leave), Old Church Slavonic ( drăghicame - gem, precious stone, prilăsti - to trick, to cheat), Hungarian ( bizăntui - to bear witness). The modern age of Romanian starts in 1780 with

8092-463: The brother of Koshchey the Deathless , and thus the offspring of the witch Baba Yaga ; others present him as a personification of the witch in her foulest form. A Chudo Yudo is one of the guardians of the Water of Life and Death, and his name traditionally was invoked in times of drought. He can apparently assume human-like forms and is able to speak and to ride a horse. He has the ability to regenerate any severed heads. The term Chudo-Yudo may not be

8211-502: The child will be born with black skin, with hooves instead of feet, eyes without eyelids and a cold body (Russia), or its body will be cold and jelly-like (East Ukraine). Such births are not viable, and the children die. The wealth-bringing demon can be bred from an egg of a chicken (sometimes rooster, cf. below) aged 3, 5, 7, or 9, according to Slavic legend. In Russian, this demon is referred to as either ognennyi zmei ("fiery serpent") or chobanets ( Хованец ) or perhaps just

8330-422: The clouds. The dragon is covered in scales, and breathes fire, sometimes its mouth glinting like a flash of lightning. The ognyanik of legend has heroic prowess, hoards treasures, knows herbal lore including aphrodisiacs, charms women. There is Serbian epic song entitled " Zmaj ognjeni i troglav Arapin (The fiery dragon and the three-headed Arab)". The Polish version is latawiec ('the flying one' ) which

8449-422: The colloquial speech and writing. Outside the political arena the language is most often called "Romanian". In the breakaway territory of Transnistria, it is co-official with Ukrainian and Russian. In the 2014 census , out of the 2,804,801 people living in Moldova, 24% (652,394) stated Romanian as their most common language, whereas 56% stated Moldovan. While in the urban centers speakers are split evenly between

8568-552: The country Moldovan . In December 2013, a decision of the Constitutional Court of Moldova ruled that the Declaration of Independence took precedence over the Constitution and the state language should be called Romanian. In 2023, the Moldovan parliament passed a law officially adopting the designation "Romanian" in all legal instruments, implementing the 2013 court decision. Scholars agree that Moldovan and Romanian are

8687-415: The demon which will exact some form of retribution using fire. If someone is doing unusually well financially, others will quip about him that "the serpent brings him money" ( Яму змей грошы носіць ). The Estonian kratt manifests itself as a fiery being with a sparking tail (not a flying dragon per se ). But the kratt is only a halfway parallel with the two-faceted Belarusian described above, since

8806-469: The development of printing, the same alphabet was used. The period after 1780, starting with the writing of its first grammar books, represents the modern age of the language, during which time the Latin alphabet became official, the literary language was standardized, and a large number of words from Modern Latin and other Romance languages entered the lexis. In the process of language evolution from fewer than 2500 attested words from Late Antiquity to

8925-782: The differences as 'accents' or 'speeches' (in Romanian: accent or grai ). Fiery serpents The Fiery Serpent ( огненный змей , ognennyi zmei , ognennyy zmey ; змей огненный zmei oognennyi ) is an evil spirit in Russian folklore. It has counterparts in the Ukraine and Poland as well. In Russia, the ognennyi zmei is also known as the zmey lyubak ( змей-любак , 'serpent-lyubak'), nalotnik ( налётник , 'raider'), nalot ( налёт , 'raid'), letun ( летун , 'flyer'), or letuchiy ( летучий , 'flying one'). Also man'yak ( маньяк , 'beckoner' <" манить 'to beckon') or prelestnik ( прелестник , 'charmer'). In

9044-465: The fiery serpent is pan-Slavic (cf. § Historic examples , § Serbia ), including Belarus, and association with bolides, meteorites and such heavenly stones among the East Slavs is not unique to that region. According to Russian folk belief (around Tula ), when the archangel Michael cast down the fallen angels , some of these devils evaded falling down to earth, and remained flying in

9163-469: The fiery serpent lacks the ability to hear and speak properly. And though the body may be human, it is multi-headed ( Voronezh , Ukraine). Superstition prescribes certain ways to ward against the devil, for example, the magical odolen  [ ru ] herb (possibly valerian ), or a decoction of burdock or its root stuck on the wall may serve as amulet (Russia). Reading the Psalter in

9282-429: The fiery serpent. Like any demon, it has no spinal cord (Russian). and a woman can test if it is the real husband by feeling for his spine. It cannot correctly pronounce sacred Christian names, such as "Jesus Christ" ( Иисус Христос ) the serpent may say "Sus Christ" ( Сус Христос ), and instead of Bogoroditsa ( Богородица , Mother of God ) it can only say Chudoroditsa ( Чудородица ). Other sources say

9401-413: The first Romanian school, and Ion Heliade Rădulescu . The end of this period is marked by the first printing of magazines and newspapers in Romanian, in particular Curierul Românesc and Albina Românească . Starting from 1831 and lasting until 1880 the modern phase is characterized by the development of literary styles: scientific, administrative, and belletristic . It quickly reached a high point with

9520-439: The flying serpent, and the lengthy recitation names the "fiery serpent". Another spell, for a military man going to war, also invokes the "fiery serpent". There is an incantation (Ukrainian: Замовляння , zamovlyannya ) acting as a love charm, where the fire serpent is supposed to act as a magical creature which arouses a woman's passion. In The Tale of Peter and Fevronia (16th century), this devil in serpent form flew to

9639-408: The form of a handsome man and enter the chambers of a young maiden. They fell in love with women who were conceived on the same night as them, or born in the same day as them. He usually guards the girl from a small age and his love lasts forever. Some girls get sick by loving a zmey, and symptoms include paleness, shyness, antisocial behaviour, watery eyes, quietness and hallucinations. They didn't live

9758-479: The gradual development of bilingualism . Russian continued to develop as the official language of privilege, whereas Romanian remained the principal vernacular. The period from 1905 to 1917 was one of increasing linguistic conflict spurred by an increase in Romanian nationalism. In 1905 and 1906, the Bessarabian zemstva asked for the re-introduction of Romanian in schools as a "compulsory language", and

9877-607: The influence of the Mukacheve eparchy in Ukraine. The language spoken during this period had a phonological system of seven vowels and twenty-nine consonants. Particular to Old Romanian are the distribution of /z/, as the allophone of /dz/ from Common Romanian , in the Wallachian and south-east Transylvanian varieties, the presence of palatal sonorants /ʎ/ and /ɲ/, nowadays preserved only regionally in Banat and Oltenia , and

9996-495: The lamia occurs in ritual spiritual verse supposed to be sung around St. George's day . One of the versions collected by ethnologist Dimitar Marinov  [ bg ] begins: " Тръгнал ми е цветен Гьорги/Да обиди нивен сънор/На път среща сура ламя.. (George of the Flowers fared out / Going around his congregation /On the road he met the fallow lamia..)". Another version collected by Marinov substitutes "Yuda- Samodiva " in

10115-460: The language and use of the demonym Romanians ( Români ) for speakers of this language predates the foundation of the modern Romanian state. Romanians always used the general term rumân / român or regional terms like ardeleni (or ungureni ), moldoveni or munteni to designate themselves. Both the name of rumână or rumâniască for the Romanian language and the self-designation rumân/român are attested as early as

10234-569: The language can be found all over the world, mostly due to emigration of Romanian nationals and the return of immigrants to Romania back to their original countries. Romanian speakers account for 0.5% of the world's population, and 4% of the Romance-speaking population of the world. Romanian is the single official and national language in Romania and Moldova, although it shares the official status at regional level with other languages in

10353-545: The language, working together with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs' Department for Romanians Abroad. Since 2013, the Romanian Language Day is celebrated on every 31 August . Romanian is the official language of the Republic of Moldova. The 1991 Declaration of Independence named the official language Romanian, and the Constitution of Moldova as originally adopted in 1994 named the state language of

10472-608: The largest Romanian-speaking community in the Middle East was found in Israel, where Romanian was spoken by 5% of the population. Romanian is also spoken as a second language by people from Arabic-speaking countries who have studied in Romania. It is estimated that almost half a million Middle Eastern Arabs studied in Romania during the 1980s. Small Romanian-speaking communities are to be found in Kazakhstan and Russia. Romanian

10591-658: The late 15th century and ended in the early decades of the 18th century, by which time Romanian had begun to be regularly used by the Church. The oldest Romanian texts of a literary nature are religious manuscripts ( Codicele Voronețean , Psaltirea Scheiană ), translations of essential Christian texts. These are considered either propagandistic results of confessional rivalries, for instance between Lutheranism and Calvinism , or as initiatives by Romanian monks stationed at Peri Monastery in Maramureș to distance themselves from

10710-582: The latter tale. The six-, nine-, and twelve-headed Chuda-Yuda that appear out of the Black Sea are explicitly described as zmei in yet another cognate tale, #136 " Storm-Bogatyr, Ivan the Cow's Son " ( Буря-богатырь Иван коровий сын ). The Storm-Bogatyr possesses a magic sword ( sword Kladenets ), but uses his battle club (or mace ) to attack them. A Chudo-Yudo's heads have a remarkable healing property: even if severed, he can pick them up and re-attach them with

10829-462: The media regarding the forgery of the census results. The Constitution of the Republic of Serbia determines that in the regions of the Republic of Serbia inhabited by national minorities, their own languages and scripts shall be officially used as well, in the manner established by law. The Statute of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina determines that, together with the Serbian language and

10948-409: The northern dialect. Two other languages, Aromanian and Megleno-Romanian , developed from the southern version of Common Romanian. These two languages are now spoken in lands to the south of the Jireček Line . Of the features that individualize Common Romanian, inherited from Latin or subsequently developed, of particular importance are: The use of the denomination Romanian ( română ) for

11067-427: The official language with the Constitution of 1923 . Romanian has preserved a part of the Latin declension , but whereas Latin had six cases , from a morphological viewpoint, Romanian has only three: the nominative / accusative , genitive / dative , and marginally the vocative . Romanian nouns also preserve the neuter gender , although instead of functioning as a separate gender with its own forms in adjectives,

11186-417: The old capital of Pereslavl-Zalessky , describes a woman who believed she was visited by her dead husband and wasted away. The family took measures to drive it out, hiring a woman to read the psalter, and awaiting in guard of the woman as it visited. The father-in-law's threat of strangulation kept it away. A shooting star in the steppes is considered a "fiery serpent" according to folk belief. An incident

11305-541: The pan-European mythology of basilisks disseminated during medieval times, or perhaps somewhat later in the 16th century. In Serbia, a fire serpent is classed as a being in the "dragon-meteorite" category, which is generally benevolent and can mate with human females, but are also blamed for droughts when they overstay their welcome. It is also contended the Serbian epic ballads call it ognjanik or ognyanik ( огњаник , which could mean 'fireworks'). This South Slavic ognyanik dwells in mountain caves, sometimes above

11424-453: The personal name "Judas" , with connotations of uncleanness and the demonic. Three- and six-headed zmei , slain by the titular hero in "Ivan Popyalov" ( Иван Попялов , "Ivan Cinders", Afanasyev 's tale #135) appear as six-, nine-, and twelve-headed Chuda-Iuda in the cognate tale #137 "Ivan Bykovich" ( Иван Быкович ). The inference is that Chudo-Yudo must also be a dragon, even though the word "serpent" ( zmei ) does not appear explicitly in

11543-486: The place of the lamia. Three rivers gush out of the dragons head-stumps: typically one of corn, one of red wine, and one of milk and honey. These benefitted the crop-growers, vineyard growers ( winemakers ), and the beekeepers and shepherds, respectively. . There is some overlap or conflation of the lamia and the hala (or halla ), although the latter is usually conceived of as a "whirlwind". Or it might be described as regional differences. The lamia in Eastern Bulgaria

11662-489: The printing in 1780 of Elementa linguae daco-romanae sive valachicae , the pre-modern phase was characterized by the publishing of school textbooks, appearance of first normative works in Romanian, numerous translations, and the beginning of a conscious stage of re-latinization of the language. Notable contributions, besides that of the Transylvanian School , are the activities of Gheorghe Lazăr , founder of

11781-659: The printing in Vienna of a very important grammar book titled Elementa linguae daco-romanae sive valachicae . The author of the book, Samuil Micu-Klein , and the revisor, Gheorghe Șincai , both members of the Transylvanian School , chose to use Latin as the language of the text and presented the phonetical and grammatical features of Romanian in comparison to its ancestor. The Modern age of Romanian language can be further divided into three phases: pre-modern or modernizing between 1780 and 1830, modern phase between 1831 and 1880, and contemporary from 1880 onwards. Beginning with

11900-524: The printing of Dacia Literară , a journal founded by Mihail Kogălniceanu and representing a literary society, which together with other publications like Propășirea and Gazeta de Transilvania spread the ideas of Romantic nationalism and later contributed to the formation of other societies that took part in the Revolutions of 1848 . Their members and those that shared their views are collectively known in Romania as "of '48"( pașoptiști ),

12019-472: The regional varieties are small, limited to regular phonetic changes, few grammar aspects, and lexical particularities. There is a single written and spoken standard (literary) Romanian language used by all speakers, regardless of region. Like most natural languages, Romanian dialects are part of a dialect continuum . The dialects of Romanian are also referred to as 'sub-dialects' and are distinguished primarily by phonetic differences. Romanians themselves speak of

12138-419: The road to lure grieving women and villagers , including beads , rings, belts/girdles and handkerchiefs / headscarves . If the woman then picks it up, the evil spirit will fly to her. In the Ukraine, there is also the belief that the spirit of the dead husband turns into a perelesnyk and visits the bereaved wife, especially if the widow's yearning for him is strong, visiting his grave frequently, etc. But

12257-454: The same Proto-Slavic root zьm- , from the zero grade of Proto-Indo-European *ǵhdem , was proposed by Croatian linguist Petar Skok . Lithuanian scholarship also points out that the connection of the snake ( zmey ) with the earthly realm is even more pronounced in folk incantations, since its name would etymologically mean 'earthly (being); that which creeps underground'. The Russian zmei , Ukrainian zmiy may be rendered "serpent", but

12376-553: The same language, with the glottonym "Moldovan" used in certain political contexts. It has been the sole official language since the adoption of the Law on State Language of the Moldavian SSR in 1989. This law mandates the use of Moldovan in all the political, economic, cultural and social spheres, as well as asserting the existence of a "linguistic Moldo-Romanian identity". It is also used in schools, mass media, education and in

12495-469: The serpent and become convinced that their lover has returned. It is told that those who are visited by the serpent experience weight loss , exhibit signs of insanity and eventually commit suicide , or wither and die. In addition, victims of the serpent often experience hallucinations , including visions of supernatural torment , such as suckling on breasts which excrete blood rather than milk. There are several ways to distinguish and identify

12614-453: The sky when there is a storm to battle the Lamia, a female evil version that wants to destroy the wheat. They were also known as guardians of the territory, and would even protect the people in it. Hostile behaviour was shown if another zmey comes into his territory. They could change their appearance in the form of a smoke, strong spark, fire bird, snake, cloud but almost afterwards he would gain

12733-407: The spirit. Myths about the fiery serpent are found in Serbian epic songs as well as Russian byliny , and fairy tales ( skazka ). The term "fiery serpent" applied (sometimes) to the archetypal evil dragon dispatched by the dragon-slaying hero of bylina , such as Dobrynya Nikitich . There has been recorded the spell or zagovory ( заговор ) to protect a woman against the incursion of

12852-456: The town square, or vice versa, and it could only be gotten rid of by a grabancijaš (a "wandering scholar", glossed as a " black [magic] student"). The pozoj is also known in Slovenia , and according to legend there is one living underneath Zagreb , causing an earthquake whenever it shrugs. Poet Matija Valjavec  [ sl ] (1866) has published some tales concerning the pozoj in

12971-478: The two names (with the capital Chișinău showing a strong preference for the name "Romanian", i.e. 3:2), in the countryside hardly a quarter of Romanian/Moldovan speakers indicated Romanian as their native language. Unofficial results of this census first showed a stronger preference for the name Romanian, however the initial reports were later dismissed by the Institute for Statistics, which led to speculations in

13090-495: The unrecognised state of Transnistria , Moldovan is one of the official languages. However, unlike all other dialects of Romanian, this variety of Moldovan is written in Cyrillic script . Romanian is taught in some areas that have Romanian minority communities, such as Vojvodina in Serbia, Bulgaria, Ukraine and Hungary. The Romanian Cultural Institute (ICR) has since 1992 organised summer courses in Romanian for language teachers. There are also non-Romanians who study Romanian as

13209-428: The use of Romanian in official government publications, public education and legal contracts. Advertisements as well as other public messages must bear a translation of foreign words, while trade signs and logos shall be written predominantly in Romanian. The Romanian Language Institute (Institutul Limbii Române), established by the Ministry of Education of Romania, promotes Romanian and supports people willing to study

13328-545: The vernacular spoken in this large area and, to a much smaller degree, the influences from native dialects , and in the context of a lessened power of the Roman central authority the language evolved into Common Romanian . This proto-language then came into close contact with the Slavic languages and subsequently divided into Aromanian , Megleno-Romanian , Istro-Romanian , and Daco-Romanian. Due to limited attestation between

13447-448: The wealth-bringing spirit and that of the "mythological lover" (i.e., mythological creature as lover). The fiery flying serpent of the house is also designated kletnik or klietnik ( клетнік , from клеці 'granary, pantry' where it is said to dwell). The Belarusian flying serpent likes to be fed fried eggs or scrambled eggs ( Belarusian : яєчня, яешня ; yayechnya, yayeshnya ) that must not be overly salty, lest it anger

13566-426: The woman at night-time (this may be a literary convention. cf. Fet's poem, § Fiery serpents in literature ). Women who were widowed, or separated from her husband was particularly vulnerable to having affairs with this certain type of devil, because the devil will assume the shape of the dead or absentee husband. In their grief , and their desperation to be rejoined with their lost love, women do not recognize

13685-575: Was considered the adversary of St. Ilya ( Elijah ) or a benevolent zmei. In the Bulgarian version of Saint George and the Dragon , the dragon was a lamia . Bulgarian legends tell of how a hero (actually a double of St. George, denoted as "George of the Flowers", Cveten Gǝorgi , Bulgarian : цветен Гьорги ) cuts off the heads of the three- or multi-headed Lamia, and when the hero accomplishes its destruction and sever all its heads, "rivers of fertility" are said to flow. This song about St. George's fight with

13804-423: Was originally an air spirit that could conjure up winds, and regarded as a sort of bird with plumage, though the witch's endeared one is described as a hairy little man, also appearing in the guise of a serpent. There is conflation between the demon latawiec and the house sprite skrzat (cf. Schrat . The latawiec-skrzat demands milk kasha ( kaszą ) or porridge, but it must not be too hot or it will anger

13923-482: Was published in Vienna in 1780. Following the annexation of Bessarabia by Russia in 1812, Moldavian was established as an official language in the governmental institutions of Bessarabia , used along with Russian, The publishing works established by Archbishop Gavril Bănulescu-Bodoni were able to produce books and liturgical works in Moldavian between 1815 and 1820. Bessarabia during the 1812–1918 era witnessed

14042-426: Was the male zmey -lover who may marry a woman and carry her to the underworld, or a female zmeitsa (zmeitza) who falls in love with a shepherd. When a zmei falls in love with a woman, she may "pine, languish, become pale, neglect herself.. and generally act strangely", and the victim stricken with the condition could only be cured by bathing in infusions of certain herbs, according to superstition. In Serbia, there

14161-478: Was used until the late 19th century. The letter is the oldest testimony of Romanian epistolary style and uses a prevalent lexis of Latin origin. However, dating by watermarks has shown the Hurmuzaki Psalter is a copy from around the turn of the 16th century. The slow process of Romanian establishing itself as an official language, used in the public sphere, in literature and ecclesiastically, began in

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