Zinc iodide is the inorganic compound with the formula ZnI 2 . It exists both in anhydrous form and as a dihydrate. Both are white and readily absorb water from the atmosphere. It has no major application.
61-498: It can be prepared by the direct reaction of zinc and iodine in water or in refluxing ether . or by treating zinc with iodine in aqueous solution: The structure of solid ZnI 2 is unusual relative to the dichloride. While zinc centers are tetrahedrally coordinated, as in ZnCl 2 , groups of four of these tetrahedra share three vertices to form “super-tetrahedra” of composition {Zn 4 I 10 }, which are linked by their vertices to form
122-859: A suppository inserted into the rectum, intramuscularly (injected into muscle), intravenously (injection into a vein) or used as a nasal spray . When injected intravenously, effects begin in one to five minutes and last up to an hour. When taken by mouth, effects begin after 15 to 60 minutes. Common side effects include sleepiness and trouble with coordination. Serious side effects are rare. They include increased risk of suicide , decreased breathing, and an increased risk of seizures if used too frequently in those with epilepsy . Occasionally, excitement or agitation may occur. Long-term use can result in tolerance , dependence , and withdrawal symptoms on dose reduction. Abrupt stopping after long-term use can be potentially dangerous. After stopping, cognitive problems may persist for six months or longer. It
183-631: A better ability to permeate cells. The balance between its lipophilic and hydrophilic characteristics can impact various aspects of the molecule’s behavior, including its solubility, absorption, distribution, metabolism, and potential interactions within the biological system. Diazepam is overall a stable molecule. The British Pharmacopoeia lists it as being very slightly soluble in water, soluble in alcohol, and freely soluble in chloroform. The United States Pharmacopoeia lists diazepam as soluble 1 in 16 ethyl alcohol, 1 in 2 of chloroform, 1 in 39 ether , and practically insoluble in water. The pH of diazepam
244-404: A degree of polarity or hydrophilicity and represents the collective surface area of polar atoms, like oxygen or nitrogen, along with their connected hydrogen atoms. A TPSA value of 32,7 Ų signifies a moderate level of polarity within the compound. TPSA is especially useful in medical chemistry as it shows the ability of a molecule to permeate cells. Molecules with PSA value smaller than 60-70 Ų has
305-498: A high cetane number of 85–96 and, in combination with petroleum distillates for gasoline and diesel engines, is used as a starting fluid because of its high volatility and low flash point . Ether starting fluid is sold and used in countries with cold climates, as it can help with cold starting an engine at sub-zero temperatures. For the same reason it is also used as a component of the fuel mixture for carbureted compression ignition model engines . Triethyloxonium tetrafluoroborate
366-437: A higher rate of notable withdrawal symptoms, up to 100%. Rebound anxiety , more severe than baseline anxiety, is also a common withdrawal symptom when discontinuing diazepam or other benzodiazepines. Diazepam is therefore only recommended for short-term therapy at the lowest possible dose owing to risks of severe withdrawal problems from low doses even after gradual reduction. The risk of pharmacological dependence on diazepam
427-453: A higher rate of terminating seizures and a more prolonged anticonvulsant effect. Diazepam gel was better than placebo gel in reducing the risk of non-cessation of seizures. Diazepam is rarely used for the long-term treatment of epilepsy because tolerance to its anticonvulsant effects usually develops within six to twelve months of treatment, effectively rendering it useless for that purpose. The anticonvulsant effects of diazepam can help in
488-494: A history of a substance use disorder , such as an alcohol use disorder , or a history of aggressive behavior. In some people, diazepam may increase the propensity toward self-harming behavior and, in extreme cases, may provoke suicidal tendencies or acts. Very rarely dystonia can occur. Diazepam may impair the ability to drive vehicles or operate machinery. The impairment is worsened by consumption of alcohol, because both act as central nervous system depressants . During
549-414: A long half-life thus withdrawal symptoms are tolerable. The process is very slow (usually from 14 to 28 weeks) but is considered safe when done appropriately. An individual who has consumed too much diazepam typically displays one or more of these symptoms in a period of approximately four hours immediately following a suspected overdose: Although not usually fatal when taken alone, a diazepam overdose
610-672: A long-acting "classical" benzodiazepine. Other classical benzodiazepines include chlordiazepoxide , clonazepam , lorazepam , oxazepam , nitrazepam , temazepam , flurazepam , bromazepam , and clorazepate . Diazepam has anticonvulsant properties. Benzodiazepines act via micromolar benzodiazepine binding sites as calcium channel blockers and significantly inhibit depolarization-sensitive calcium uptake in rat nerve cell preparations. Diazepam inhibits acetylcholine release in mouse hippocampal synaptosomes . This has been found by measuring sodium-dependent high-affinity choline uptake in mouse brain cells in vitro , after pretreatment of
671-610: A slow and gradual dose reduction regimen. Tolerance develops to the therapeutic effects of benzodiazepines; for example tolerance occurs to the anticonvulsant effects and as a result benzodiazepines are not generally recommended for the long-term management of epilepsy. Dose increases may overcome the effects of tolerance, but tolerance may then develop to the higher dose and adverse effects may increase. The mechanism of tolerance to benzodiazepines includes uncoupling of receptor sites , alterations in gene expression , down-regulation of receptor sites , and desensitisation of receptor sites to
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#1732786693818732-488: A study published by William Procter, Jr. in the American Journal of Pharmacy as early as 1852 showed that there were differences in formulation to be found between commercial manufacturers, between international pharmacopoeia , and from Hoffman's original recipe. It is also used to treat hiccups through instillation into the nasal cavity. The recreational use of ether also took place at organised parties in
793-424: A three-dimensional structure. These "super-tetrahedra" are similar to the P 4 O 10 structure. Molecular ZnI 2 is linear as predicted by VSEPR theory with a Zn-I bond length of 238 pm. In aqueous solution the following have been detected: Zn(H 2 O) 6 , [ZnI(H 2 O) 5 ], tetrahedral ZnI 2 (H 2 O) 2 , ZnI 3 (H 2 O), and ZnI 4 . Diethyl ether Diethyl ether , or simply ether ,
854-403: Is an organic compound with the chemical formula (CH 3 CH 2 ) 2 O , sometimes abbreviated as Et 2 O . It is a colourless, highly volatile , sweet-smelling ("ethereal odour"), extremely flammable liquid . It belongs to the ether class of organic compounds. It is a common solvent . It was formerly used as a general anesthetic . Most diethyl ether is produced as a byproduct of
915-688: Is as a solvent. One particular application is in the production of cellulose plastics such as cellulose acetate . It is a common solvent for the Grignard reaction in addition to other reactions involving organometallic reagents. These uses exploit its basicity. Diethyl ether is a popular non-polar solvent in liquid-liquid extraction . As an extractant, it is immiscible with and less dense than water. Although immiscible, it has significant solubility in water (6.05 g/(100 ml) at 25 °C ) and dissolves 1.5 g/(100 g) (1.0 g/(100 ml)) water at 25 °C. Diethyl ether has
976-620: Is considered a medical emergency and generally requires the immediate attention of medical personnel. The antidote for an overdose of diazepam (or any other benzodiazepine) is flumazenil (Anexate). This drug is only used in cases with severe respiratory depression or cardiovascular complications. Because flumazenil is a short-acting drug, and the effects of diazepam can last for days, several doses of flumazenil may be necessary. Artificial respiration and stabilization of cardiovascular functions may also be necessary. Though not routinely indicated, activated charcoal can be used for decontamination of
1037-516: Is extremely flammable and may form explosive vapour/air mixtures. Since ether is heavier than air it can collect low to the ground and the vapour may travel considerable distances to ignition sources. Ether will ignite if exposed to an open flame, though due to its high flammability, an open flame is not required for ignition. Other possible ignition sources include – but are not limited to – hot plates, steam pipes, heaters, and electrical arcs created by switches or outlets. Vapour may also be ignited by
1098-401: Is given for longer than 24 hours. Sedatives and sleeping pills, including diazepam, have been associated with an increased risk of death. In September 2020, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) required the boxed warning be updated for all benzodiazepine medicines to describe the risks of abuse, misuse, addiction, physical dependence, and withdrawal reactions consistently across all
1159-677: Is listed in the Table II precursor under the United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances as well as substances such as acetone , toluene and sulfuric acid . The compound may have been synthesised by either Jābir ibn Hayyān in the 8th century or Ramon Llull in 1275. It was synthesised in 1540 by Valerius Cordus , who called it "sweet oil of vitriol" ( oleum dulce vitrioli ) –
1220-461: Is moderately lipophilic with LogP (Octanol-Water Partition Coefficient) value of 2,82 and hydrophilic with a TPSA (Topological Polar Surface Area) value of 32.7 Ų. The LogP value indicates that diazepam has a tendency to dissolve more readily in lipid-based environments, such as chloroform, acetone, ethanol and ether, compared to water. While the TPSA value implies that a segment of the molecule exhibits
1281-576: Is neutral (i.e., pH = 7). Due to additives such as benzoic acid/benzoate in the injectable form. Diazepam has a shelf life of five years for oral tablets and three years for IV/IM solutions. Diazepam should be stored at room temperature (15–30 °C). The solution for parenteral injection should be protected from light and kept from freezing. The oral forms should be stored in air-tight containers and protected from light. Diazepam can absorb into plastics, so liquid preparations should not be kept in plastic bottles or syringes, etc. As such, it can leach into
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#17327866938181342-596: Is not impaired. Short-term benzodiazepine use does not lead to tolerance, and the elderly are more sensitive to them. Additionally, after stopping benzodiazepines, cognitive problems may last at least six months; it is unclear if these problems last for longer than six months or are permanent. Benzodiazepines may also cause or worsen depression. Infusions or repeated intravenous injections of diazepam when managing seizures, for example, may lead to drug toxicity, including respiratory depression, sedation and hypotension . Drug tolerance may also develop to infusions of diazepam if it
1403-544: Is not recommended during pregnancy or breastfeeding. Its mechanism of action works by increasing the effect of the neurotransmitter gamma -aminobutyric acid (GABA). Diazepam was patented in 1959 by Hoffmann-La Roche . It has been one of the most frequently prescribed medications in the world since its launch in 1963. In the United States it was the best-selling medication between 1968 and 1982, selling more than 2 billion tablets in 1978 alone. In 2022, it
1464-457: Is not recommended. People suspected of being dependent on benzodiazepine drugs should be very gradually tapered off the drug. Withdrawals can be life-threatening, particularly when excessive doses have been taken for extended periods of time. Equal prudence should be used whether dependence has occurred in therapeutic or recreational contexts. Diazepam is a good choice for tapering for those using high doses of other benzodiazepines since it has
1525-566: Is prepared from boron trifluoride , diethyl ether, and epichlorohydrin : Diethyl ether is a common laboratory aprotic solvent . Diethyl ether is susceptible to formation of hydroperoxides . A cytochrome P450 enzyme is proposed to metabolize diethyl ether. Diethyl ether inhibits alcohol dehydrogenase , and thus slows the metabolism of ethanol . It also inhibits metabolism of other drugs requiring oxidative metabolism . For example, diazepam requires hepatic oxidization whereas its oxidized metabolite oxazepam does not. Diethyl ether
1586-421: Is safely used in patients with shock as it preserves the baroreceptor reflex . Its minimal effect on myocardial depression and respiratory drive, as well as its low cost and high therapeutic index allows it to see continued use in developing countries. Diethyl ether could also be mixed with other anesthetic agents such as chloroform to make C.E. mixture , or chloroform and alcohol to make A.C.E. mixture . In
1647-729: Is significant, and patients experience symptoms of benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome if it is taken for six weeks or longer. In humans, tolerance to the anticonvulsant effects of diazepam occurs frequently. Improper or excessive use of diazepam can lead to dependence . At a particularly high risk for diazepam misuse, substance use disorder or dependence are: Patients from the aforementioned groups should be monitored very closely during therapy for signs of abuse and development of dependence. Therapy should be discontinued if any of these signs are noted, although if dependence has developed, therapy must still be discontinued gradually to avoid severe withdrawal symptoms. Long-term therapy in such instances
1708-1060: Is typically issued to service members, along with three Mark I NAAK kits, when operating in circumstances where chemical weapons in the form of nerve agents are considered a potential hazard. Both of these kits deliver drugs using autoinjectors . They are intended for use in "buddy aid" or "self aid" administration of the drugs in the field prior to decontamination and delivery of the patient to definitive medical care. Use of diazepam should be avoided, when possible, in individuals with: Benzodiazepines, such as diazepam, can cause anterograde amnesia , confusion, and sedation . The elderly are more prone to diazepam's confusion, amnesia, ataxia, hangover symptoms, and falls. Long-term use of benzodiazepines, such as diazepam, induces tolerance, dependency, and withdrawal syndrome. Like other benzodiazepines, diazepam impairs short-term memory and learning new information. Diazepam and other benzodiazepines can produce anterograde amnesia, but not retrograde amnesia . It means information learned before using benzodiazepines
1769-441: Is typically supplied with trace amounts of the antioxidant butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), which reduces the formation of peroxides. Storage over sodium hydroxide precipitates the intermediate ether hydroperoxides. Water and peroxides can be removed by either distillation from sodium and benzophenone , or by passing through a column of activated alumina . Due to its application in the manufacturing of illicit substances, it
1830-619: The Lethe River (Λήθη, meaning "forgetfulness, oblivion"). However, Crawford Williamson Long is now known to have demonstrated its use privately as a general anesthetic in surgery to officials in Georgia, as early as March 30, 1842, and Long publicly demonstrated ether's use as a surgical anesthetic on six occasions before the Boston demonstration. British doctors were aware of the anesthetic properties of ether as early as 1840 where it
1891-428: The muscle relaxant effects of benzodiazepines such as diazepam. Baclofen is sometimes used as an alternative to diazepam. Diazepam is marketed in over 500 brands throughout the world. It is supplied in oral, injectable, inhalation, and rectal forms. The United States military employs a specialized diazepam preparation known as Convulsive Antidote, Nerve Agent ( CANA ), which contains diazepam. One CANA kit
Zinc iodide - Misplaced Pages Continue
1952-451: The 'P'-conformer and 'M'-conformer. Diazepam is an equimolar mixture and it was shown through CD spectra in serum protein solutions, that the 'P'-conformer is preferred by α1-acid glycoprotein binding. The drug diazepam occurs as a pale yellow-white crystalline powder without distinctive smell and has a low molecular weight (MW = 284.74 g/mol ). This classic aryl 1,4-benzodiazepine possesses three acceptors and no hydrogen bond donors. Diazepam
2013-464: The 19th century and early 20th century ether drinking was popular among Polish peasants. It is a traditional and still relatively popular recreational drug among Lemkos . It is usually consumed in a small quantity ( kropka , or "dot") poured over milk , sugar water, or orange juice in a shot glass . As a drug, it has been known to cause psychological dependence , sometimes referred to as etheromania . Diazepam Diazepam , sold under
2074-479: The 19th century called ether frolics , where guests were encouraged to inhale therapeutic amounts of diethyl ether or nitrous oxide , producing a state of excitation. Long, as well as fellow dentists Horace Wells , William Edward Clarke and William T. G. Morton observed that during these gatherings, people would often experience minor injuries but appear to show no reaction to the injury, nor memory that it had happened, demonstrating ether's anaesthetic effects. In
2135-487: The 21st century, ether is rarely used. The use of flammable ether was displaced by nonflammable fluorinated hydrocarbon anesthetics. Halothane was the first such anesthetic developed and other currently used inhaled anesthetics, such as isoflurane , desflurane , and sevoflurane , are halogenated ethers. Diethyl ether was found to have undesirable side effects, such as post-anesthetic nausea and vomiting. Modern anesthetic agents reduce these side effects. Prior to 2005, it
2196-480: The GABA type A receptors ( GABA A ). The GABA A receptors are ligand-gated chloride-selective ion channels that are activated by GABA , the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain. Binding of benzodiazepines to this receptor complex promotes the binding of GABA, which in turn increases the total conduction of chloride ions across the neuronal cell membrane. This increased chloride ion influx hyperpolarizes
2257-403: The anticonvulsant effects. Because of its relatively long duration of action, and evidence of safety and efficacy, diazepam is preferred over other benzodiazepines for treatment of persons experiencing moderate to severe alcohol withdrawal. An exception to this is when a medication is required intramuscular in which case either lorazepam or midazolam is recommended. Diazepam is used for
2318-400: The brand name Valium among others, is a medicine of the benzodiazepine family that acts as an anxiolytic . It is used to treat a range of conditions, including anxiety , seizures , alcohol withdrawal syndrome , muscle spasms , insomnia , and restless legs syndrome . It may also be used to cause memory loss during certain medical procedures. It can be taken orally (by mouth), as
2379-754: The course of therapy, tolerance to the sedative effects usually develops, but not to the anxiolytic and myorelaxant effects. Patients with severe attacks of apnea during sleep may experience respiratory depression (hypoventilation), leading to respiratory arrest and death. Diazepam in doses of 5 mg or more causes significant deterioration in alertness performance combined with increased feelings of sleepiness. Diazepam, as with other benzodiazepine drugs, can cause tolerance, physical dependence, substance use disorder , and benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome . Withdrawal from diazepam or other benzodiazepines often leads to withdrawal symptoms similar to those seen during barbiturate or alcohol withdrawal. The higher
2440-414: The decision to treat febrile seizures (which are benign in nature) with medication should use this as part of the evaluation. Long-term use of diazepam for the management of epilepsy is not recommended; however, a subgroup of individuals with treatment-resistant epilepsy benefit from long-term benzodiazepines, and for such individuals, clorazepate has been recommended due to its slower onset of tolerance to
2501-554: The dose and the longer the drug is taken, the greater the risk of experiencing unpleasant withdrawal symptoms. Withdrawal symptoms can occur from standard dosages and also after short-term use, and can range from insomnia and anxiety to more serious symptoms, including seizures and psychosis. Withdrawal symptoms can sometimes resemble pre-existing conditions and be misdiagnosed. Diazepam may produce less intense withdrawal symptoms due to its long elimination half-life . Benzodiazepine treatment should be discontinued as soon as possible by
Zinc iodide - Misplaced Pages Continue
2562-482: The effect of GABA. About one-third of individuals who take benzodiazepines for longer than four weeks become dependent and experience withdrawal syndrome on cessation. Differences in rates of withdrawal (50–100%) vary depending on the patient sample. For example, a random sample of long-term benzodiazepine users typically finds around 50% experience few or no withdrawal symptoms, with the other 50% experiencing notable withdrawal symptoms. Certain select patient groups show
2623-471: The emergency treatment of eclampsia , when IV magnesium sulfate and blood-pressure control measures have failed. Benzodiazepines do not have any pain-relieving properties themselves, and are generally recommended to avoid in individuals with pain. However, benzodiazepines such as diazepam can be used for their muscle-relaxant properties to alleviate pain caused by muscle spasms and various dystonias , including blepharospasm . Tolerance often develops to
2684-492: The hospital and as follow-up. Overdoses of diazepam with alcohol, opiates, or other depressants may be fatal. If diazepam is administered concomitantly with other drugs, attention should be paid to the possible pharmacological interactions. Particular care should be taken with drugs that potentiate the effects of diazepam, such as barbiturates, phenothiazines , opioids , and antidepressants . Diazepam does not increase or decrease hepatic enzyme activity, and does not alter
2745-526: The idea was disproved in about 1800. The synthesis of diethyl ether by a reaction between ethanol and sulfuric acid has been known since the 13th century. William T. G. Morton participated in a public demonstration of ether anesthesia on October 16, 1846, at the Ether Dome in Boston, Massachusetts . Morton had called his ether preparation, with aromatic oils to conceal its smell, " Letheon " after
2806-415: The medicines in the class. Diazepam has a range of side effects common to most benzodiazepines, including: Less commonly, paradoxical reactions can occur, including nervousness, irritability, excitement, worsening of seizures, insomnia, muscle cramps, changes in libido , and in some cases, rage and violence. These adverse reactions are more likely to occur in children, the elderly, and individuals with
2867-400: The metabolism of other compounds. No evidence would suggest diazepam alters its own metabolism with chronic administration. Agents with an effect on hepatic cytochrome P450 pathways or conjugation can alter the rate of diazepam metabolism. These interactions would be expected to be most significant with long-term diazepam therapy, and their clinical significance is variable. Diazepam is
2928-452: The mice with diazepam in vivo . This may play a role in explaining diazepam's anticonvulsant properties. Diazepam binds with high affinity to glial cells in animal cell cultures. Diazepam at high doses has been found to decrease histamine turnover in mouse brain via diazepam's action at the benzodiazepine-GABA receptor complex. Diazepam also decreases prolactin release in rats. Benzodiazepines are positive allosteric modulators of
2989-418: The name reflects the fact that it is obtained by distilling a mixture of ethanol and sulfuric acid (then known as oil of vitriol) – and noted some of its medicinal properties . At about the same time, Paracelsus discovered the analgesic properties of the molecule in dogs. The name ether was given to the substance in 1729 by August Sigmund Frobenius . It was considered to be a sulfur compound until
3050-487: The neuron's membrane potential . As a result, the difference between resting potential and threshold potential is increased and firing is less likely. As a result, the arousal of the cortical and limbic systems in the central nervous system is reduced. The GABA A receptor is a heteromer composed of five subunits, the most common ones being two αs, two βs, and one γ (α2β2γ). For each subunit, many subtypes exist (α1–6, β1–3, and γ1–3). GABA A receptors containing
3111-523: The plastic bags and tubing used for intravenous infusions. Absorption appears to depend on several factors, such as temperature, concentration, flow rates, and tube length. Diazepam should not be administered if a precipitate has formed and does not dissolve. Diazepam is mainly used to treat anxiety, insomnia, panic attacks and symptoms of acute alcohol withdrawal. It is also used as a premedication for inducing sedation, anxiolysis, or amnesia before certain medical procedures (e.g., endoscopy ). In 2020, it
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#17327866938183172-415: The risk of seizure induced brain and cardiac damage. Dosages should be determined on an individual basis, depending on the condition being treated, severity of symptoms, patient body weight, and any other conditions the person may have. Intravenous diazepam or lorazepam are first-line treatments for status epilepticus. However, intravenous lorazepam has advantages over intravenous diazepam, including
3233-453: The static electricity which can build up when ether is being poured from one vessel into another. The autoignition temperature of diethyl ether is 160 °C (320 °F). The diffusion of diethyl ether in air is 9.18 × 10 m /s (298 K, 101.325 kPa). Ether is sensitive to light and air, tending to form explosive peroxides . Ether peroxides have a higher boiling point than ether and are contact explosives when dry. Commercial diethyl ether
3294-719: The stomach following a diazepam overdose. Emesis is contraindicated. Dialysis is minimally effective. Hypotension may be treated with levarterenol or metaraminol . The oral LD 50 (lethal dose in 50% of the population) of diazepam is 720 mg/kg in mice and 1240 mg/kg in rats. D. J. Greenblatt and colleagues reported in 1978 on two patients who had taken 500 mg and 2000 mg of diazepam, respectively, went into moderately-deep comas, and were discharged within 48 hours without having experienced any important complications, in spite of having high concentrations of diazepam and its metabolites desmethyldiazepam , oxazepam, and temazepam, according to samples taken in
3355-422: The treatment of seizures due to a drug overdose or chemical toxicity as a result of exposure to sarin , VX , or soman (or other organophosphate poisons), lindane , chloroquine , physostigmine , or pyrethroids . Diazepam is sometimes used intermittently for the prevention of febrile seizures that may occur in children under five years of age. Recurrence rates are reduced, but side effects are common so
3416-442: The vapor-phase hydration of ethylene to make ethanol . This process uses solid-supported phosphoric acid catalysts and can be adjusted to make more ether if the need arises: Vapor-phase dehydration of ethanol over some alumina catalysts can give diethyl ether yields of up to 95%. Diethyl ether can be prepared both in laboratories and on an industrial scale by the acid ether synthesis. The dominant use of diethyl ether
3477-468: The α1 subunit mediate the sedative, the anterograde amnesic, and partly the anticonvulsive effects of diazepam. GABA A receptors containing α2 mediate the anxiolytic actions and to a large degree the myorelaxant effects. GABA A receptors containing α3 and α5 also contribute to benzodiazepines myorelaxant actions, whereas GABA A receptors comprising the α5 subunit were shown to modulate the temporal and spatial memory effects of benzodiazepines. Diazepam
3538-468: Was approved for use in the United States as a nasal spray to interrupt seizure activity in people with epilepsy . Diazepam is the most commonly used benzodiazepine for "tapering" benzodiazepine dependence due to the drug's comparatively long half-life, allowing for more efficient dose reduction. Benzodiazepines have a relatively low toxicity in overdose. Diazepam has a number of uses, including: Used in treatment of organophosphate poisoning and reduces
3599-559: Was on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines for use as an anesthetic. Ether was once used in pharmaceutical formulations. A mixture of alcohol and ether, one part of diethyl ether and three parts of ethanol, was known as "Spirit of ether" , Hoffman's Anodyne or Hoffman's Drops. In the United States this concoction was removed from the Pharmacopeia at some point prior to June 1917, as
3660-417: Was the 169th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 3 million prescriptions. In 1985, the patent ended, and there are more than 500 brands available on the market. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines . Diazepam does not possess any chiral centers in its structure, but it does have two conformers . The two conformers mentioned were
3721-429: Was widely prescribed in conjunction with opium. Diethyl ether was preferred by some practitioners over chloroform as a general anesthetic due to ether's more favorable therapeutic index , that is, a greater difference between an effective dose and a potentially toxic dose. Diethyl ether does not depress the myocardium but rather it stimulates the sympathetic nervous system leading to hypertension and tachycardia. It
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