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109-516: Almost nothing is known of Zonaras's life. However, various elements can be inferred from his own writings. In one of his writings he states that he "saw" the second marriage of an emperor. This could have been the marriage of Nikephoros III with Maria of Alania in late 1078 or perhaps even the marriage of Manuel I Komnenos to Maria of Antioch in 1161 which would put Zonaras' death significantly later. It's not known with certainty if Zonaras served under John II Komnenos (r. 1118–1143), although this

218-456: A balanced view – while he portrays Michael VII as incompetent and corrupt, he does praise Nikephoros as Attaleiates does. Michael's usefulness is limited by his brevity on the subject, although it is likely, based on the contents of his chronicle, that Attaleiates himself served as a source. Matthew's chronicle is longer, but clearly derived from the work of Psellos, as Matthew openly praises Michael VII while ridiculing Nikephoros, who he portrays as

327-545: A civil war, which is mentioned by Skylitzes, Psellos, and Attaleiates; Psellos himself led the embassy from Michael to Isaac. Isaac then gathered the support of other military elites before marching for Constantinople. At Constantinople, the Battle of Petroe took place on 20 August 1057, a decisive victory for Isaac, and reportedly one of the bloodiest battles the Byzantines engaged in during a civil war. Isaac's victory placed

436-481: A date of c. 1065-67 for this stage in Nikephoros ' s career. Nikephoros was reassigned as doux of Antioch in c. 1065 by Constantine X due to the mismanagement of the province by its previous doux , Nikephoritzes , who would later serve as logothetes under Michael VII. Although his troops were inexperienced and under-equipped, Nikephoros was able to repel numerous raids against Antioch from

545-564: A favorable account of Nikephoros, he does mention some of his failings, such as his defeat by the Oghuz Turks in 1063, whereas Psellos intentionally fails to mention several failings of Michael VII in his panegyrical chapter on him, including his loss of Anatolia to the Seljuk Turks and the debasement of currency which took place under him. The other main source for Nikephoros ' s reign is Anna Komnene 's Alexiad , although she

654-552: A general of Alexios, who persuaded them to support Alexios. Alexios and his forces broke through the walls of Constantinople on 1 April 1081. Nikephoros fled and sought sanctuary inside of the Hagia Sophia , while Alexios' troops sacked the city for three days. Nikephoros was taken from there to the Monastery of Peribleptus , where he abdicated and became a monk. The most comprehensive account of Nikephoros III's life and reign

763-633: A hedonistic womanizer; ironically the exact accusation which Michael the Syrian makes against Michael VII. Nikephoros was born in 1002 to Michael Botaneiates and his wife, members of the Botaneiates family , a prominent military family from the Anatolic Theme . According to Attaleiates, Nikephoros ' s grandfather Nikephoros and father Michael both served as commanders under Basil II ( r.  976–1025 ) during his campaigns against

872-581: A horse, proclaiming he would prefer death to the dishonor of cowardice, which reinforced the morale of his troops. After eleven days of constant attacks, they reached the Byzantine city of Adrianople , where the Pechenegs finally gave up their pursuit. For his actions, Emperor Constantine IX awarded Nikephoros the high court rank of magistros . While it is possible that his actions were exaggerated by Attaleiates, it fits comfortably with his reputation as

981-527: A husband and co-emperor in 1042, although he had been exiled for conspiring against her previous husband, Emperor Michael IV the Paphlagonian . The couple shared the throne with Zoë's sister Theodora Porphyrogenita . Zoë died in 1050, and Constantine continued his collaboration with Theodora until his own death five years later. Constantine waged wars against groups which included the Kievan Rus' ,

1090-474: A law regarding spousal insanity, the second increasing the time between sentencing and execution to thirty days to allow new evidence to be presented or the judge to review whether the crime merited capital punishment. Nikephoros also issued a law that extended the same legal rights and protections enjoyed by private servants to imperial servants. While the reforms of Nikephoros are quite minor, they provide insight into Nikephoros ' s desire to relieve some of

1199-424: A mere usurper. Nikephoros worked to not only gain the favor of the masses, but also the previous dynasty, which Romanos IV had failed to do, leading to his downfall. He brought Eudokia Makrembolitissa out of her monastic exile and allowed her to live among her family, and attempted to make Constantine Doukas his heir, likely in an attempt to appease the civil officials who he had just deposed. Additionally, succession

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1308-450: A monastery, a common Byzantine practice for removing threats to the throne since the 7th century, and castrated Michael's sons. The castration of the sons was viewed poorly by the Byzantine nobility, possibly due to the brutality of the act, although Michael the Syrian does not provide an in-depth explanation of exactly why the Byzantine elite opposed it. During the reign of Nikephoros, he had to contend with four revolts and plots before

1417-463: A monastery. Nikephoros is briefly mentioned by John Skylitzes in his Synopsis of Histories , which covers the events of 811–1057, but is referenced far more in Skylitzes ' s Continuatus . Although Skylitzes is a contemporary source, his Continuatus was written under Alexios, whom he is known to have favored; however, he generally follows the more objective account of Attaleiates, who

1526-650: A strong commander. Nikephoros is next mentioned for his role in the revolt of Isaac I Komnenos against the Byzantine Emperor Michael VI Bringas ( r.  1056–1057 ) in 1057. This revolt was a result of Michael's favoritism toward the civil officials of Constantinople, and his scorn toward the military elites. After the Dynatoi were humiliated by Michael by his refusal to grant them any gifts, Isaac attempted to reconcile with Michael, only to be personally insulted by him, sparking

1635-550: A supporter of Bryennios, Nikephoros Basilakes the protoproedros , rebelled in Dyrrhachium (modern-day Durrës ) in 1078, but he was quickly defeated by Alexios, and similarly blinded. In 1079 the Varangian Guard attempted to murder Nikephoros during an evening inspection, but they were unsuccessful as Nikephoros was able to command his retinue and defend himself until his imperial guards could arrive to defeat

1744-612: A treatise on the Apostolic Canons — and there is no reason to doubt their genuineness. The lexicon, however, which has been handed down under his name (ed. J. A. H. Tittmann 1808) is probably the work of a certain Antonius Monachus (Stein's Herodotus , ii.479 f). The first ecclesiastical denunciation of the game of chess on the part of the Eastern Orthodox Church was voiced by Zonaras. It

1853-400: A usurper. He spent large amounts of money on donatives for his army and supporters, which severely sapped the imperial treasury, and distributed many titles to them; he also donated generously to charities. He returned the gold and silver ornaments that Michael VII had confiscated from the churches to fund his civil war against him. Whether or not these acts managed to gain the support of

1962-529: A woman named Vevdene, but he later married Maria of Alania , the former wife of Michael VII. He seems to have had at least one child with Vevdene, as Anna Komnene mentions his grandson in the Alexiad . Little else is known of Nikephoros ' s life before 1053, other than that he served as a commander under Emperor Constantine IX Monomachos during the Pecheneg revolt of 1048–1053. Nikephoros first attracts

2071-740: A year before Constantine's death, the Great Schism between the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches took place, culminating in Pope Leo IX excommunicating the Patriarch Michael Keroularios . Constantine, aware of the political and religious consequences of such a disunion, made unsuccessful efforts to prevent the breach. Constantine Monomachos was the son of Theodosios Monomachos, an important bureaucrat under Basil II and Constantine VIII , of

2180-496: Is The History , written in the 1070s by the Byzantine historian Michael Attaleiates and dedicated to Nikephoros himself. Attaleiates is the primary contemporary source for Nikephoros's reign and counters the narrative of Byzantine historian Michael Psellos 's Chronographia , the only other contemporary source. Attaleiates highlights Nikephoros ' s achievements, often containing records of his actions which no other source mentions, such as his eleven-day rearguard command after

2289-651: Is an engraphon dated to December 1061. It mentions that Iveron's abbot and two of its monks had delivered an order from Constantine X Doukas ( r.  1059–1067 ) to Nikephoros, doux of Thessalonica, in October (so Nikephoros ' s tenure must have begun by then). The next two documents are a praktikon and a hypomnema both dated to August 1062. The praktikon still has a seal of Nikephoros ' s attached to it, and all three documents also have Nikephoros ' s signature. He misspelled his own name on all three. A fourth Athonite document, dated to February 1063,

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2398-647: Is known other than that he later married a niece of Alexios. Norman Duke Robert Guiscard of Apulia prepared to invade the Byzantine Empire in 1081 under the pretext of defending the succession of Constantine Doukas, who had been engaged to Robert's daughter Helena; at the same time, the Seljuks captured the town of Cyzicus . Alexios was entrusted with a substantial army to defeat the Norman threat but conspired with his relative John Doukas to instead take

2507-440: Is mentioned only in a single paragraph by Psellos, who chiefly comments that Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes should have studied strategy better; however, Attaleiates devotes an entire chapter to the details of the decisive battle, including the events before and after the battle, while also giving his own commentary and anecdotes of the actions and mistakes which were made. Attaleiates is invaluable in providing an understanding of what

2616-412: Is signed by a doux of Thessalonica named Theodoros Dalassenos, so Nikephoros ' s time as doux of Thessalonica must have ended by then. The Iveron documents record some of Nikephoros ' s activity settling complaints in the theme of Thessalonica. The first complaint we know of was a dispute centered on the Byzantine government's confiscation of some of the property and Paroikoi ( serfs ) of

2725-665: Is still a possibility. Zonaras' Epitome served as the basis of Constantine Manasses ' chronicle, which was commissioned by Irene Komnene, the widow of the sebastokrator Andronikos Komnenos . Given that Irene died on (or shortly before) 1153, this work must have been written c. 1150 or 1145. Furthermore, it's possible that Irene requested this shorter chronicle precisely because she had already seen Zonaras' Epitome . Therefore, it can be inferred that Zonaras had already died by 1145. His most important work, Extracts of History ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : Ἐπιτομὴ Ἱστοριῶν , Latin : Epitome Historiarum ), in eighteen books, extends from

2834-561: Is that he may have gained legitimacy due to achieving something which his predecessor was never able to; that Attaleiates deigns to mention it as one of Nikephoros's successes lends credence to it largely benefiting only Nikephoros's legitimacy. Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos ( Medieval Greek : Κωνσταντῖνος Μονομάχος , romanized :  Kōnstantinos Monomachos ; c. 980 / c. 1000 – 11 January 1055) reigned as Byzantine emperor from June 1042 to January 1055. Empress Zoë Porphyrogenita chose him as

2943-466: Is the section on the reign of Alexios I Komnenos , whom he criticizes for the favour shown to members of his family, to whom Alexios entrusted vast estates and significant state offices. His history was continued by Nicetas Acominatus . Various ecclesiastical works have been attributed to Zonaras — commentaries on the Church Fathers and the poems of Gregory of Nazianzus ; lives of Saints; and

3052-560: The metochion of Melissourgeion ; the metochion appears to have ignored a ruling previously made by Empress Theodora Porphyrogenita , which Nikephoros reasserted. In the fall of 1064, the Oghuz Turks invaded the Byzantine Balkans and defeated both Nikephoros and Basil Apokapes , archon of Paristrion , in battle, and took them captive, which Attaleiates suggests was greatly humiliating for Nikephoros; however,

3161-423: The pronoia system, a sort of Byzantine feudal contract in which tracts of land (or the tax revenue from it) were granted to particular individuals in exchange for contributing to and maintaining military forces. Constantine could be wasteful with the imperial treasury. On one occasion he is said to have sent an Arab leader 500,000 gold coins, over two tons of gold. In 1054 the centuries-old differences between

3270-605: The Balkans and was about to defeat Constantine's army in battle, when he was wounded and died on the field, ending the crisis in 1043. Immediately after the victory, Constantine was attacked by a fleet from Kievan Rus' ; it is "incontrovertible that a Rus' detachment took part in the Maniakes rebellion". They too were defeated, with the help of Greek fire . As part of the peace negotiations, Constantine married his daughter, Anastasia (by his second wife or Maria Skleraina), to

3379-560: The Balkans , and in 1048 the area was raided by the Pechenegs , who continued to plunder it for the next five years. The emperor's efforts to contain the enemy through diplomacy merely exacerbated the situation, as rival Pecheneg leaders clashed on Byzantine ground, and Pecheneg settlers were allowed to live in compact settlement in the Balkans, making it difficult to suppress their rebellion. Constantine seems to have taken recourse to

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3488-463: The Battle of Zygos Pass , to which Attaleiates dedicates several pages. Attaleiates ' s high opinion of Nikephoros was likely shaped by Nikephoros raising him to the rank of vestes , and by his benefiting from Nikephoros ' s patronage. Much of Attaleiates ' s work is shaped by his personal opinion of contemporary events, such as his bias against Nikephoros ' s predecessor, Emperor Michael VII Doukas . The Battle of Manzikert in 1071

3597-620: The Eastern and Western churches led to their final separation . Legates from Pope Leo IX excommunicated the Patriarch of Constantinople Michael Keroularios when Keroularios would not agree to adopt western church practices, and in return Keroularios excommunicated the legates. This sabotaged Constantine's attempts to ally with the Pope against the Normans , who had taken advantage of

3706-461: The Emirate of Aleppo , largely due to his own military prowess, his well-trained retinue , and his use of local levies. Nikephoros was relieved of his command in c. 1067, likely due to the political efforts of the civil officials, who wished to eliminate the military aristocracy, of which Nikephoros was a member. The political machinations of the civil officials, and their willingness to undermine

3815-485: The Emirate of Aleppo . When Constantine X died in 1067, his wife, Empress Eudokia Makrembolitissa , considered taking Nikephoros as husband and emperor but instead chose Romanos IV Diogenes . The need for an immediate successor was made pressing by the constant Seljuk raids into Byzantine Anatolia , and Eudokia, Patriarch John VIII of Constantinople , and the Byzantine Senate agreed that their top priority

3924-554: The Iveron Monastery of Mount Athos , which the monastery viewed as unlawful. Nikephoros sent Michael the spatharokandidatos to inquire into the case, before ruling that, based upon a chrysobull issued by Basil II which had declared that the monastery's property and Paroikoi were exempt from taxes, they could not be confiscated by the government. Nikephoros settled another dispute in February 1062, this time between

4033-522: The Monastery of Lavra and Theodoros of Aichmalotou , a local landowner, over monastic property; Nikephoros ruled in favor of the monastery. Nikephoros settled a boundary dispute between the Iveron Monastery and the Bishop of Ezoba , basing his ruling on the knowledge of the local populace. The last Thessalonian dispute we know of that Nikephoros ruled on was between the Iveron Monastery and

4142-561: The Pechenegs and, in the East, the rising Seljuq Turks . Despite the varying success of these campaigns, the Byzantine Empire largely retained the borders established after the conquests of Basil II ( r.  976–1025 ), even expanding eastwards when Constantine annexed the wealthy Armenian kingdom of Ani . Constantine accordingly may be considered the last effective emperor during the Macedonian Renaissance . In 1054,

4251-622: The Anatolic Theme because it was his homeland. Michael VII then sent Nikephoros and the Caesar John Doukas to defeat the rebellion of Roussel de Bailleul. Nikephoros warned John not to cross the Zompos Bridge and engage the forces of Roussel, but John disregarded him and led his troops to defeat at the Battle of the Zompos Bridge in 1074. Nikephoros, who commanded the rearguard, held his troops back from fighting in

4360-564: The Anatolic Theme. Nikephoros came into conflict with Michael in 1078 when he pleaded with the emperor to address the worsening situation in Byzantine Anatolia, insulting Michael with his frankness. In order to protect himself, Nikephoros gathered an army of native troops and Turkish mercenaries and declared himself emperor in July or October 1077. Nikephoros gathered a strong support base due to his military acumen and family renown and

4469-415: The Byzantine Empire under the pretext of defending the succession of Constantine Doukas, who had been engaged to Robert's daughter Helena. Alexios I Komnenos was entrusted with an army and sent to defeat the Norman threat, but instead conspired with his relative John Doukas to seize the throne. Alexios raised a rebellion against Nikephoros and was able to quickly encircle Constantinople and besiege it, due to

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4578-415: The Byzantine Empire, and thus provides a fair and objective view of Nikephoros. Nikephoros is also mentioned in the accounts of both Matthew of Edessa and Michael the Syrian , who wrote their chronicles several centuries after the events and are therefore quite objective in their treatment of Nikephoros, lacking political intrigue related to him. Michael is quite brief in his account of Nikephoros, but gives

4687-464: The Byzantine lands for themselves, rather than simply raid them. Theodore Gabras and Philaretos Brachamios , the governors of Trebizond and Antioch, respectively, had become separated from the rest of the Byzantine Empire as the Turks invaded other regions of Anatolia which were almost undefended, and thus became de facto independent of the Byzantine Empire. Nikephoros negotiated with Philaretos for

4796-681: The Byzantines first came into contact with the Seljuk Turks . They met in battle in Armenia in 1048 and settled a truce the following year. Even if the Seljuk rulers were willing to abide by the treaty, their unruly Turcoman allies showed much less restraint. The Byzantine forces would suffer a cataclysmic defeat at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. Constantine began persecuting the Armenian Church , trying to force it into union with

4905-617: The Danube frontier, where he remained until 1064. During his time at this command, he saved the life of the future Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes during Isaac's campaign against the Hungarians. By October 1061 at the latest, Nikephoros was serving as doux of Thessalonica . The evidence for his time in Thessalonica comes from several surviving signed and dated documents from the Iveron Monastery on Mount Athos . The first of these

5014-534: The Doukas dynasty, with Kaldellis stating that "Botaniates' reign was basically an extension of the Ducas dynasty", and de Medeiros Publio Dias stating that "His government is normally only seen as a prelude to the important, but at the same time controversial rule of Alexios I Komnenos". Nikephoros performed many acts to secure the support of the Byzantine populace, as he lacked the legitimacy of imperial succession as

5123-797: The Georgians and his conquest of Bulgaria ; Attaleiates is the only source which gives this information. Attaleiates also states that the Botaniati family was related to Byzantine Emperor Nicephorus II Phocas and the Phocas family. This was almost certainly used by Nikephoros to add legitimacy to his later rule, and this is corroborated by Psellos, who calls Nikephoros III "Phocas" in his reproduction of Byzantine Emperor Michael VII Doukas' letter to him. Christian Settipani speculates that Nikephoros III's great-grandfather Michael married unnamed daughter of Nikephoros II. At an unknown date, Nikephoros married

5232-648: The Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, which had been substantially destroyed in 1009 by Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah . Byzantine Emperor Romanos III had secured the right to undertake such a restoration in a treaty with al-Hakim's son al-Zahir , but it was Constantine who finally set the project in motion, funding the reconstruction of the Church and other Christian establishments in the Holy Land. Constantine

5341-681: The Orthodox Church. In 1046, he refounded the University of Constantinople by creating the Departments of Law and Philosophy . In 1047, Constantine was faced by the rebellion of his nephew Leo Tornikios , who gathered supporters in Adrianople and was proclaimed emperor by the army. Tornikios was forced to retreat, failed in another siege, and was captured during his flight. The revolt had weakened Byzantine defenses in

5450-528: The Pechenegs could inflict and deployed scouts to prevent his troops from being ambushed. During his maneuvering, the Pechenegs attempted to assault his troops and break their formation several times, but each time they were rebuffed. Nikephoros led his troops for eleven days in spite of constant harassment. According to Attaleiates, the Pechenegs attempted to convince the Byzantines to surrender and killed their horses with their bows when this failed. Nikephoros had them continue on foot and refused to flee when offered

5559-486: The Rule commands that such shall cease to do so or be excluded; and if a Bishop or elder or deacon or subdeacon or reader or singer do not cease so to do, he shall be cast out: and if laymen be given to chess-playing and drunkenness, they shall be excluded." Nikephoros III Botaneiates Nikephoros III Botaneiates ( Greek : Νικηφόρος Βοτανειάτης , 1002–1081), Latinized as Nicephorus III Botaniates ,

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5668-561: The Varangians. Nikephoros had the ringleaders of the plot sent to remote forts and granted amnesty to the rest. Around this time, Michael of Nicomedia, the hypertimos (head of the imperial administration), who may be the same person as Michael Psellos, died in Nicomedia; it is not known if his death was related to the assassination plot of the Varangians. Around the same time, Constantine Doukas plotted against Nikephoros, despite

5777-536: The army and his supporters, forgiving all debt in arrears , and instituting minor legal reforms. Diplomatically, Nikephoros secured the submission of Theodore Gabras and Philaretos Brachamios , governors of Trebizond and Antioch, respectively, who had become de facto independent of the Byzantine Empire due to the constant incursions of the Seljuks into Byzantine Anatolia. In 1081, the Norman Duke Robert Guiscard of Apulia prepared to invade

5886-500: The attention of fellow officers, and he received the title of magistros as a reward. Nikephoros served in the revolt of Isaac I Komnenos against the Byzantine Emperor Michael VI Bringas , leading forces at the decisive Battle of Petroe . Under the Emperor Constantine X Doukas he was made doux of Thessalonica . He later served as doux of Antioch . While doux of Antioch, he repelled numerous incursions from

5995-518: The attention of his Byzantine contemporaries and historians for his actions after the Battle of Zygos Pass in 1053. Attaleiates records that Nikephoros was able to wield effective command over his retreating mounted troops, preventing them from being overrun by Pecheneg forces during the Pecheneg revolt. Nikephoros ordered his cavalry to hold a tight formation, limiting the damage the horse-archers of

6104-441: The battle; modern historians have debated exactly why he chose to withhold his troops, and whether they could have turned the tide of the battle. After the defeat of the forces under John, Nikephoros gathered the survivors and led them with his troops back to his estates in the Anatolic Theme. Nikephoros, seeing how dire the situation of the Byzantine Empire was, sent a letter to Emperor Michael in 1077 pleading with him to address

6213-479: The citizens of Constantinople in 1044, which came dangerously close to harming Constantine as he participated in a religious procession . The mob was only quieted by the appearance at a balcony of Zoë and Theodora, who reassured the people that they were not in any danger of regicide . In 1045, Constantine annexed the Armenian kingdom of Ani , but this expansion merely exposed the empire to new enemies. In 1046

6322-406: The civil war. Nikephoros then fled to the Hagia Sophia and sought sanctuary inside of it. Michael, the logothete of Alexios, then escorted Nikephoros to the Monastery of Peribleptus , where he abdicated and became a monk. He died later that year. Daniel Maynard comments that both Anthony Kaldellis and João Vicente de Medeiros Publio Dias tend to characterize Nikephoros' reign as part of

6431-653: The creation of the world to the death of Alexius (1118). The earlier part is largely drawn from Josephus ; for Roman history he chiefly followed Cassius Dio up to the early third century. Contemporary scholars are particularly interested in his account of the third and fourth centuries, which depend upon sources, now lost, whose nature is fiercely debated. Central to this debate is the work of Bruno Bleckmann, whose arguments tend to be supported by continental scholars but rejected in part by English-speaking scholars. An English translation of these important sections has recently been published. The chief original part of Zonaras' history

6540-410: The disappearance of Maniakes to take over Southern Italy . Constantine tried to intervene, but he fell ill and died on 11 January of the following year. He was persuaded by his councillors, chiefly the logothetes tou dromou John, to ignore the rights of the elderly Theodora, daughter of Constantine VIII, and to pass the throne to the doux of Bulgaria, Nikephoros Proteuon . However, Theodora

6649-559: The emperor who had brought him out of exile. A month later, in November 1077, the general Nikephoros Bryennios the Elder raised his own revolt against Michael. The military acumen and family renown of Nikephoros (III) helped him to solidify his support base, and the tyranny of Michael ensured that even some of the elites of Constantinople sided with Nikephoros—something Attaleiates notes as being very rare, since generally people defect from

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6758-509: The emperor's favor towards him. Meanwhile, Nikephoros was planning to deal with Byzantine Anatolia, now practically overrun by the Seljuk Turks. Nikephoros hired mercenaries to strengthen his forces, as he viewed his native forces as being too little in number; however, the mercenaries were rowdy and disloyal. At one point Nikephoros had to personally address the mercenaries to attempt to make them cooperate. Constantine Doukas's rebellion put an end to Nikephoros's eastern campaign, but Nikephoros

6867-459: The eye of Empress Zoë Porphyrogenita , he was exiled to Mytilene on the island of Lesbos by her second husband, Emperor Michael IV . The death of Michael IV and the overthrow of Michael V in 1042 led to Constantine being recalled from his place of exile and appointed as a judge in Greece . However, before he could commence his appointment, Constantine was summoned to Constantinople , where

6976-461: The fact that his father was blinded by Nikephoros. These authors mostly cover the career of Nikephoros from his role in the Battle of the Zygos Pass in 1053 to his death. William of Apulia , a Norman historian who wrote in the 1090s, mentions Nikephoros during his account of Robert Guiscard 's invasion of the Byzantine Empire in 1081; as a foreigner, he was removed from the court politics of

7085-503: The famous and noble Monomachos family . His mother and her name are unknown. Constantine was born around 980 or 1000 in Antioch . At some point Constantine's father Theodosios had been suspected of conspiracy, and his son's career suffered accordingly. Constantine's position improved after he married his second wife, sometimes called Helena or Pulcheria, a daughter of Basil Skleros , and niece of Emperor Romanos III Argyros . Catching

7194-442: The fragile working relationship between Michael V's successors, Empresses Zoë and Theodora Porphyrogenita , was breaking down. After two months of increasing acrimony between the two, Zoë decided to search for a new husband, thereby hoping to prevent her sister from increasing her popularity and authority. After her first preference displayed contempt for the empress and her second died under mysterious circumstances, Zoë remembered

7303-438: The further collapse of the Byzantine Empire. Psellos's Chronographia is largely useless in understanding the life of Nikephoros; while he provides a contemporary source from the view of the Byzantine nobles, he is far from objective in his review of events, although his retelling of Michael's letter to Nikephoros is useful as it shares both Michael's and Psellos ' s opinion of the events. While Attaleiates generally provides

7412-467: The future Prince Vsevolod I of Kiev , the son of his opponent Yaroslav I the Wise . Constantine's family name Monomachos ("one who fights alone") was inherited by Vsevolod and Anastasia's son, Vladimir II Monomakh . Constantine IX's preferential treatment of Maria Skleraina in the early part of his reign led to rumors that she was planning to murder Zoë and Theodora. This led to a popular uprising by

7521-473: The handsome and urbane Constantine. The pair were married on 11 June, without the participation of Patriarch Alexius of Constantinople , who refused to officiate over a third marriage (for both spouses). Constantine was crowned on the following day. Constantine continued the purge instituted by Zoë and Theodora, removing the relatives of Michael V from the court. The new emperor was pleasure-loving and prone to violent outbursts on suspicion of conspiracy. He

7630-461: The issues plaguing the Byzantine Empire and correct the rampant corruption of the Byzantine courts; that his reforms were quite minor is unsurprising in light of the fact that Nikephoros was nearly eighty and had to suppress several revolts and defend against the Turks in Anatolia. The situation of Byzantine Anatolia worsened after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, as the Seljuk Turks began to take

7739-554: The lack of a defensive army. Nikephoros was unable to secure the support of either the Seljuk Turks or Nikephoros Melissenos , his traditional rivals, and therefore was forced to prepare for abdication. Nikephoros decided that his only choice was to abdicate in favor of Melissenos, who was nearby in Damalis in Anatolia, and sent messengers to him across the Bosphorus ; however, these messengers were intercepted by George Palaiologos ,

7848-400: The level of control that Isaac had. This was largely accomplished by undermining the military aristocracy, even while the Turks had begun to invade Byzantine Armenia. Upon the death of Constantine X in 1067, his wife, Empress Eudokia Makrembolitissa , considered taking Nikephoros as husband and emperor, but instead chose Romanos IV Diogenes ( r.  1068–1071 ). The need for an emperor

7957-489: The military aristocracy firmly back in control and marked the first time a general had held the throne since the death of Emperor Basil II in 1025. Nikephoros led a wing of Isaac's forces during the battle, suggesting he had been a part of Isaac's inner circle; Skylitzes mentions that during this battle Nikephoros fought a duel against one of Michael's mercenaries, Randolf the Frank . In 1059, Isaac placed Nikephoros in command of

8066-446: The military elites, had built up under previous emperors such as Romanos III ( r.  1028–1034 ) and Michael VI; during this period the civil officials had become increasingly powerful, until Isaac I's reforms definitively curbed their power. Constantine X had become emperor when Isaac abdicated in 1059 and was considerably weaker than Isaac had been, allowing the civil officials to manipulate him, thereby preventing him from gaining

8175-408: The people cannot be ascertained, as Nikephoros ' s reign was filled with revolts and political uncertainty; however, it can be assumed that he was determined to prevent the betrayal which many previous emperors had suffered, and as such freely handed out gifts and titles. Many of the reforms which Nikephoros enacted were more likely intended to solidify his tenuous hold on the throne, rather than for

8284-556: The populace of the Byzantine Empire , outside of the nobles of Constantinople , thought of the Turkish invasion of Anatolia . These opinions explain why Attaleiates condemns Michael VII and praises Nikephoros to such a degree: in the view of the average Byzantine, Michael was primarily at fault for the loss of Byzantine Anatolia , Attaleiates ' s homeland, whereas Nikephoros, a fellow Anatolian, actively worked to prevent

8393-561: The prestige of the Botaneiates family, as Michael Doukas had failed to negotiate a similar agreement with Philaretos because of Philaretos's dislike of the corrupt Nikephoritzes the Logothete. While a diplomatic victory, it did not effectively change the situation of either party, as Philaretos remained effectively independent, and Nikephoros had little to gain from reasserting control over the land. The only real success to come from it

8502-429: The property of their debtors in payment of debt after their debts were canceled. Attaleiates says that these laws "put an end to the fear of debt", which he said had been a source of much suffering for the Byzantine citizens under the Doukas dynasty. Nikephoros may have revoked the edicts of Michael VII to secure more legitimacy and to reward the citizens of Constantinople who had supported him; one such measure involved

8611-450: The rapidly worsening situation in Byzantine Anatolia. Michael was insulted by the directness of one of his subordinates, and turned against Nikephoros, forcing him to rebel against Michael to protect himself from imprisonment. Nikephoros declared himself emperor shortly after, on 2 July/October 1077, mobilizing an army of native troops and Turkish mercenaries. Michael sent Nikephoros a letter in which he reminded Nikephoros that he owed much to

8720-421: The restoration of rights to owners of small jetties around Constantinople, allowing them to again use these ports, called skalai . Attaleiates states that Nikephoros "diligently attended the festivals of the capital and frequently bestowed gifts to his subjects", suggesting that Nikephoros did not hesitate to embrace the trappings of an emperor to ensure that he was viewed as the legitimate emperor rather than

8829-415: The revolt of Alexios I Komnenos which ultimately ended his reign. The first revolt was that of Nikephoros Bryennios, who had contended for the throne of Michael VII at the same time as Nikephoros III; Nikephoros, now too old to command armies, sent Alexios Komnenos to defeat him. Once Bryennios was defeated, Nikephoros III had him blinded, but granted him and his partisans amnesty. The second revolt came from

8938-411: The same punishment as Bryennios and Basilakes; Nikephoros showed mercy and granted them amnesty, along with both gifts and titles. Nikephoros had originally considered Constantine Doukas as a candidate for his heir, as he had no children of his own, but he abandoned this after Constantine revolted against him. He then set his sights upon a distant relative, Nikephoros Synadenos , of whom almost nothing

9047-547: The same time, Dobromir the Paulician stirred up a revolt in Mesembria , in co-operation with Leca, and began to pillage the surrounding areas. Leca and Dobromir soon abandoned their rebellion after they were informed that Nikephoros was quickly assembling an army to defeat them. Knowing their few loyalists would not be able to confront the Byzantine army, they begged Nikephoros for forgiveness, fearing that they would share

9156-496: The security of the empire. Nikephoros issued a chrysobull that forgave all debt which was in arrears in order to gain support and to attempt to remedy the debt crisis which had occurred under the Doukas dynasty ; he also forbade creditors from demanding debt repayment before the terms of the contract stated, likely to improve the financial stability of the empire by preventing sudden impoverishment, and forbade creditors from seizing

9265-405: The sources specifically mention why Nikephoros was recalled to lead forces, but it is likely due to a few reasons: Nikephoros was a renowned commander who had served under the Doukas emperors, he did not have any loyalty to Romanos IV, and the main theater of war was in the eastern portion of the Byzantine Empire, the terrain of which Nikephoros knew well; he likely gained the military governorship of

9374-425: The submission of his fief in 1078 and granted him the title of doux , leaving him the legitimate ruler of the newly returned Byzantine province. This reincorporation benefited the Byzantine Empire as Philaretos had been attacking some nearby Byzantine towns in order to incorporate them into his domain, dividing the Byzantines' focus upon the Seljuk Turks in the area. This successful negotiation may also have reflected

9483-427: The throne for himself. Alexios raised a rebellion against Nikephoros and was able to quickly surround Constantinople and put it to siege due to the lack of a defensive army. Nikeophoros was unable to secure the support of either the Seljuk Turks or Nikephoros Melissenos , his traditional rivals, and thus was forced to prepare to abdicate. Nikephoros decided that his only choice was to abdicate in favor of Melissenos, who

9592-422: The throne, and thus posed a threat to Romanos ' s rule. After Romanos was captured by the Seljuks at the disastrous Battle of Manzikert, Nikephoros did not involve himself in the coup d'état of Michael VII against the still-captive Romanos, and would not again lead troops until the uprising of the mercenary leader Roussel de Bailleul . Emperor Michael VII ( r.  1071–1078 ) brought Nikephoros, who

9701-498: The two men were able to escape captivity after the Oghuz Turk forces were devastated by both Bulgarian raids and disease. The surviving Oghuz Turks were quickly recruited into the Byzantine army. Nikephoros may have also served as doux of Cyprus sometime in the mid-1060s. The only source for this is Bar Hebraeus , who wrote that Nikephoros "ruled first over the island of Cyprus, and then over Antioch". Olga Karagiorgou suggests

9810-446: The usurper's side to the emperor's side. The defection of some of the capital elites was even more astonishing because the march from the Anatolic Theme to Constantinople was not safe due to Turkish raids, which had reached deep into Anatolia by 1078, meaning that Nikephoros ' s rebellion might be destroyed before it even reached Constantinople. On 7 January 1078, the Byzantine Senate proclaimed Nikephoros III as emperor, although he

9919-435: Was Byzantine Emperor from 7 January 1078 to 1 April 1081. He was born in 1002, and became a general during the reign of Byzantine Emperor Constantine IX Monomachos , serving in the Pecheneg revolt of 1048–1053. His actions in guiding his forces away from the Pechenegs following the Battle of Zygos Pass , in which they suffered eleven days of harassment before finally reaching the Byzantine city of Adrianople , attracted

10028-588: Was a strong concern, as Nikephoros was a widower, old, and childless in 1078. His marriage to Maria, the wife of Michael VII, and attempt to take Constantine as his heir, show Nikephoros ' s determination to both secure his succession and restore stability to the empire. Attaleiates praised Nikephoros for his reforms to the legal code and his diligence in the performance of his imperial duties. Nikephoros presided over court cases and in his free time read books to improve his ability to judge cases. Nikephoros settled several pressing legal issues in 1079, first enacting

10137-567: Was born after the events, and the first sections of her account are generally derived from the writings of her husband Nikephoros Bryennios the Younger . She is also biased as a result of being the daughter of Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos , who seized the throne from Nikephoros, causing the account to be from the view of Alexios's rise. While her narrative primarily focuses on the actions of Alexios, it does provide information on Nikephoros ' s last years in power and his subsequent exile to

10246-593: Was during his retirement as a monk to the monastery of Mount Athos that he wrote his commentary on the canons of the Eastern Church. The Quinisext Council required both clergy and laity to give up the use of dice (Canon 50). Zonaras wanted chess to also be included for clergy and laity to give up. Zonaras, commenting on Canon 50, wrote, "Because there are some of the Bishops and clergy who depart from virtue and play chess ( zatikron ) or dice or drink to excess,

10355-493: Was handed over to Nikephoros by his own troops, he was sent into exile at a monastery. In 1078 the Paulician sect attempted to use the chaos of the rebellions of Bryennios and Basilakes and their growing popularity in the Balkans to rise up against Nikephoros; Leca the Paulician agitated against Nikephoros and attempted to convince the Pechenegs, with whom Basilakes had earlier attempted to ally, to invade Byzantine land. At

10464-537: Was heavily influenced by his controversial wife or mistress, Maria Skleraina , a relative of his second wife, and Maria's family. Constantine had another mistress, an " Alan princess", Gurandukht , likely the daughter of George I . In August 1042 Constantine relieved the general George Maniakes from his command in Italy , and Maniakes rebelled, declaring himself emperor in September. He transferred his troops into

10573-458: Was in his prime, before his limbs lost their virility, anyone who cared to look at him closely would surely have likened his head to the sun in its glory, so radiant was it, and his hair to the rays of the sun, while in the rest of his body he would have seen the purest and most translucent crystal. " Immediately upon ascending to the throne in 1042, Constantine IX set about restoring the Church of

10682-509: Was later recognized by the Byzantine Senate on 7 January 1078, after which he seized the throne with the help of the citizens of Constantinople. As emperor, Nikephoros faced numerous revolts, including those of Nikephoros Bryennios , Nikephoros Basilakes , and Constantine Doukas, as well as an attempted assassination by the Varangian Guard . Nikephoros embraced the trappings of an emperor, performing many acts to increase his legitimacy and support, such as spending large amounts on donatives for

10791-484: Was made pressing by the constant raids of the Turks into the Byzantine territories of Antioch, Cilicia, and Armenia; Eudokia, Patriarch John VIII of Constantinople , and the Byzantine Senate agreed that their top priority was the defense of the empire and that they needed an emperor to lead troops to repel the Turks. Nikephoros was the favorite candidate of the senate, but was in the field leading troops in Antioch, and

10900-458: Was nearby in Damalis in Anatolia, and sent messengers to him across the Bosphorus; however, these messengers were intercepted by George Palaiologos , a general of Alexios, who persuaded them to support Alexios. Alexios and his forces broke through the walls of Constantinople on 1 April 1081 and sacked the city; Patriarch Cosmas convinced Nikephoros to abdicate to Alexios rather than prolong

11009-425: Was now in his early seventies, out of retirement and declared him kouropalates and governor of the Anatolic Theme. The title of kouropalates was reserved for esteemed members of the imperial court who were not related to the ruling dynasty, and officially designated him as a high-ranking general; the title of kouropalates was below the rank of nobilissimus and two ranks below the title of Caesar . None of

11118-465: Was one of his main sources. Nikephoros Bryennius the Younger ' s Material for a History chiefly relies on the testimonies of his contemporaries, including his father, Nikephoros Bryennios the Elder , and Alexios himself; however, it also relies on the works of Attaleiates, Psellos, and Skylitzes. Nikephoros Bryennios ' s bias in favor of Alexios and against Nikephoros III is an inevitable result of being married to Alexios ' s daughter, and of

11227-408: Was popular enough that none outside of the immediate army under Constantine joined him, allowing Nikephoros to quickly assemble an army of levies and his imperial guard to challenge Constantine. Nikephoros quickly sent emissaries to Constantine to inquire why he had rebelled and was able to persuade the soldiers under Constantine to surrender their general through an offer of amnesty; after Constantine

11336-558: Was praised for his justice and wisdom, the latter being displayed through his patronage of philosophy and rhetoric, as well as his legislation. Indeed, during his reign there was a "rennaisance" of interest in ancient Greek philosophy . His personality has been described as good-natured; he was easily amused and loved to laugh. He charmed practically everyone who knew him, especially Zoë, whom he enthralled immediately. Constantine spent money without restraints and liked to make several luxurious gifts to his associates. For example, he gave to

11445-452: Was recalled from her retirement and named empress. The literary circle at the court of Constantine IX included the philosopher and historian Michael Psellos , whose Chronographia records the history of Constantine's reign. Psellos left a physical description of Constantine in his Chronographia : he was " ruddy as the sun, but all his breast, and down to his feet... [were] colored the purest white all over, with exquisite accuracy. When he

11554-533: Was said to rival Achilles and Nireus in terms of beauty. He was described by Michael Psellos as " a marvel of beauty that Nature brought into being in the person of this man, so justly proportioned, so harmoniously fashioned, that there was no one in our time to compare to him ". Psellos described "the symmetry of the emperor's body, his perfect analogies, his ruddy hair which shone like rays of sunlight, [and] his white body which appeared like clear and translucent crystal". In addition to his beauty, Constantine

11663-401: Was still far from the city. Michael's wife, Maria of Alania, seeing that Michael would soon be overthrown, defected to the side of Nikephoros. Michael VII abdicated after a popular uprising and was forced to become a monk on 31 March. Three days later, on 3 April, Nikephoros entered Constantinople and seized the throne. Upon taking power, Nikephoros married Maria of Alania, exiled Michael to

11772-552: Was still married to Vevdene. Romanos was already in Constantinople and had no wife, making him a much more suitable candidate; Matthew of Edessa also suggests that Eudokia already desired Romanos over Nikephoros. Upon taking power, Romanos exiled Nikephoros to his holdings in the Anatolic Theme and excluded him from the Manzikert campaign due to questionable loyalty, likely because he had been Eudokia's other candidate for

11881-513: Was the defense of the empire and that they needed an emperor to lead troops to repel the Turks. Nikephoros was the favorite candidate of the senate, but was in the field leading troops in Antioch and was still married. Romanos, once chosen to be emperor, exiled Nikephoros to his holdings in the Anatolic Theme , where he remained until he was brought out of retirement by the Emperor Michael VII and made kouropalates and governor of

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