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129-700: Spread out among seven different settlements scattered in the Greater Cairo Urban Region, the Zabbaleen population is between 50,000 and 70,000. The largest settlement is Mokattam village, nicknamed " Garbage City ," located at the foot of the Mokattam Plateau, next to Manshiyat Nasser . The Zabbaleen community has a population of around 20,000 to 30,000, over 90 percent of which are poor Coptic Christians living in self-built homes, many in slum conditions. For several generations,

258-414: A backup fuel for peaking power plants in case the supply of natural gas is interrupted or as the main fuel for small electrical generators . In Europe, the use of diesel is generally restricted to cars (about 40%), SUVs (about 90%), and trucks and buses (over 99%). The market for home heating using fuel oil has decreased due to the widespread penetration of natural gas as well as heat pumps . However, it

387-404: A bunker fuel as the fuel that powers the engine of a ship or aircraft. Bunker A is No. 4 fuel oil, bunker B is No. 5, and bunker C is No. 6. Since No. 6 is the most common, "bunker fuel" is often used as a synonym for No. 6. No. 5 fuel oil is also called Navy Special Fuel Oil ( NSFO ) or just navy special ; No. 5 or 6 are also commonly called heavy fuel oil ( HFO ) or furnace fuel oil ( FFO );

516-794: A convenient seaport does not exist, inland transport may be achieved with the use of barges . Lighter fuel oils can also be transported through pipelines . The major physical supply chains of Europe are along the Rhine River . Emissions from bunker fuel burning in ships contribute to climate change and to air pollution levels in many port cities, especially where the emissions from industry and road traffic have been controlled. The switch of auxiliary engines from heavy fuel oil to diesel oil at berth can result in large emission reductions, especially for SO 2 and PM . CO 2 emissions from bunker fuels sold are not added to national GHG emissions. For small countries with large international ports, there

645-399: A dirty animal." In addition to their use in sorting out organic waste, pigs are an important source of income. After the pigs have grown, the Zabbaleen sell the pork to large tourist facilities and resorts. According to Fahmi and Sutton, "Hitherto, the Zabbaleen claimed to collect 6,000 tons of MSW a day, of which 60% was food waste and organic garbage which their pigs consume. Every 6 months,

774-548: A domestic company, was also awarded with contracts. There was a precedent for this approach to trash collection two years earlier, in 2001, when the government agreed to sign a contract with Onyx , a French company, to manage the waste of Alexandria , the second largest city in Egypt. Through this contract, the Egyptian government agreed to pay $ 446 million to Onyx for the treatment of one million tons of waste per year for 15 years,

903-560: A group of Muslim migrants from the Dakhla oasis in the Western desert of Egypt relocated to Cairo in an area known as Bab El Bahr, which is situated between Attaba and Ramses square in downtown Cairo. These people are known as the Wahiya (singular: wahi), which means people of the oasis. The Wahiya assumed the sole responsibility for the collection and disposal of Cairo's household waste under

1032-461: A high percentage of overall deaths from transport sector air pollution. In Taiwan, shipping accounts for 70% of all transport-attributable air pollution deaths in 2015, followed by Morocco at 51%, Malaysia and Japan both at 41%, Vietnam at 39%, and the UK at 38%. As well as commercial shipping, cruise ships also emit large amounts of air pollution, damaging people's health. Up to 2019, it was reported that

1161-425: A lot of cruelty and violence in the culling. According to Slackman, "Piglets were documented being stabbed and tossed into piles, large pigs beaten with metal rods, their carcasses dumped in the sand." Interviews conducted among those within the Zabbaleen communities of Mansheyet Nasser (Mokattam), Ard el Lewa, and Bulaq el Dakrour reported police beatings when protests against the culling would occur. H1N1 influenza

1290-491: A more inconvenient system. Under the new system, residents were required to pay a monthly bill for garbage collection that accompanies their electricity bill. The garbage collection fee was based upon the percentage of each electricity bill so that the garbage collection fee increases proportionately to electricity consumption. Two years after the new system was imposed, Rashed writes in the Al-Ahram Weekly, "residents of

1419-514: A priest from a Zabbaleen neighborhood, "The bottom line is pigs are not welcome in Egypt." In an article by the BBC , Fraser argues along a similar line, saying that the Coptic Christian minority were targeted by the government for a main source of their income, the rearing of pigs. A similar opinion is voiced by Engi Wassef in her documentary, Marina of the Zabbaleen . Fahmi and Sutton echo

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1548-404: A river or ocean, residual oil tends to break up into patches or tarballs – mixtures of oil and particulate matter such as silt and floating organic matter – rather than form a single slick. An average of about 5-10% of the material will evaporate within hours of the release, primarily the lighter hydrocarbon fractions. The remainder will then often sink to the bottom of the water column. Because of

1677-564: A rural region in Upper Egypt , which is the southern part of Egypt. As farming ceased to be a viable way of life, the Zabbaleen faced economic hardships which prompted them to migrate to Cairo in search of work. Henceforth, the Wahiya collaborated with the Zabbaleen, who purchased waste from the Wahiya for use as fodder for pig farming. Initially, the Zabbaleen settled in the Imbaba district of

1806-433: A similar explanation: "The adverse effect of the slaughtering of the pigs on the Zabbaleen's livelihoods might be part of the ongoing gentrification of garbage city for land speculations and the taking over of their recycling economy by entrepreneurial businesses." The pig cull negatively affected the Zabbaleen in several ways. First, because the pigs eat the organic waste, they are a vital component in their recycling system,

1935-411: A simpler one such as gas or No. 2 oil. The high sulfur content of No. 6 oil—up to 3% by weight in some extreme cases—had a corrosive effect on many heating systems (which were usually designed without adequate corrosion protection in mind), shortening their lifespans and increasing the polluting effects. This was particularly the case in furnaces that were regularly shut down and allowed to go cold, because

2064-495: A sum that was ten times greater than what the government had previously paid before for its municipal waste management. Significantly, the foreign companies, despite the large value of their contracts, are only required to recycle 20 percent of the waste that they collect; the remaining 80 percent are placed into landfills. In contrast, the Zabbaleen recycle up to 80 percent of all the MSW that they collect. The foreign companies collected

2193-543: A tarry semisolid. The flash point of most blends of No. 6 oil is, incidentally, about 65 °C (149 °F). Attempting to pump high-viscosity oil at low temperatures was a frequent cause of damage to fuel lines, furnaces, and related equipment which were often designed for lighter fuels. For comparison, BS 2869 Class G heavy fuel oil behaves in similar fashion, requiring storage at 40 °C (104 °F), pumping at around 50 °C (122 °F) and finalizing for burning at around 90–120 °C (194–248 °F). Most of

2322-442: Is ISO 8217: 2017. The standard divides fuels into residual and distillate fuels. The most common residual fuels in the shipping industry are RMG and RMK. The differences between the two are mainly the density and viscosity, with RMG generally being delivered at 380 centistokes or less, and RMK at 700 centistokes or less. Ships with more advanced engines can process heavier, more viscous, and thus cheaper, fuel. Governing bodies around

2451-614: Is a metropolitan area centered around Cairo , Egypt . It comprises the entirety of the Cairo Governorate , the cities of Imbaba and Giza in the Giza Governorate , and the city Shubra El Kheima in Qalyubia Governorate . Its definition can be expanded to include peri-urban areas and a number of new planned towns founded in the desert areas east and west of Cairo. The Greater Cairo Region

2580-427: Is a distillate home heating oil . Trucks and some cars use similar diesel no. 2 with a cetane number limit describing the ignition quality of the fuel. Both are typically obtained from the light gas oil cut. The name gasoil refers to the original use of this fraction in the late 19th and early 20th centuries—the gas oil cut was used as an enriching agent for carbureted water gas manufacture . Number 3 fuel oil

2709-652: Is a high-viscosity residual oil requiring preheating to 104–127 °C (219–261 °F). Residual means the material remaining after the more valuable cuts of crude oil have boiled off. The residue may contain various undesirable impurities, including 2% water and 0.5% mineral oil . This fuel may be known as residual fuel oil (RFO), by the Navy specification of Bunker C , or by the Pacific Specification of PS-400. The British Standard BS 2869, Fuel Oils for Agricultural, Domestic and Industrial Engines , specifies

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2838-415: Is a majority Muslim country. The Zabbaleen are convinced that the government wants to use the swine flu scare not to help improve their lives but to get pigs out of Egypt. Islam prohibits eating pork." In another New York Times article, Audi writes, "Most of Egypt's pig farmers are Christians, and some accuse the government of using swine flu fears to punish them economically." According to Rev. Samaan Ibrahim,

2967-403: Is a residual-type industrial heating oil requiring preheating to 77–104 °C (171–219 °F) for proper atomization at the burners. It may be obtained from the heavy gas oil cut, or it may be a blend of residual oil with enough number 2 oil to adjust viscosity until it can be pumped without preheating. This fuel is sometimes known by the Navy specification of Bunker B . Number 6 fuel oil

3096-413: Is a time-consuming task in which women and children may spend up to 10 to 12 hours each day separating the garbage. First, the trash is sorted into the main 16 categories, such as paper, plastic, cardboard, cans, etc. So for example, all different types of paper are placed into one pile while all different types of plastic are placed in another pile. Sorting within categories does not take place until after

3225-847: Is also officially defined as an economic region consisting of the Cairo, Giza, and Qalyubia Governorates. Within Greater Cairo lies the largest metropolitan area in Egypt , the largest urban area in Africa , the Middle East , and the Arab world , and the 6th largest metropolitan area in the world. In its larger definition, the area includes all cities in the Cairo Governorate (Cairo, New Cairo , Badr , Shorouk , 15th of May ,

3354-413: Is also possible to purify oil with a density of 1010 kg/m3. The first British standard for fuel oil came in 1982. The latest standard is ISO 8217 issued in 2017. The ISO standard describe four qualities of distillate fuels and 10 qualities of residual fuels. Over the years the standards have become stricter on environmentally important parameters such as sulfur content. The latest standard also banned

3483-728: Is burned in a furnace or boiler to generate heat ( heating oils ), or used in an engine to generate power (as motor fuels ). However, it does not usually include other liquid oils, such as those with a flash point of approximately 42 °C (108 °F), or oils burned in cotton- or wool-wick burners. In a stricter sense, fuel oil refers only to the heaviest commercial fuels that crude oil can yield, that is, those fuels heavier than gasoline (petrol) and naphtha . Fuel oil consists of long-chain hydrocarbons , particularly alkanes , cycloalkanes , and aromatics . Small molecules, such as those in propane , naphtha, gasoline, and kerosene , have relatively low boiling points , and are removed at

3612-560: Is either blended with lighter petroleum fractions or burned directly in specialized boilers and furnaces. It is also used as a petrochemical feedstock. In the Russian practice, though, "mazut" is an umbrella term roughly synonymous with the fuel oil in general, that covers most of the types mentioned above, except US grades 1 and 2/3, for which separate terms exist ( kerosene and diesel fuel /solar oil respectively — Russian practice doesn't differentiate between diesel fuel and heating oil). This

3741-460: Is further separated in two grades, "naval mazut" being analogous to US grades 4 and 5, and "furnace mazut", a heaviest residual fraction of the crude, almost exactly corresponding to US Number 6 fuel oil and further graded by viscosity and sulfur content. In the maritime field another type of classification is used for fuel oils: Marine diesel oil contains some heavy fuel oil, unlike regular diesels. CCAI and CII are two indexes which describe

3870-522: Is its high initial viscosity, particularly in the case of No. 6 oil, which requires a correctly engineered system for storage, pumping, and burning. Though it is still usually lighter than water (with a specific gravity usually ranging from 0.95 to 1.03) it is much heavier and more viscous than No. 2 oil, kerosene, or gasoline. No. 6 oil must, in fact, be stored at around 38 °C (100 °F) heated to 65–120 °C (149–248 °F) before it can be easily pumped, and in cooler temperatures it can congeal into

3999-515: Is located east of Cairo, situated at the foot of Mokattam mountain. Mokattam was created as a result of a series of evictions from the Imbaba area located in the Giza governorate, most notably when the Zabbaleen were given a four-day eviction notice from the governor of Giza in 1970. Although Mokattam village is relatively close to the center of Cairo, it is not easily accessible from Cairo because it

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4128-449: Is not a system of recycling at the source in Egypt. It is rare for girls to go to collect the trash and it stops almost entirely after girls reach the age 10. The means of transportation that the Zabbaleen use to transport the trash that they collect are donkey-pulled carts and pickup trucks. After the Zabbaleen pick up the trash, they take the trash back to their village, a trip that may take anywhere from between 10 minutes to an hour. When

4257-533: Is situated at the foot of the Mokattam mountains, which brings many environmental hazards. In 1993, a rockslide from Mokattam Mountain fell near the bordering area of the Zabbaleen settlement, resulting in the deaths of 40 people. In 2008, another rockslide from the Mokattam hills killed more than 100 people in El-Duweiqa, another shantytown in the Mokattam district. These rock slides brought public attention to

4386-578: Is situated on a plateau, and is surrounded by the cliffs of the Mokattam hills on one side and by the Manshiet Nasser squatter settlement on the other side. Vehicular access to the Zabbaleen Mokattam is possible only through three entrances, two of which are accessible only by crossing through the crowded, narrow, and steep streets of Manshiet Nasser. Because of the high congestion and road traffic, conflicts have often broken out between

4515-432: Is stated that each Zabbaleen family is assigned a section to collect garbage from and that they are not to stray from their assigned allotment. There is a gender division of labor in the process of collecting and sorting the trash in the Zabbaleen system. Usually, it is the Zabbaleen men, sometimes accompanied by children, who go pick up the trash door-to-door from each household. This trash is completely unsorted because there

4644-592: Is still estimated to account for around 250,000 deaths each year, and around 6.4 million childhood asthma cases each year. The hardest hit countries by air pollution from ships are China, Japan, the UK, Indonesia, and Germany. In 2015, shipping air pollution killed an estimated 20,520 people in China, 4,019 people in Japan, and 3,192 people in the UK. According to an ICCT study, countries located on major shipping lanes are particularly exposed, and can see shipping account for

4773-476: Is still the primary fuel for cruise ships , a tourism sector that is associated with a clean and friendly image. In stark contrast, the exhaust gas emissions - due to HFO's high sulfur content - result in an eco balance significantly worse than that for individual mobility. The term " bunkering " broadly relates to storage of petroleum products in tanks (among other, disparate meanings). The precise meaning can be further specialized depending on context. Perhaps

4902-480: Is very common in some areas, such as the Northeastern United States . Residual fuel oil is less useful because it is so viscous that it has to be heated with a special heating system before use and it may contain relatively high amounts of pollutants , particularly sulfur , which forms sulfur dioxide upon combustion. However, its undesirable properties make it very cheap. In fact, it is

5031-625: The New Administrative Capital , and Capital Gardens) as well as the main cities of the Giza Governorate (Giza, 6th of October , New 6 October, October Gardens, Sheikh Zayed , and New Sphinx) and Shubra El Kheima and Obour in the Qalyubia Governorate. According to an estimate based on United Nations projections, the area had a population of 22,183,000 in 2023. In 2012, when the area's population

5160-526: The 1% of its buildings that burned fuel oils No. 4 and No. 6 were responsible for 86% of the soot pollution generated by all buildings in the city. New York made the phase out of these fuel grades part of its environmental plan, PlaNYC, because of concerns for the health effects caused by fine particulates, and all buildings using fuel oil No. 6 had been converted to less polluting fuel by the end of 2015. Residual fuel's use in electrical generation has also decreased. In 1973, residual fuel oil produced 16.8% of

5289-399: The 1970s, "the streets were so stacked with heaps of assorted refuse that some of them could not be located. The air was heavily polluted by the smoke generated from fires that were either lit deliberately to dispose of unwanted waste, or resulted from the spontaneous combustion of organic residues." There have been frequent fires in Mokattam, two of which were particularly severe and devastated

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5418-582: The EPC officially established the Wahiya and the Zabbaleen as key participants in the collection of MSW, formalizing a relationship that had already existed for decades. The municipal authorities grew increasingly intolerant of the Zabbaleen's donkey carts, which, according to Assaad, were considered an eyesore and a traffic hazard by the government. This was precisely in the neighborhoods that were being more fully served given Cairo's narrow, winding streets that are not wide enough for large garbage trucks. Regardless, in

5547-453: The EPC, the Wahiya conducted administration, marketed the company's services, collected the fees from tenants, and supervised service deliveries. On the other end, the Zabbaleen, "many of whom might otherwise have been homeless and without employment, collected and transported the waste." In more recent years, as the Zabbaleen became more involved in the work, some received a minimal fee from the Wahiya. There are seven main settlements, in which

5676-531: The FAME content meets the requirements of the BS EN 14214 standard. Classes E to H are residual oils for atomizing burners serving boilers or, with the exception of Class H, certain types of larger combustion engines. Classes F to H invariably require heating prior to use; Class E fuel may require preheating, depending on ambient conditions. Mazut is a residual fuel oil often derived from Russian petroleum sources and

5805-546: The Ford Foundation and Oxfam for specific projects to upgrade and improve the recycling of solid waste. In 2003, the government of Egypt sold annual contracts reaching US$ 50 million to international companies to collect Cairo's solid waste . The three companies that were awarded with contracts for cleaning Cairo are Spanish companies Fomento de Construcciones y Contratas and Urbaser , Enser , and AMA , an Italian company. The Egyptian Company for Garbage Collection ,

5934-510: The Giza governorate, but were given a four-day eviction notice from the governor of Giza in 1970. Thereafter, the Zabbaleen settled mainly in an abandoned quarry at the foot of the Mokattam hills, east of Cairo, which is under the jurisdiction of the Cairo Governorate. Although the governor of Cairo granted the Zabbaleen administrative permission to settle in the area, he did not issue a lease or legal tenure. Thus, because of their precarious situation,

6063-638: The International Marine Organization (IMO) all marine shipping vessels will require the use of very low sulfur fuel oil (0.5% Sulfur) or to install exhaust gas scrubber systems to remove the excess sulfur dioxide. The emissions from ships have generally been controlled by the following sulfur caps on any fuel oil used on board: 3.50% on and after 1 January 2012 and 0.50% on and after 1 January 2020. Further removal of sulfur translates to additional energy and capital costs and can impact fuel price and availability. If priced correctly

6192-862: The Middle East and the largest religious building in Egypt. It is named after the Coptic saint, Simon the Tanner , who lived at the end of the 10th century, when Egypt was ruled by the Muslim Fatimid Caliph Al-Muizz Lideenillah . Simon the Tanner is the Coptic saint who is associated with the legend of the moving of the Mokattam Mountain. Adjacent churches to the Monastery of St. Simon the Tanner include St. Paul 's Church, St. Mark's Church, and St. Simon

6321-449: The Tanner's Hall. The cave churches of Mokattam are also a point of interest for many tourists visiting Cairo. Many sources state that the Zabbaleen have created one of the most efficient recycling systems in the world, which recycles up to 80 percent of all the waste that they collect. In contrast, most Western garbage collecting companies can only recycle about 20 to 25 percent of the waste that they collect. According to Fahmi, 2005, "it

6450-539: The Zabbaleen "waste collection and recycling system received major world recognition and approval at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992." The Mega-Cities Project sought to encourage the Zabbaleen system of waste collection and recycling as a model to be encouraged in other developing world cities such as Manila and Mumbai. The Zabbaleen waste collection system has received international funding from the World Bank,

6579-401: The Zabbaleen became economically unfeasible. Less trash was brought into the village, because there was no place to put the trash. Hence, the entire recycling system was broken, placing the Zabbaleen out of work. Another negative effect of the pig cull on the Zabbaleen was the loss of the economic value of the pigs themselves. According to Fahmi and Sutton, pigs are the main source of income for

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6708-535: The Zabbaleen community as documented in Mai Iskander's film, Garbage Dreams . Contracting out MSW to foreign companies meant that the Zabbaleen would lose access to garbage, which was the basis of their recycling and sorting activities. In the documentary Garbage Dreams , Laila, a social worker in Mokattam Village, says, "The city contracted with foreign waste disposal companies because they perceived

6837-419: The Zabbaleen community of Mokattam . According to Engi Wassef, in her commentary in her documentary film Marina of the Zabbaleen , many people in the Zabbaleen village say that even if they could live outside of the village or buy a house elsewhere, they would not because they are happy to live within their own religious community and freely practice their religion. The local Coptic church in Mokattam Village

6966-400: The Zabbaleen have formed a strong and tight-knit community. However, their way of life has come under threat after the Cairo municipal authorities’ decision in 2003 to award annual contracts of $ 50 million to three multinational garbage disposal companies. The government authorities do not compensate the Zabbaleen for these changes, and as a result, the takeover of waste collection threatens

7095-455: The Zabbaleen initially lived in makeshift settlements of tin huts, made mostly of barrels that the Zabbaleen found amongst the waste that they collected. This Zabbaleen community later emerged as the informal garbage collectors and recyclers of Cairo. The literal meaning of the word Zabbaleen is garbage-men (singular: Zabbal). The Zabbaleen are also known as Zarraba (singular: Zarrab), which means pig pen operators, because they raise pigs that eat

7224-483: The Zabbaleen invest heavily in their tools and know-how for recycling. These Zabbaleen micro-entrepreneurs have invested "an estimated 2.1 million Egyptian pounds (LE) (US $ 1⁄4 LE 6.19 -May 2004 rates) in trucks, plastic granulators, paper compactors, cloth grinders, aluminium smelters, and tin processors." By investing in such infrastructure, the Zabbaleen continually upgraded and enhanced their methods of recycling plastic, paper, cardboard, glass, metal, and fabrics. Thus,

7353-514: The Zabbaleen made an agreement which resulted in the establishment of the Environmental Protection Company, a private-for-profit company, in 1989. Within the framework of the EPC, the Wahiya contracted groups of Zabbaleen to collect and dispose of MSW. The Wahiya continued to collect user fees from tenants, but now they also assumed the responsibility to cover hauling costs out of the fees they collected. The formation of

7482-548: The Zabbaleen reside in the Greater Cairo Urban Region: Ein El Sira, Moatamdia, El Bargil, Tora, Ezbet el Nakhl, Helwan , and Mokattam. Due to urban expansion, municipal authorities have moved most of these settlements to more peripheral locations. The number of Zabbaleen living in these areas total to about 60,000-70,000. Of these settlements, the largest is Mokattam, also often known as Garbage City , with approximately 20,000 inhabitants. It

7611-402: The Zabbaleen supported themselves by collecting trash door-to-door from the residents of Cairo for nearly no charge. The Zabbaleen recycle up to 80 percent of the waste that they collect via local Egyptian companies, whereas most Western garbage collecting companies only recycle 20 to 25 percent of the waste that they collect. The Zabbaleen use donkey-pulled carts and pickup trucks to transport

7740-466: The Zabbaleen system is a multi-tier system that is not limited to the simple collection of waste but also encompasses the creation of new materials from found recyclables. The official website of the documentary Garbage Dreams states that, "Far ahead of any modern 'Green' initiatives, the Zabbaleen survive by recycling 80 percent of the garbage they collect." By comparison, most Western garbage collecting companies can only recycle about 20 to 25 percent of

7869-473: The Zabbaleen to be old-fashioned. But they didn't come tell us, "You need to modernize your ways." This was all done behind our backs. "we're replacing you with the companies." So we can be like the developed countries." In contrast, because officials from the Cairo Cleaning and Beautification Authority (CCBA) regarded the Zabbaleen recycling methods as unhygienic and backwards, they were optimistic about

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7998-512: The Zabbaleen who lost pigs to the cull and those who received compensation received far less money compared to what they would have received from selling the pigs to traders. According to one Zabbaleen pig breeder, "The government paid me between LE 50 (US$ 10) and LE 250 (US$ 50) for each pig I lost, depending on its size, whilst meat processors would have given me as much as LE 1,000 (US$ 200)." The pig cull also resulted in increased cases of malnutrition and anaemia in Zabbaleen children because prior to

8127-407: The Zabbaleen, who used the organic components of the wastes to feed their pigs. Thus, the Wahiya began to sell the organic refuse to the Zabbaleen. Because the Zabbaleen needed to obtain waste food before it rots, they preferred to collect the refuse themselves using their own donkey carts. The Zabbaleen can be distinguished from the Wahiya in at least two ways. First, the Wahiya retained control over

8256-445: The Zabbaleen, who were able to come directly to their doors even if their homes were located in narrow alleys. Eventually, the foreign companies realized that they needed the Zabbaleen and thus, subcontracted them. This system failed, however, because the companies underpaid the Zabbaleen. According to Fahmi and Sutton, "while company sources mention salaries ranging between LE 300 to LE 450 per month (US $ 50–$ 75), some Zabbaleen claim that

8385-403: The Zabbaleen. Before the cull, the Zabbaleen had collected 6,000 tons of MSW daily, of which 60 percent was organic waste which was consumed by the pigs. Every six months, the Zabbaleen would take their pigs to traders, earning around 450LE (approximately US$ 80) per pig. Although the Egyptian government made financial compensations for some of pigs slaughtered; compensations were not given to all of

8514-406: The access and collection rights to the monthly fees paid by the residents, whereas the Zabbaleen usually do not have a share in the monthly fees paid by residents. In fact, the Zabbaleen are often obliged to pay the Wahiya in order to gain access to the waste garbage. However, what the Zabbaleen do acquire are the rights to the refuse itself. Hence, the relationship between the Wahiya and the Zabbaleen

8643-496: The adding of used lubricating oil (ULO). Some parameters of marine fuel oils according to ISO 8217 (3. ed 2005): Bunker fuel or bunker crude is technically any type of fuel oil used aboard water vessels . Its name is derived from coal bunkers, where the fuel was originally stored. In 2019, large ships consumed 213 million metric tons of bunker fuel. The Australian Customs and the Australian Tax Office defines

8772-527: The average household income per month was estimated at LE 70 (approximately US$ 11.50 in January 2005), within the lowest 10th percentile of national urban income levels, with an average large household size of 8 persons. However, the living conditions of the Mokattam settlement improved after the settlement received significant funding from international donors, including the World Bank 's 1981 donation which

8901-417: The beginning of the construction of the first church below the Mokattam mountain on a site of 1,000 square meters. More churches have been built into the caves found in Mokattam. Currently, there are seven cave churches hidden among the caves of Mokattam Mountain. The Monastery of St. Simon the Tanner is the largest and it has an amphitheater with a seating capacity of 20,000. This church is the largest church in

9030-429: The cheapest liquid fuel available. Since it requires heating before use, residual fuel oil cannot be used in road vehicles, boats or small ships, as the heating equipment takes up valuable space and makes the vehicle heavier. Heating the oil is also a delicate procedure, which is impractical on small, fast moving vehicles. However, power plants and large ships are able to use residual fuel oil. Use of residual fuel oil

9159-440: The city of Cairo and its administration had been able to manage its solid waste at almost no cost to the municipal administration because of such efforts by the Zabbaleen. Hence, the income that the Zabbaleen generate is mainly derived from their recycling and sorting activities, not from the minimal fees (LE 2–4) that they collect from residents. In the 2016 documentary "Zabbaleen: Trash Town" by Artyom Somov and Vitaly Buzuev, it

9288-504: The context of the oil industry in Nigeria , bunkering has come to refer to the illegal diversion of crude oil (often subsequently refined in makeshift facilities into lighter transportation fuels) by the unauthorized cutting of holes into transport pipelines, often by very crude and hazardous means and causing spills . As of 2018, some 300 million metric tons of fuel oil is used for ship bunkering. On January 1, 2020, regulations set by

9417-401: The creation of new material. According to Engi Wassef, the director of the documentary film, Marina of the Zabbaleen , PT plastic , which is the plastic used to make plastic bottles for water and other beverages, is one of the most highly sought out materials. In the case of PT plastic, the Zabbaleen would even export this material to China. However, the simple re-sale of sorted materials is not

9546-451: The cull, pork had been the only affordable source of animal protein for most of the Zabbaleen. Many observers noticed an immediate increase in piles of trash on the streets of Cairo after the pig cull. Because in the Zabbaleen system of recycling, it is the pigs who initially eat the organic waste, the pig cull had a negative effect on the cleanliness of Cairo's streets. According to Khalil in an article by Al Masry Al Youm, "The elimination of

9675-629: The culling of its swine population, an act which had a devastating impact on the livelihood of 70,000 Zabbaleen families. This decision was made not by the Health Ministry, but directly by the Parliament. International organizations, including the United Nations criticized the Egyptian government for its decision. Egypt was the only country in the world to take such a drastic decision as to cull an estimated 300,000 pigs. This decision

9804-401: The culling of pigs, observers noticed a visible increase in piles of trash and rotting food on the streets of Cairo. There are also worries that the Egyptian government is seeking to remove the Mokattam Village entirely and relocate the Zabbaleen further outside of Cairo by a further 25 km, to a 50-feddan (51.9-acre) plot in Cairo's eastern desert settlement of Katameya . Around the 1910s,

9933-404: The distinction between the Wahiya and the Zabbaleen (also called zarraba), they tend to refer to both groups as Zabbaleen. It should be noted, however, that these two groups are distinct, serving different functions in the informal economy of collecting Cairo's municipal solid waste (MSW). In response to government pressures to upgrade and modernize the refuse collection system, the Wahiya and

10062-492: The early 1990s, the garbage collectors had to comply with the municipality's requirements to use motorized trucks, rather than donkey carts, as the authorities introduced a system of mechanization to transport solid waste. In the absence of government support, the Zabbaleen had to find ways to purchase the newly required motorized trucks themselves, and many resorted to credit loans, emptying their personal savings, or even selling small plots of land in their ancestral villages. Within

10191-493: The electricity in the US. By 1983, it had fallen to 6.2%, and as of 2005 , electricity production from all forms of petroleum, including diesel and residual fuel, is only 3% of total production. The decline is the result of price competition with natural gas and environmental restrictions on emissions. For power plants, the costs of heating the oil, extra pollution control and additional maintenance required after burning it often outweigh

10320-467: The excess cheap yet dirty fuel would find its way into other markets, including displacing some onshore energy production in nations with low environmental protection . Fuel oil is transported worldwide by fleets of oil tankers making deliveries to suitably sized strategic ports such as Houston , US; Singapore ; Fujairah , United Arab Emirates ; Balboa, Panama , Cristobal , Panama; Sakha, Egypt ; Algeciras , Spain and Rotterdam , Netherlands. Where

10449-448: The facilities which historically burned No. 6 or other residual oils were industrial plants and similar facilities constructed in the early or mid 20th century, or which had switched from coal to oil fuel during the same time period. In either case, residual oil was seen as a good prospect because it was cheap and readily available. Most of these facilities have subsequently been closed and demolished, or have replaced their fuel supplies with

10578-599: The following fuel oil classes: Class C1 and C2 fuels are kerosene-type fuels. C1 is for use in flueless appliances (e.g. lamps ). C2 is for vaporizing or atomizing burners in appliances connected to flues. Class A2 fuel is suitable for mobile, off-road applications that are required to use a sulfur-free fuel . Class D fuel is similar to Class A2 and is suitable for use in stationary applications, such as domestic, commercial, and industrial heating. The BS 2869 standard permits Class A2 and Class D fuel to contain up to 7% (V/V) biodiesel ( fatty acid methyl ester , FAME), provided

10707-541: The framework of contracts with building owners in Cairo. In this system, the Wahiya paid the owners of buildings an initial sum and then collected monthly fees from the tenants for their services. In the 1930s and 40s, there was a second wave of migration. This new group, mostly landless peasants, is known as the Zabbaleen. The descendants of subsistence farmers, the Zabbaleen originate from the El Badari district in Asyut ,

10836-448: The fuels most frequently quoted are listed below in order of cost, the least expensive first. The density is also an important parameter for fuel oils since marine fuels are purified before use to remove water and dirt from the oil. Since the purifiers use centrifugal force , the oil must have a density which is sufficiently different from water. Older purifiers work with a fuel having a maximum of 991 kg/m3; with modern purifiers it

10965-435: The garbage that they collect from the residents of Cairo. They then transport the garbage to their homes in Mokattam Village, where they sort the collected items, then either sell the sorted items to middlemen or create new materials from it themselves. The living situation for the Zabbaleen is poor; they live amongst the trash that they sort in their village, and with the pigs to which they feed their organic waste. Nevertheless,

11094-403: The governorate have been voicing increasingly vociferous complaints that the companies are working well below full capacity. The streets are not as clean as they were during the first days of the privatisation. Both company workers, and garbage receptacles, appear to be increasingly thin on the ground." The subcontracting of MSW collection to foreign companies had an immediate negative impact upon

11223-426: The haulage and disposal of the wastes." Second, the Zabbaleen collect the garbage on donkey-pulled carts, separate out recyclables, breed pigs to recycle organic waste, and engage in the process of recycling, whereas the Wahiya do not. The Zabbaleen also sell the sorted secondary materials such as paper, tin, glass, plastic materials, rags, and aluminum cans to intermediaries. Because Cairenes are generally not aware of

11352-503: The heaviest oil must be heated for it to flow. Price usually decreases as the fuel number increases. Number 1 fuel oil is a volatile distillate oil intended for vaporizing pot-type burners and high-performance/clean diesel engines. It is the kerosene refinery cut that boils off immediately after the heavy naphtha cut used for gasoline . This fuel is commonly known as diesel no. 1 , kerosene , and jet fuel . Former names include: coal oil, stove oil, and range oil. Number 2 fuel oil

11481-548: The high viscosity requires heating, usually by a recirculated low pressure steam system, before the oil can be pumped from a bunker tank. Bunkers are rarely labeled this way in modern maritime practice. Since the 1980s the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has been the accepted standard for marine fuels (bunkers). The standard is listed under number 8217, with recent updates in 2010 and 2017. The latest edition of bunker fuel specification

11610-455: The ignition quality of residual fuel oil, and CCAI is especially often calculated for marine fuels. Despite this, marine fuels are still quoted on the international bunker markets with their maximum viscosity (which is set by the ISO 8217 standard - see below) due to the fact that marine engines are designed to use different viscosities of fuel. The unit of viscosity used is the centistoke (cSt) and

11739-403: The infant mortality rate in the Mokattam community is still substantially higher than the average infant mortality rate of Cairo for the 1990-95 period, which was 45.6 per thousand. Egypt is a Muslim-majority country. However, over 90 percent of the Zabbaleen community in the Mokattam village are Coptic Christians. Communities where almost everyone is Christian are rare to find in Egypt outside of

11868-581: The infectious disease department in the Ministry of agriculture, "We want them to live a better life. humanely treated; it's a very difficult life." In contrast to the explanations officially given by the Egyptian government, many other observers, especially in the Western media, as well as the Zabbaleen themselves perceived a religious bias in the execution of the pig cull. In a New York Times article, Slackman asserted that, "The Zabbaleen are Christians. Egypt

11997-458: The internal condensation produced sulfuric acid . Environmental cleanups at such facilities are frequently complicated by the use of asbestos insulation on the fuel feed lines. No. 6 oil is very persistent, and does not degrade rapidly. Its viscosity and stickiness also make remediation of underground contamination very difficult, since these properties reduce the effectiveness of methods such as air stripping . When released into water, such as

12126-697: The less populated parts at the east and the west do not experience the urban heat island effect , which makes them more prone to have soft hail . 60% of all informal houses in Egypt are located in the Greater Cairo area. Fuel oil Fuel oil is any of various fractions obtained from the distillation of petroleum (crude oil). Such oils include distillates (the lighter fractions) and residues (the heavier fractions). Fuel oils include heavy fuel oil (bunker fuel), marine fuel oil (MFO), furnace oil (FO), gas oil (gasoil), heating oils (such as home heating oil), diesel fuel , and others. The term fuel oil generally includes any liquid fuel that

12255-457: The low cost of the fuel. Burning fuel oil, particularly residual fuel oil, produces uniformly higher carbon dioxide emissions than natural gas. Heavy fuel oils continue to be used in the boiler "lighting up" facility in many coal-fired power plants. This use is approximately analogous to using kindling to start a fire. Without performing this act it is difficult to begin the large-scale combustion process. The chief drawback to residual fuel oil

12384-499: The low quality of bunker fuel, when burnt it is especially harmful to the health of humans, causing serious illnesses and deaths. Prior to the IMO's 2020 sulfur cap, shipping industry air pollution was estimated to cause around 400,000 premature deaths each year, from lung cancer and cardiovascular disease, as well as 14 million childhood asthma cases each year. Even after the introduction of cleaner fuel rules in 2020, shipping air pollution

12513-428: The men return to the village with the collected trash, usually their families are waiting for them so that they can begin sorting the trash. The majority of those who sort the trash are women, while certain families specialize in sorting certain materials such as paper, plastic, aluminum, glass, etc. The women and children sort the garbage into 16 different types of trash and sort out the recyclables. The sorting of garbage

12642-400: The mid-1990s, nearly 700 Zabbaleen families owned collection enterprises, 200 owned and operated small- and medium-scale recycling enterprises, and 120 owned trading enterprises, in addition to maintenance workshops and community-based service businesses." What is distinctive about the Zabbaleen from many other urban informal waste collecting-groups that scavenge trash for useful products is that

12771-399: The most common, more specialized usage refers to the practice and business of refueling ships. Bunkering operations are located at seaports, and they include the storage of bunker (ship) fuels and the provision of the fuel to vessels. Alternatively "bunkering" may apply to the shipboard logistics of loading fuel and distributing it among available bunkers (on-board fuel tanks). Finally, in

12900-429: The only activity that the Zabbaleen do in terms of re-using these materials. They also create new materials from the materials that they have sorted. For example, granulators are used to change regular opaque-colored plastic into small plastic pellets. From these plastic pellets, a variety of plastic product can then be made, including garbage bags and plastic hangers. Handmade crafts are also made from rags and paper. Thus,

13029-406: The organic components of the waste that they collect. Prior to the migration of the Zabbaleen, the Wahiya had used the refuse, after drying it, as a source of energy--specifically as fuel for public baths and bean cookeries. However, this use of dried refuse became obsolete in the 1930s when fuel oil became the preferred fuel for public baths and bean cookeries. This coincided with the migration of

13158-519: The organic waste. After the organic waste has been eaten by the pigs, the rest of the trash is sorted into different categories such as PT plastic, paper, cans, etc. Thus, as Engi Wassef, the director of Marina of the Zabbaleen notes, "One of the reasons why Coptic Christians are given a kind of monopoly status on the garbage collection and sorting system is because the Muslim religion does not allow for breeding or eating or living near pigs. It's considered

13287-423: The pig cull literally destroyed the Zabbaleen recycling system. Deprived of their pig herds, the Zabbaleen stopped collecting such organic trash, leaving food piles to rot in the streets, leading to the increase of trash in the streets. According to Engi Wassef, recycling and sorting activities in the Zabbaleen villages all but ceased after the pig cull, because without the pigs, the sorting and recycling activities of

13416-484: The pig cull was directly affected by the global breakout of H5N1 virus , more commonly known as bird flu, several years earlier and a fear that the two strains of viruses could possibly combine to form a more lethal virus. Later, the Egyptian government openly stated that the pig cull was no longer just an act to prevent swine flu; rather, it was part of a plan to clean up the Zabbaleen and allow them to live in sanitary conditions. According to Sabir Abdel Aziz Galal, chief of

13545-438: The pigs prompted more trash than usual to immediately start clogging the streets of the capital." In a New York Times article from September 2009, Slackman states that the Egyptian government was warned before its actual execution that the pig cull, if executed, "the city would be overwhelmed with trash." Slackman notes that after the pig cull, "rotting food piles up on the streets of middle-class neighborhoods like Heliopolis and in

13674-479: The poor streets of communities like Imbaba." In an article by Bloomberg, Williams also observes a garbage crisis piling up on the streets of Cairo after the pig cull. This piling up of organic MSW became hazardous because the organic waste then became a source of infectious diseases and led to an increase of rat infestation. Notes Bibliography Greater Cairo The Greater Cairo ( Arabic : القاهرة الكبرى , romanized :  Al-Qāhira al-Kubrā )

13803-481: The precarious location of shantytowns located below the Mokattam mountains, as well as to the Zabbaleen. Some attribute these frequent rock slides to various development and construction activities on Mokattam Mountain's upper plateau, on which the upper middle class residential district of Mokattam City is located. The living conditions in Mokattam Village, and the other Zabbaleen settlements, are poor. In

13932-415: The process and hoped for a positive impact on Cairo's environment. However, because the mechanized equipment of the foreign companies are too large for the streets of Cairo, citizens were required to bring their trash to designated collection centers and bins, which were not always placed in easily accessible locations. Therefore, residents preferred to continue to have their trash picked up from their doors by

14061-469: The residents of the Manshiet Nasser settlement and the Zabbaleen, who need to haul their donkey carts loaded with garbage through the streets of Manshiet Nasser. Occasionally, these conflicts have taken on religious overtones, as the inhabitants of the Manshiet Nasser settlement are mostly Muslims , whereas the inhabitants of the Mokattam settlement are mostly Coptic Christians . Mokattam village

14190-589: The salaries on offer are actually closer to LE 150 per month." One Zabbal with eight children gave a similar figure: whereas he used to make LE 10 a day (US$ 1.60), foreign contractors offered him LE 5 a day. In April 2009, the first cases of the H1N1 influenza were found in Mexico. By the end of that month, it was estimated that up to 169 people died due to the epidemic. All of the deaths, except for one, occurred in Mexico. Egypt responded to this outbreak of H1N1 by ordering

14319-521: The settlement in the 1970s. In its early years, the Mokattam Settlement lacked basic services; there were no health centers, pharmacies, or schools. Basic amenities such as piped water , sewage networks, and electricity were also missing. During the beginning decades of the Mokattam settlement, the community suffered from "high mortality and morbidity rates (especially among children), poor environmental conditions, and low income." In 1983,

14448-434: The ships of the single largest cruise company, Carnival Corporation & plc , emitted ten times more sulfur dioxide than all of Europe's cars combined. Although the following trends generally hold true, different organizations may have different numerical specifications for the six fuel grades. The boiling point and carbon chain length of the fuel increases with fuel oil number. Viscosity also increases with number, and

14577-592: The socio-economic sustainability of the Zabbaleen community. The Zabbaleen faced a major challenge when the Egyptian Agricultural Ministry ordered the culling of all pigs in April 2009 in response to national fears over the possible spread of H1N1 influenza . This governmental decision posed a major setback to the Zabbaleen because pigs, who eat the organic waste, are an essential component to their recycling and sorting system. Immediately after

14706-414: The start of the fractional distillation process. Heavier petroleum-derived oils like diesel fuel and lubricating oil are much less volatile and distill out more slowly. Oil has many uses; it heats homes and businesses and fuels trucks , ships , and some cars . A small amount of electricity is produced by diesel, but it is more polluting and more expensive than natural gas . It is often used as

14835-521: The sulfur content requirement outside the ECAs to 0.5% m/m by 2020. This is where Marine Distillate Fuels and other alternatives to use of heavy bunker fuel come into play. They have similar properties to diesel #2, which is used as road diesel around the world. The most common grades used in shipping are DMA and DMB. Greenhouse gas emissions resulting from the use of international bunker fuels are currently included in national inventories. Heavy fuel oil

14964-406: The trash from garbage bins placed at central collection points on the streets. However, many inhabitants of Cairo preferred the door-to-door garbage pick-up done by the Zabbaleen, especially because the bins were not plentifully located or located in inconvenient places. Thus, residents expressed their discontent with the new system, especially because they were being charged more for what seemed to be

15093-413: The trash is sorted first into the major categories. For instance, the major category of paper would be sorted into white paper, yellow paper, thick paper, newspaper, thin paper, etc. Each sub-sorted material is then sold to factories and middlemen for a marginal profit. The initial and very integral step of sorting the trash is the responsibility of Zabbaleen community members who own pigs. The pigs are fed

15222-524: The waste collectors sell adult pigs, 5 to 15 pigs to a trader for LE 7 per kilogram (US$ 1.25 per kilogram). The trader then takes pigs to the slaughterhouses, where a kilogram is sold for LE 30–35 (US$ 5–6.25). The waste collectors can earn around LE 450 (US$ 80) per pig." After the sorting of materials is finished, the Zabbaleen sell the sorted materials, such as paper, tin, rags, plastic materials, cloth, etc. The Zabbaleen sell these sorted materials to factories that then reuse these products, such as paper, in

15351-421: The waste that they collect. After the takeover of the municipal waste collection, the three private companies, two from Spain and one from Italy, that were awarded with contracts to dispose of Cairo's trash were only required to recycled 20 percent of the trash that they collect. The rest of the trash that foreign companies do not recycle are placed into new landfills. The efficiency and environmental friendliness of

15480-507: The world, e.g. , California, European Union, have established Emission Control Areas (ECA) that limit the maximum sulfur of fuels burned in their ports to limit pollution, reducing the percentage of sulfur and other particulates from 4.5% m/m to as little as 0.10% as of 2015 inside an ECA. As of 2013 3.5% continued to be permitted outside an ECA, but the International Maritime Organization has planned to lower

15609-426: Was a distillate oil for burners requiring low-viscosity fuel. ASTM merged this grade into the number 2 specification, and the term has been rarely used since the mid-20th century. Number 4 fuel oil is a commercial heating oil for burner installations not equipped with preheaters. It may be obtained from the heavy gas oil cut. This fuel is sometimes known by the Navy specification of Bunker A . Number 5 fuel oil

15738-476: Was established in 1975. After the establishment of the church, the Zabbaleen felt more secure in their location and only then began to use more permanent building materials, such as stone and bricks, for their homes. Given their previous experience of eviction from Giza in 1970, the Zabbaleen had lived in temporary tin huts up till that point. In 1976, a large fire broke out in Manshiyat Nasir, which led to

15867-566: Was estimated at 20.5 million, the population density within Cairo Governorate was estimated at 45,000 per square kilometer (117,00 per square mile). In 2021, Greater Cairo had GDP of around 3 trillion EGP or 45% of total Egypt GDP. (billion EGP) (billion USD) The Greater Cairo Area and its surrounding region is classified as hot desert climate (BWh) in Köppen-Geiger classification , as all of Egypt . Cairo and its surrounding region have very similar day to day temperatures; however,

15996-514: Was estimated that, in 1997, the Zabbaleen informally handled one-third of the garbage of Cairo's 14 million people, mainly that from poorer districts," meaning that the Zabbaleen collected up to 3,000 tons of garbage every day. The Zabbaleen are able to recycle up to 80 percent of the waste that they collect through their family-run micro-enterprises that generate jobs, including those for production of handmade crafts from rags and paper, and incomes for some 40,000 people. In fact, according to Fahmi, "in

16125-400: Was hierarchically constituted. The Wahiya acted as the middlemen between the Zabbaleen and Cairo's households. Quoting Assaad, "The wahiya assume overall responsibility for regular removal of the wastes vis-à-vis residents and building owners and are responsible for collection of the wastes from individual dwelling units to the street level. The Zabbaleen, on the other hand, are responsible for

16254-419: Was made despite the general agreement that H1N1 is not transmitted by pigs. Furthermore, there were no cases of swine flu found in Egypt during the time when the pig cull was executed. The actual slaughter of the pigs was ordered by the Egyptian Agricultural Ministry in April 2009. Although government authorities stated that the slaughtering itself was humane, and in accordance with Islamic law, witnesses testify

16383-622: Was more common in the past. It powered boilers , railroad steam locomotives , and steamships . Locomotives, however, have become powered by diesel or electric power; steamships are not as common as they were previously due to their higher operating costs (most LNG carriers use steam plants, as "boil-off" gas emitted from the cargo can be used as a fuel source); and most boilers now use heating oil or natural gas. Some industrial boilers still use it and so do some old buildings, including in New York City . In 2011 New York City estimated that

16512-547: Was officially declared as a pandemic by the World Health Organization in June 2009. The pandemic was then declared to be officially over by the World Health Organization on August 10, 2010. When first ordering the pig cull, the Egyptian government asserted that it was a precaution to forestall national fears of the imminent pandemic. Later, after the pig cull, the government stated that its decision to order

16641-630: Was part of an upgrading program called the Zabbaleen Environmental Development Program (ZEDP). The Zabbaleen community is characterized by poor health and high rates of disease, especially those related to their garbage collecting activities. According to Assad, "reported infant mortality rates , particularly from tetanus , were extremely high. In 1981, infant mortality was estimated at about 240 deaths per thousand births (EQI Report #3, 1981: 36)." The infant mortality rate dropped to 117 per thousand in 1991, but

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