Zadonshchina ( Russian : Задонщина ; could be translated as "the region beyond the Don River ") is a Russian literary monument of the late 14th century, which tells of the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380.
82-441: Zadonshina exists in 2 redactions : It is not clear what the original text was. Some scholars assert that the extant copies do not all go back to the same prototext. Many publications of Zadonshchina were composed by adding up excerpts from different copies. Some Russian historians, including Mikhail Tikhomirov , believe that Zadonshchina was written between 1383 and 1393. Some manuscripts mention that 160 years had passed since
164-545: A company that monetizes data related to a user's location. Other international cases are similar to the Accuweather case. In 2017, a leaky API inside the McDelivery App exposed private data, which consisted of home addresses, of 2.2 million users. In the wake of these types of scandals, many large American technology companies such as Google, Apple, and Facebook have been subjected to hearings and pressure under
246-533: A file may still contain sensitive information. In other cases, inexperienced users use ineffective methods which fail to sanitize the document. Metadata removal tools are designed to effectively sanitize documents by removing potentially sensitive information. In May 2005 the US military published a report on the death of Nicola Calipari , an Italian secret agent, at a US military checkpoint in Iraq. The published version of
328-423: A mobility database. The study further shows that these constraints hold even when the resolution of the dataset is low. Therefore, even coarse or blurred datasets confer little privacy protection. Several methods to protect user privacy in location-based services have been proposed, including the use of anonymizing servers and blurring of information. Methods to quantify privacy have also been proposed, to calculate
410-480: A much greater volume and degree of harassment than would otherwise be possible. Revenge porn may lead to misogynist or homophobic harassment, such as in the suicide of Amanda Todd and the suicide of Tyler Clementi . When someone's physical location or other sensitive information is leaked over the Internet via doxxing , harassment may escalate to direct physical harm such as stalking or swatting . Despite
492-461: A need by many candidates to control various online privacy settings in addition to controlling their online reputations, the conjunction of which has led to legal suits against both social media sites and US employers. Selfies are popular today. A search for photos with the hashtag #selfie retrieves over 23 million results on Instagram and 51 million with the hashtag #me. However, due to modern corporate and governmental surveillance, this may pose
574-419: A paper document before its public release involves overwriting portions of text with a wide black pen, followed by photocopying the result—the obscured text may be recoverable from the original. Alternatively opaque "cover up tape" or "redaction tape", opaque, removable adhesive tape in various widths, may be applied before photocopying. This is a simple process with only minor security risks. For example, if
656-472: A prisoner had no choice but to conform to the prison's rules. As technology has advanced, the way in which privacy is protected and violated has changed with it. In the case of some technologies, such as the printing press or the Internet , the increased ability to share information can lead to new ways in which privacy can be breached. It is generally agreed that the first publication advocating privacy in
738-592: A prototext on this subject, and that the actual author of Zadonshchina used that text in creating his work. The text can poetically and thematically be divided into 3 parts: Zadonshchina presents a detailed description of the Battle of Kulikovo against the Tatars led by Mamai . The leader of the Muscovy hosts was prince Dmitry Ivanovich (entered in history as Dmitry Donskoy , Дмитрий Донской). The story propagates
820-496: A revision history of the edited text that still contains the redacted text. In some file formats, unused portions of memory are saved that may still contain fragments of previous versions of the text. Where text is redacted, in Portable Document (PDF) or word processor formats, by overlaying graphical elements (usually black rectangles) over text, the original text remains in the file and can be uncovered by simply deleting
902-519: A risk to privacy. In a research study which takes a sample size of 3763, researchers found that for users posting selfies on social media, women generally have greater concerns over privacy than men, and that users' privacy concerns inversely predict their selfie behavior and activity. An invasion of someone's privacy may be widely and quickly disseminated over the Internet. When social media sites and other online communities fail to invest in content moderation , an invasion of privacy can expose people to
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#1732790250639984-477: A sanitization failure caused by unexpected behavior in Microsoft Word's change tracking feature. The two most common mistakes for incorrectly redacting a document are adding an image layer over the sensitive text to obscure it, without removing the underlying text, and setting the background color to match the text color. In both of these cases, the redacted material still exists in the document underneath
1066-566: A warrant to arrest Timothy Ivory Carpenter on multiple charges, and the Supreme Court ruled that the warrantless search of cell phone records violated the Fourth Amendment, citing that the Fourth Amendment protects "reasonable expectations of privacy" and that information sent to third parties still falls under data that can be included under "reasonable expectations of privacy". Beyond law enforcement, many interactions between
1148-436: Is a document that is suitable for publication or for dissemination to others rather than the intended audience of the original document. When the intent is secrecy protection , such as in dealing with classified information , redaction attempts to reduce the document's classification level, possibly yielding an unclassified document. When the intent is privacy protection , it is often called data anonymization . Originally,
1230-484: Is being restricted. US government documents released under the Freedom of Information Act are marked with exemption codes that denote the reason why the content has been withheld. The US National Security Agency (NSA) published a guidance document which provides instructions for redacting PDF files. Printed documents which contain classified or sensitive information frequently contain a great deal of information which
1312-540: Is derived from the Latin word and concept of ‘ privatus ’, which referred to things set apart from what is public; personal and belonging to oneself, and not to the state. Literally, ‘ privatus ’ is the past participle of the Latin verb ‘ privere ’ meaning ‘to be deprived of’. The concept of privacy has been explored and discussed by numerous philosophers throughout history. Privacy has historical roots in ancient Greek philosophical discussions. The most well-known of these
1394-851: Is exacerbated by deanonymization research indicating that personal traits such as sexual orientation, race, religious and political views, personality, or intelligence can be inferred based on a wide variety of digital footprints , such as samples of text, browsing logs, or Facebook Likes. Intrusions of social media privacy are known to affect employment in the United States. Microsoft reports that 75 percent of U.S. recruiters and human-resource professionals now do online research about candidates, often using information provided by search engines, social-networking sites, photo/video-sharing sites, personal web sites and blogs, and Twitter . They also report that 70 percent of U.S. recruiters have rejected candidates based on internet information. This has created
1476-404: Is less sensitive. There may be a need to release the less sensitive portions to uncleared personnel. The printed document will consequently be sanitized to obscure or remove the sensitive information. Maps have also been redacted for the same reason, with highly sensitive areas covered with a slip of white paper. In some cases, sanitizing a classified document removes enough information to reduce
1558-457: Is modified or erased, some or all of the data remains in storage . This may be an accident of design, where the underlying storage mechanism ( disk , RAM , etc.) still allows information to be read, despite its nominal erasure. The general term for this problem is data remanence . In some contexts (notably the US NSA, DoD , and related organizations), "sanitization" typically refers to countering
1640-670: Is the civil law . Privacy in Canada was first addressed through the Privacy Act , a 1985 piece of legislation applicable to personal information held by government institutions. The provinces and territories would later follow suit with their own legislation. Generally, the purposes of said legislation are to provide individuals rights to access personal information; to have inaccurate personal information corrected; and to prevent unauthorized collection, use, and disclosure of personal information. In terms of regulating personal information in
1722-556: The Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation is a privacy protection agreement for the members of that organization. Approaches to privacy can, broadly, be divided into two categories: free market or consumer protection . One example of the free market approach is to be found in the voluntary OECD Guidelines on the Protection of Privacy and Transborder Flows of Personal Data. The principles reflected in
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#17327902506391804-569: The Battle of the Kalka River , which happened in 1223. At the same time, there is a mention of a Bulgarian city Tyrnov (contemporary Veliko Tarnovo ), which in 1393 was taken by the Turks and could not be mentioned as Orthodox until the 19th century. One of the hypotheses is that the author of Zadonshchina was a certain Sofonii (Russian: Софоний) from Ryazan ’. His name as the author of
1886-664: The Constitution of South Africa says that "everyone has a right to privacy"; and the Constitution of the Republic of Korea says "the privacy of no citizen shall be infringed." The Italian Constitution also defines the right to privacy. Among most countries whose constitutions do not explicitly describe privacy rights, court decisions have interpreted their constitutions to intend to give privacy rights. Many countries have broad privacy laws outside their constitutions, including Australia's Privacy Act 1988 , Argentina's Law for
1968-614: The Cyber Civil Rights Initiative and the Electronic Frontier Foundation argue that addressing the new privacy harms introduced by the Internet requires both technological improvements to encryption and anonymity as well as societal efforts such as legal regulations to restrict corporate and government power. While the Internet began as a government and academic effort up through the 1980s, private corporations began to enclose
2050-507: The Telecommunications (Interception and Access) Amendment (Data Retention) Act 2015 made a distinction between collecting the contents of messages sent between users and the metadata surrounding those messages. Most countries give citizens rights to privacy in their constitutions. Representative examples of this include the Constitution of Brazil , which says "the privacy, private life, honor and image of people are inviolable";
2132-570: The USS Liberty incident (right), the report may be sanitized to remove all sensitive data, so that the report may be released to the general public. As is seen in the USS Liberty report, paper documents are usually sanitized by covering the classified and sensitive portions before photocopying the document. Computer (electronic or digital) documents are more difficult to sanitize. In many cases, when information in an information system
2214-413: The subverted expectations of users who share information online without expecting it to be stored and retained indefinitely. Phenomena such as revenge porn and deepfakes are not merely individual because they require both the ability to obtain images without someone's consent as well as the social and economic infrastructure to disseminate that content widely. Therefore, privacy advocacy groups such as
2296-561: The Australian Government via the Privacy Amendment (Enhancing Privacy Protection) Bill 2012. In 2015, the Telecommunications (Interception and Access) Amendment (Data Retention) Act 2015 was passed, to some controversy over its human rights implications and the role of media. Canada is a federal state whose provinces and territories abide by the common law save the province of Quebec whose legal tradition
2378-455: The Life and Death of Dmitry Ivanovich ( Слово о житии и преставлении Дмитрия Ивановича , Slovo o zhitii i o prestavlenii Dmitriia Ivanovicha ) Redaction Redaction or sanitization is the process of removing sensitive information from a document so that it may be distributed to a broader audience. It is intended to allow the selective disclosure of information. Typically, the result
2460-574: The NSA. Text on pages 12 to 14 of the PDF document were incorrectly redacted, and the covered text could be retrieved. At the end of 2005, the NSA released a report giving recommendations on how to safely sanitize a Microsoft Word document. Issues such as these make it difficult to reliably implement multilevel security systems, in which computer users of differing security clearances may share documents. The Challenge of Multilevel Security gives an example of
2542-684: The Office of the Privacy Commissioner and Canadian academics. In the absence of a statutory private right of action absent an OPC investigation, the common law torts of intrusion upon seclusion and public disclosure of private facts, as well as the Civil Code of Quebec may be brought for an infringement or violation of privacy. Privacy is also protected under ss. 7 and 8 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms which
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2624-749: The Protection of Personal Data of 2000, Canada's 2000 Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act , and Japan's 2003 Personal Information Protection Law. Beyond national privacy laws, there are international privacy agreements. The United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights says "No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with [their] privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon [their] honor and reputation." The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development published its Privacy Guidelines in 1980. The European Union's 1995 Data Protection Directive guides privacy protection in Europe. The 2004 Privacy Framework by
2706-557: The Tale differ from the rest of the work by linguistic criteria (whereas in the Tale no such distinction can be drawn). The English translation can be found in Medieval Russia's Epics, Chronicles and Tales by S. Zenskovsky (New York: Meridian, 1974). 1. Chronicles (Simeonovskaya, Novgorodskaya, Sofiyskaya) 2. The Word of Mamay's Defeat (Russian: Сказание о Мамаевом побоище , Skazaniie o Mamaevom poboishche ) 3. The Word on
2788-609: The U.S. legislative system. In 2011, US Senator Al Franken wrote an open letter to Steve Jobs , noting the ability of iPhones and iPads to record and store users' locations in unencrypted files. Apple claimed this was an unintentional software bug , but Justin Brookman of the Center for Democracy and Technology directly challenged that portrayal, stating "I'm glad that they are fixing what they call bugs, but I take exception with their strong denial that they track users." In 2021,
2870-490: The U.S. state of Arizona found in a court case that Google misled its users and stored the location of users regardless of their location settings. The Internet has become a significant medium for advertising, with digital marketing making up approximately half of the global ad spending in 2019. While websites are still able to sell advertising space without tracking, including via contextual advertising , digital ad brokers such as Facebook and Google have instead encouraged
2952-501: The United States was the 1890 article by Samuel Warren and Louis Brandeis , "The Right to Privacy", and that it was written mainly in response to the increase in newspapers and photographs made possible by printing technologies. In 1948, 1984 , written by George Orwell , was published. A classic dystopian novel, 1984 describes the life of Winston Smith in 1984, located in Oceania, a totalitarian state. The all-controlling Party,
3034-613: The already existing privacy requirements that applied to telecommunications providers (under Part 13 of the Telecommunications Act 1997 ), and confidentiality requirements that already applied to banking, legal and patient / doctor relationships. In 2008 the Australian Law Reform Commission (ALRC) conducted a review of Australian privacy law and produced a report titled "For Your Information". Recommendations were taken up and implemented by
3116-554: The bill due to its provisions for warrantless breaches of privacy, stating "I don't want to see our children victimized again by losing privacy rights." Even where these laws have been passed despite privacy concerns, they have not demonstrated a reduction in online harassment. When the Korea Communications Commission introduced a registration system for online commenters in 2007, they reported that malicious comments only decreased by 0.9%, and in 2011 it
3198-430: The black pen or tape is not wide enough, careful examination of the resulting photocopy may still reveal partial information about the text, such as the difference between short and tall letters. The exact length of the removed text also remains recognizable, which may help in guessing plausible wordings for shorter redacted sections. Where computer-generated proportional fonts were used, even more information can leak out of
3280-406: The classification from a higher level to a lower one. For example, raw intelligence reports may contain highly classified information such as the identities of spies , that is removed before the reports are distributed outside the intelligence agency: the initial report may be classified as Top Secret while the sanitized report may be classified as Secret. In other cases, such as the NSA report on
3362-484: The cloud was not necessarily a form of evidence. Riley v. California evidently became a landmark case, protecting the digital protection of citizen's privacy when confronted with the police. A recent notable occurrence of the conflict between law enforcement and a citizen in terms of digital privacy has been in the 2018 case, Carpenter v. United States (585 U.S. ____). In this case, the FBI used cell phone records without
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3444-428: The computer networks which underlie the Internet introduce such a wide range of novel security concerns, the discussion of privacy on the Internet is often conflated with security . Indeed, many entities such as corporations involved in the surveillance economy inculcate a security-focused conceptualization of privacy which reduces their obligations to uphold privacy into a matter of regulatory compliance , while at
3526-447: The current state of the value of individuals' privacy of online social networking show the following results: "first, adults seem to be more concerned about potential privacy threats than younger users; second, policy makers should be alarmed by a large part of users who underestimate risks of their information privacy on OSNs; third, in the case of using OSNs and its services, traditional one-dimensional privacy approaches fall short". This
3608-400: The data remanence problem. However, the retention may be a deliberate feature , in the form of an undo buffer, revision history, "trash can", backups , or the like. For example, word processing programs like Microsoft Word will sometimes be used to edit out the sensitive information. These products do not always show the user all of the information stored in a file, so it is possible that
3690-490: The debate regarding privacy from a physical sense, how the government controls a person's body (i.e. Roe v. Wade ) and other activities such as wiretapping and photography. As important records became digitized, Westin argued that personal data was becoming too accessible and that a person should have complete jurisdiction over their data, laying the foundation for the modern discussion of privacy. New technologies can also create new ways to gather private information. In 2001,
3772-476: The effect of substantially disrupting the orderly operation of a school." Increasingly, mobile devices facilitate location tracking . This creates user privacy problems. A user's location and preferences constitute personal information , and their improper use violates that user's privacy. A recent MIT study by de Montjoye et al. showed that four spatio-temporal points constituting approximate places and times are enough to uniquely identify 95% of 1.5M people in
3854-472: The equilibrium between the benefit of obtaining accurate location information and the risks of breaching an individual's privacy. There have been scandals regarding location privacy. One instance was the scandal concerning AccuWeather , where it was revealed that AccuWeather was selling locational data. This consisted of a user's locational data, even if they opted out within Accuweather, which tracked users' location. Accuweather sold this data to Reveal Mobile,
3936-551: The extent of their contribution to human wellbeing, or necessary utility. Hegel’s notions were modified by prominent 19th century English philosopher John Stuart Mill . Mill’s essay On Liberty (1859) argued for the importance of protecting individual liberty against the tyranny of the majority and the interference of the state. His views emphasized the right of privacy as essential for personal development and self-expression. Discussions surrounding surveillance coincided with philosophical ideas on privacy. Jeremy Bentham developed
4018-426: The form of bodily integrity . Throughout history, there have been various conceptions of privacy. Most cultures acknowledge the right of individuals to keep aspects of their personal lives out of the public domain. The right to be free from unauthorized invasions of privacy by governments, corporations, or individuals is enshrined in the privacy laws of many countries and, in some instances, their constitutions. With
4100-495: The government and citizens have been revealed either lawfully or unlawfully, specifically through whistleblowers. One notable example is Edward Snowden , who released multiple operations related to the mass surveillance operations of the National Security Agency (NSA), where it was discovered that the NSA continues to breach the security of millions of people, mainly through mass surveillance programs whether it
4182-471: The government, are able to monitor a user's data and decide what is allowed to be said online through their censorship policies, ultimately for monetary purposes. In the 1960s, people began to consider how changes in technology were bringing changes in the concept of privacy. Vance Packard 's The Naked Society was a popular book on privacy from that era and led US discourse on privacy at that time. In addition, Alan Westin 's Privacy and Freedom shifted
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#17327902506394264-572: The guidelines, free of legislative interference, are analyzed in an article putting them into perspective with concepts of the GDPR put into law later in the European Union. In a consumer protection approach, in contrast, it is claimed that individuals may not have the time or knowledge to make informed choices, or may not have reasonable alternatives available. In support of this view, Jensen and Potts showed that most privacy policies are above
4346-564: The hardware and software of the Internet in the 1990s, and now most Internet infrastructure is owned and managed by for-profit corporations. As a result, the ability of governments to protect their citizens' privacy is largely restricted to industrial policy , instituting controls on corporations that handle communications or personal data . Privacy regulations are often further constrained to only protect specific demographics such as children, or specific industries such as credit card bureaus. Several online social network sites (OSNs) are among
4428-723: The importance of the unification of Russian principalities in order to defeat the common enemy – the Golden Horde . This epic also reflects the rise of the Moscow principality and stresses that the Muscovy princes were successors to the Kievan princes . A French Slavist André Mazon and later a Soviet/Russian historian A. A. Zimin proposed that, The Tale of Igor's Campaign was written based on poetic images and ideas from Zadonshchina . They proposed that The Tale of Igor's Campaign
4510-461: The legal case Kyllo v. United States (533 U.S. 27) determined that the use of thermal imaging devices that can reveal previously unknown information without a warrant constitutes a violation of privacy. In 2019, after developing a corporate rivalry in competing voice-recognition software, Apple and Amazon required employees to listen to intimate moments and faithfully transcribe the contents. Police and citizens often conflict on what degree
4592-486: The main source of concern for many mobile users, especially with the rise of privacy scandals such as the Facebook–Cambridge Analytica data scandal . Apple has received some reactions for features that prohibit advertisers from tracking a user's data without their consent. Google attempted to introduce an alternative to cookies named FLoC which it claimed reduced the privacy harms, but it later retracted
4674-409: The overlaying graphics. Effective redaction of electronic documents requires the removal of all relevant text and image data from the document file. This process, internally complex, can be carried out very easily by a user with the aid of "redaction" functions in software for editing PDF or other files. Redaction may administratively require marking of the redacted area with the reason that the content
4756-404: The party in power led by Big Brother, is able to control power through mass surveillance and limited freedom of speech and thought. George Orwell provides commentary on the negative effects of totalitarianism , particularly on privacy and censorship . Parallels have been drawn between 1984 and modern censorship and privacy, a notable example being that large social media companies, rather than
4838-515: The phenomenon known as the Panoptic effect through his 1791 architectural design of a prison called Panopticon . The phenomenon explored the possibility of surveillance as a general awareness of being watched that could never be proven at any particular moment. French philosopher Michel Foucault (1926-1984) concluded that the possibility of surveillance in the instance of the Panopticon meant
4920-584: The police can intrude a citizen's digital privacy. For instance, in 2012, the Supreme Court ruled unanimously in United States v. Jones (565 U.S. 400), in the case of Antoine Jones who was arrested of drug possession using a GPS tracker on his car that was placed without a warrant, that warrantless tracking infringes the Fourth Amendment. The Supreme Court also justified that there is some "reasonable expectation of privacy" in transportation since
5002-546: The political sphere, philosophers hold differing views on the right of private judgment. German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831) makes the distinction between moralität , which refers to an individual’s private judgment, and sittlichkeit , pertaining to one’s rights and obligations as defined by an existing corporate order. On the contrary, Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832), an English philosopher, interpreted law as an invasion of privacy. His theory of utilitarianism argued that legal actions should be judged by
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#17327902506395084-432: The practice of behavioral advertising , providing code snippets used by website owners to track their users via HTTP cookies . This tracking data is also sold to other third parties as part of the mass surveillance industry . Since the introduction of mobile phones, data brokers have also been planted within apps, resulting in a $ 350 billion digital industry especially focused on mobile devices. Digital privacy has become
5166-406: The private sector, the federal Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act ("PIPEDA") is enforceable in all jurisdictions unless a substantially similar provision has been enacted on the provincial level. However, inter-provincial or international information transfers still engage PIPEDA. PIPEDA has gone through two law overhaul efforts in 2021 and 2023 with the involvement of
5248-531: The proposal due to antitrust probes and analyses that contradicted their claims of privacy. The ability to do online inquiries about individuals has expanded dramatically over the last decade. Importantly, directly observed behavior, such as browsing logs, search queries, or contents of a public Facebook profile, can be automatically processed to infer secondary information about an individual, such as sexual orientation, political and religious views, race, substance use, intelligence, and personality. In Australia,
5330-584: The reading level of the average person. The Privacy Act 1988 is administered by the Office of the Australian Information Commissioner. The initial introduction of privacy law in 1998 extended to the public sector, specifically to Federal government departments, under the Information Privacy Principles. State government agencies can also be subject to state based privacy legislation. This built upon
5412-479: The reasonable expectation of privacy had already been established under Griswold v. Connecticut (1965). The Supreme Court also further clarified that the Fourth Amendment did not only pertain to physical instances of intrusion but also digital instances, and thus United States v. Jones became a landmark case. In 2014, the Supreme Court ruled unanimously in Riley v. California (573 U.S. 373), where David Leon Riley
5494-485: The redacted section in the form of the exact position of nearby visible characters. The UK National Archives published a document, Redaction Toolkit, Guidelines for the Editing of Exempt Information from Documents Prior to Release , "to provide guidance on the editing of exempt material from information held by public bodies." Secure redacting is more complicated with computer files . Word processing formats may save
5576-471: The redaction tool to permanently remove the proposed items. Privacy Privacy ( UK : / ˈ p r ɪ v ə s i / , US : / ˈ p r aɪ -/ ) is the ability of an individual or group to seclude themselves or information about themselves, and thereby express themselves selectively. The domain of privacy partially overlaps with security , which can include the concepts of appropriate use and protection of information. Privacy may also take
5658-423: The report was in PDF format, and had been incorrectly redacted by covering sensitive parts with opaque blocks in software. Shortly thereafter, readers discovered that the blocked-out portions could be retrieved by copying and pasting them into a word processor. On May 24, 2006, lawyers for the communications service provider AT&T filed a legal brief regarding their cooperation with domestic wiretapping by
5740-586: The rise of technology, the debate regarding privacy has expanded from a bodily sense to include a digital sense. In most countries, the right to digital privacy is considered an extension of the original right to privacy , and many countries have passed acts that further protect digital privacy from public and private entities. There are multiple techniques to invade privacy, which may be employed by corporations or governments for profit or political reasons. Conversely, in order to protect privacy, people may employ encryption or anonymity measures. The word privacy
5822-403: The same time lobbying to minimize those regulatory requirements. The Internet's effect on privacy includes all of the ways that computational technology and the entities that control it can subvert the privacy expectations of their users . In particular, the right to be forgotten is motivated by both the computational ability to store and search through massive amounts of data as well as
5904-445: The social contract laid the groundwork for modern conceptions of individual rights, including the right to privacy. In his Second Treatise of Civil Government (1689), Locke argued that a man is entitled to his own self through one’s natural rights of life, liberty, and property. He believed that the government was responsible for protecting these rights so individuals were guaranteed private spaces to practice personal activities. In
5986-435: The term sanitization was applied to printed documents; it has since been extended to apply to computer files and the problem of data remanence . In the context of government documents, redaction (also called sanitization) generally refers more specifically to the process of removing sensitive or classified information from a document prior to its publication, during declassification . Redacting confidential material from
6068-590: The text is mentioned in the KB copy and in the Synodal copy. Sofonii was probably one of the courtsmen of Volodimir Ondreevich, a cousin of Dmitry Ivanovich, the protagonist of Zadonshchina . Soviet/Russian textological research has shown that Sofonii is alluded to in all other copies of Zadonshchina as an author of a preceding work about the Battle of Kulikovo and hence is not the author of the text in question, but rather of
6150-554: The top 10 most visited websites globally. Facebook for example, as of August 2015, was the largest social-networking site, with nearly 2.7 billion members, who upload over 4.75 billion pieces of content daily. While Twitter is significantly smaller with 316 million registered users, the US Library of Congress recently announced that it will be acquiring and permanently storing the entire archive of public Twitter posts since 2006. A review and evaluation of scholarly work regarding
6232-417: The visible appearance and is subject to searching and even simple copy and paste extraction. Proper redaction tools and procedures must be used to permanently remove the sensitive information. This is often accomplished in a multi-user workflow where one group of people mark sections of the document as proposals to be redacted, another group verifies the redaction proposals are correct, and a final group operates
6314-502: The way breaches of privacy can magnify online harassment, online harassment is often used as a justification to curtail freedom of speech , by removing the expectation of privacy via anonymity , or by enabling law enforcement to invade privacy without a search warrant . In the wake of Amanda Todd's death, the Canadian parliament proposed a motion purporting to stop bullying, but Todd's mother herself gave testimony to parliament rejecting
6396-711: Was Aristotle 's distinction between two spheres of life: the public sphere of the polis , associated with political life, and the private sphere of the oikos , associated with domestic life. Privacy is valued along with other basic necessities of life in the Jewish deutero-canonical Book of Sirach . Islam's holy text, the Qur'an, states the following regarding privacy: ‘Do not spy on one another’ (49:12); ‘Do not enter any houses except your own homes unless you are sure of their occupants' consent’ (24:27). English philosopher John Locke ’s (1632-1704) writings on natural rights and
6478-433: Was arrested after he was pulled over for driving on expired license tags when the police searched his phone and discovered that he was tied to a shooting, that searching a citizen's phone without a warrant was an unreasonable search, a violation of the Fourth Amendment. The Supreme Court concluded that the cell phones contained personal information different from trivial items, and went beyond to state that information stored on
6560-410: Was collecting great amounts of data through third party private companies, hacking into other embassies or frameworks of international countries, and various breaches of data, which prompted a culture shock and stirred international debate related to digital privacy. The Internet and technologies built on it enable new forms of social interactions at increasingly faster speeds and larger scales. Because
6642-547: Was not an Old Russian text, but an 18th-century forgery . Indeed, the view of the Igor' Tale as a late forgery certainly implies that it is imitation of Zadonshchina, as the two texts are undoubtedly related. This approach is criticized by linguists, notably Roman Jakobson and Andrey Zaliznyak who show that the language of the Igor's Tale is far more archaic, and that the passages in Zadonshchina allegedly borrowed from
6724-501: Was repealed. A subsequent analysis found that the set of users who posted the most comments actually increased the number of "aggressive expressions" when forced to use their real name. In the US, while federal law only prohibits online harassment based on protected characteristics such as gender and race, individual states have expanded the definition of harassment to further curtail speech: Florida's definition of online harassment includes "any use of data or computer software" that "Has
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