Zalewski (feminine: Zalewska , plural: Zalewscy ) is a Polish-language surname. Alternate spellings include Zelewski, Zaleski, Zeleski, Zalewska and Zaller.
66-448: The form Zalewski is the hypercorrect form of Zaleski . By analogy with other surnames, like Chotomowski (colloquially pronounced as if spelt "Chotomoski"), Olszewski ("Olszeski") etc., it may seem that the shorter spelling must reflect the popular pronunciation and not the older, etymological one, but this is not the case. The original form Zaleski was derived from a place called Zalesie or Zalas, which literally means "an area close to
132-479: A German pronunciation: [ç] both for the <sch> (standard German [ʃ] ) and the ⟨ch⟩ . Proper names and German loanwords into other languages that have been reborrowed , particularly when they have gone through or are perceived to have gone through the English language are often pronounced " hyperforeign ". Examples include "Hamburger" or the names of German-Americans and
198-472: A "new working class," which, despite education and a perception of themselves as middle class, were part of the working class because they did not own the means of production, and were wage earners paid to produce a piece of capital. The professional–managerial class seek higher rank status and salaries and tend to have incomes above the average for their country. Modern definitions of the term "middle class" are often politically motivated and vary according to
264-532: A common hypercorrection is the fortition of properly lenis stops, sometimes including aspiration as evidenced by the speech of Günther Beckstein . The digraph <ig> in word-final position is pronounced [ɪç] per the Bühnendeutsch standard, but this pronunciation is frequently perceived as nonstandard and instead realized as [ɪɡ̊] or [ɪk] ( final obstruent devoicing ) even by speakers from dialect areas that pronounce
330-858: A confusion related to the Qamatz Gadol Hebrew vowel, which in the accepted Sephardi Hebrew pronunciation is rendered as /aː/ but which is pronounced /ɔ/ in Ashkenazi Hebrew , and in Hebrew words that also occur in Yiddish . However, the Qamatz Qaṭan vowel, which is visually indistinguishable from the Qamatz Gadol vowel, is rendered as /o/ in both pronunciations. This leads to hypercorrections in both directions. Other hypercorrections occur when speakers of Israeli Hebrew (which
396-708: A forest, behind a forest". It is difficult to assess which regions were primarily connected with it, because of the significant number of villages by such names. (Another case of such hypercorrection is Dmowski , derived from Dmochy , not *Dmów or *Dmowo). Another possible etymology for one of the forms of Zalewski surname comes from a topographic name for someone who lived by a flood plain, bay, or any other small body of water. Two locations that this may be connected to are Zalew in Sieradz voivodeship or Zalewo in Olsztyn voivodeship. The Germanised version of this surname
462-417: A greater rate than the middle class, that rather than growing, India's middle class may be shrinking in size. According to a 2014 study by Standard Bank economist Simon Freemantle, a total of 15.3 million households in 11 surveyed nations of Africa are middle class: Angola , Ethiopia , Ghana , Kenya , Mozambique , Nigeria , South Sudan , Sudan , Tanzania , Uganda , and Zambia . In South Africa ,
528-595: A regime change. Estimates vary widely on the number of middle-class people in India . A 1983 article put the Indian middle class as somewhere between 70 and 100 million. According to one study the middle class in India stood at between 60 and 80 million by 1990. According to The Economist , 78 million of India's population are considered middle class as of 2017, if defined using the cutoff of those making more than $ 10 per day,
594-543: A report conducted by the Institute for Race Relations in 2015 estimated that between 10% and 20% of South Africans are middle class, based on various criteria. An earlier study estimated that in 2008 21.3% of South Africans were members of the middle class. A study by EIU Canback indicates 90% of Africans fall below an income of $ 10 a day. The proportion of Africans in the $ 10–$ 20 middle class (excluding South Africa), rose from 4.4% to only 6.2% between 2004 and 2014. Over
660-425: A sentence would be correct in the sentence " Jag ger dem en present " ('I give them a gift.') Middle class The middle class refers to a class of people in the middle of a social hierarchy , often defined by occupation , income, education, or social status . The term has historically been associated with modernity, capitalism and political debate. Common definitions for the middle class range from
726-419: A standard used by the India's National Council of Applied Economic Research. If including those with incomes between $ 2 and $ 10 per day, the number increases to 604 million. This was termed by researchers as the "new middle class". Measures considered include geography, lifestyle, income, and education. The World Inequality Report in 2018 further concluded that elites (i.e. the top 10%) are accumulating wealth at
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#1732779518969792-481: A whole, exclusive of Indians, constituted just under 20% of the national society. A 1964 study estimated that 45 million Latin Americans belonged to the urban middle class while 15 million to the urban well-to-do and 8 million to the rural middle class and well-to-do. In Brazil , according to one estimate, in 1970 the lower middle class comprised 12% of the population, while the upper middle class comprised 3%. In
858-681: A working paper by the OECD asserted that 1.8 billion people were now members of the global "middle class". Credit Suisse's Global Wealth Report 2014, released in October 2014, estimated that one billion adults belonged to the "middle class," with wealth anywhere between the range of $ 10,000–$ 100,000. According to a study carried out by the Pew Research Center , a combined 16% of the world's population in 2011 were "upper-middle income" and "upper income". An April 2019 OECD report said that
924-470: Is Salewski and Saleski , usually found in the Silesia region. An early form of this surname was first noted in the year 1370. Many families from different classes and with different background used this surname. Several famous people have the surname Zalewski or a variant of it: Hypercorrection In sociolinguistics , hypercorrection is the nonstandard use of language that results from
990-819: Is a second declension word of Latin origin when in fact it is third declension and comes from Greek . Sociolinguists often note hypercorrection in terms of pronunciation (phonology). For example, William Labov noted that all of the English speakers he studied in New York City in the 1960s tended to pronounce words such as hard as rhotic (pronouncing the "R" as / h ɑːr d / rather than / h ɑː d / ) more often when speaking carefully. Furthermore, middle class speakers had more rhotic pronunciation than working class speakers did. However, lower-middle class speakers had more rhotic pronunciation than upper-middle class speakers. Labov suggested that these lower-middle class speakers were attempting to emulate
1056-692: Is applied in an inappropriate context, so that an attempt to be "correct" leads to an incorrect result. It does not occur when a speaker follows "a natural speech instinct", according to Otto Jespersen and Robert J. Menner. Hypercorrection can be found among speakers of less prestigious language varieties who attempt to produce forms associated with high-prestige varieties, even in situations where speakers of those varieties would not. Some commentators call such production hyperurbanism . Hypercorrection can occur in many languages and wherever multiple languages or language varieties are in contact. Studies in sociolinguistics and applied linguistics have noted
1122-559: Is based on Sephardic) attempt to pronounce Ashkenazi Hebrew, for example for religious purposes. The month of Shevat ( שבט ) is mistakenly pronounced Shvas , as if it were spelled * שְׁבַת . In an attempt to imitate Polish and Lithuanian dialects, qamatz (both gadol and qatan ), which would normally be pronounced [ɔ] , is hypercorrected to the pronunciation of holam , [ɔj] , rendering גדול ('large') as goydl and ברוך ('blessed') as boyrukh . In some Spanish dialects,
1188-427: Is formally spelt de in the subjective case and dem in the objective case. Informally it can be spelled dom (" Dom tycker om mig ."), yet dom is only acceptable in spoken language. When spelt more formally, they are often confused with each other. (" De tycker om mig ." as a correct form, compared to " Dem tycker om mig "* as an incorrect form in this case). As an object form, using dem in
1254-425: Is impossible to distinguish clearly among the multiple dimensions of inequality and the various mechanisms at work." In February 2009, The Economist asserted that over half the world's population now belongs to the middle class, as a result of rapid growth in emerging countries. It characterized the middle class as having a reasonable amount of discretionary income , so that they do not live from hand-to-mouth as
1320-414: Is never pronounced that way, however). The conjunction och is also sometimes pronounced the same way. Both pronunciations can informally be spelt å . (" Jag älskar å fiska å jag tycker också om å baka .") When spelt more formally, the infinitive marker /'ɔ/ is sometimes misspelt och . (" Få mig och hitta tillbaka .*") The third person plural pronoun, pronounced dom in many dialects,
1386-526: Is sometimes called hyperurbanism , defined by Kingsley Amis as an "indulged desire to be posher than posh". In 2004, Jack Lynch, assistant professor of English at Rutgers University , said on Voice of America that the correction of the subject-positioned "you and me" to "you and I" leads people to "internalize the rule that 'you and I' is somehow more proper, and they end up using it in places where they should not – such as 'he gave it to you and I' when it should be 'he gave it to you and me.' However,
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#17327795189691452-513: The bourgeoisie ; later, with the further differentiation of classes as capitalist societies developed, the term came to be synonymous with the term petite bourgeoisie . The boom-and-bust cycles of capitalist economies result in the periodic (and more or less temporary) impoverishment and proletarianization of much of the petite bourgeois world, resulting in their moving back and forth between working-class and petite-bourgeois status. The typical modern definitions of "middle class" tend to ignore
1518-681: The "middle class" which stands between the ruling capitalist "owners of the means of production" and the working class (whose income is derived solely from hourly wages). Pioneer 20th century American Marxist theoretician Louis C. Fraina (Lewis Corey) defined the middle class as "the class of independent small enterprisers, owners of productive property from which a livelihood is derived". From Fraina's perspective, this social category included "propertied farmers" but not propertyless tenant farmers . Middle class also included salaried managerial and supervisory employees but not "the masses of propertyless, dependent salaried employees. Fraina speculated that
1584-572: The 1990s as "New Labour" , a party competing with the Conservative Party for the votes of the middle-class as well as those of the Labour Party's traditional group of voters – the working-class. Around 40% of British people consider themselves to be middle class, and this number has remained relatively stable over the last few decades. According to the OECD , the middle class refers to households with income between 75% and 200% of
1650-471: The Chinese middle class differs substantially from its Western counterparts. Despite its growth, it remains a relatively small group profoundly joined with the Chinese state. This unique relationship challenges assumptions about its role in political change. Criticisms from this demographic often center on improving efficiency and social justice within the existing political framework, rather than advocating for
1716-471: The Chinese population were considered middle class as of 2017. China's middle class represents a significant market force with effects extending beyond its borders. The promise of increased prosperity and a consumer society has been a driving force behind this growth, while also suggesting the potential for political changes similar to those seen in Europe and North America. However, it's important to note that
1782-487: The city. In France , the middle classes helped drive the French Revolution . This "middle class" eventually overthrew the ruling monarchists of feudal society, thus becoming the new ruling class or bourgeoisie in the new capitalist-dominated societies. The modern usage of the term "middle-class", however, dates to the 1913 UK Registrar-General's report, in which the statistician T. H. C. Stevenson identified
1848-467: The companies named after them, even if they were or are first generation immigrants. Some German speakers pronounce the metal umlaut as if it were a "normal" German umlaut. For example, when Mötley Crüe visited Germany, singer Vince Neil said the band could not figure out why "the crowds were chanting, 'Mutley Cruh! Mutley Cruh! ' " In Swedish, the word att is sometimes pronounced / ɔ / when used as an infinitive marker (its conjunction homograph
1914-518: The developed one, since their money incomes do not match developed country levels, but the percentage of it which is discretionary does. By this definition, the number of middle-class people in Asia exceeded that in the West sometime around 2007 or 2008. The Economist 's article pointed out that in many emerging countries, the middle class has not grown incrementally but explosively. The point at which
1980-532: The digraph [ɪç] or [ɪʃ] . Palatinate German language speakers are among those who pronounce both the digraph ⟨ch⟩ and the trigraph ⟨sch⟩ as [ʃ] . A common hypercorrection is to produce [ç] even where standard German has [ʃ] such as in Helmut Kohl 's hypercorrect rendering of "Geschichte", the German word for "history" with
2046-413: The distribution of a pattern found in loanwords and extending it to other environments. The result of this process does not reflect the rules of either language. For example, habanero is sometimes pronounced as though it were spelled "habañero", in imitation of other Spanish words like jalapeño and piñata . Machismo is sometimes pronounced "makizmo", apparently as if it were Italian, rather than
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2112-509: The driving force for sustainable development. This assumption, however, is contested (see below). As the American middle class is estimated by some researchers to comprise approximately 45% of the population, The Economist 's article would put the size of the American middle class below the world average. This difference is due to the extreme difference in definitions between The Economist 's and many other models . In 2010,
2178-465: The entire category of salaried employees might be adequately described as a "new middle class" in economic terms, although this remained a social grouping in which "most of whose members are a new proletariat." In 1977, Barbara Ehrenreich and John Ehrenreich defined a new class in the United States as "salaried mental workers who do not own the means of production and whose major function in
2244-436: The exigencies of political purpose which they were conceived to serve in the first place as well as due to the multiplicity of more- or less-scientific methods used to measure and compare wealth between modern advanced industrial states, where poverty is relatively low and the distribution of wealth more egalitarian in a relative sense, and in developing countries, where poverty and a profoundly unequal distribution of wealth crush
2310-599: The fact that the classical petite-bourgeoisie is and has always been the owner of a small-to medium-sized business whose income is derived almost exclusively from the employment of workers; "middle class" came to refer to the combination of the labour aristocracy , professionals , and salaried, white-collar workers . The size of the middle class depends on how it is defined, whether by education, wealth , environment of upbringing, social network , manners or values, etc. These are all related, but are far from deterministically dependent. The following factors are often ascribed in
2376-510: The final intervocalic /d/ ( [ð] ) is dropped, such as in pescado (fish), which would typically be pronounced [pesˈkaðo] but can be manifested as [pesˈkao] dialectically. Speakers sensitive to this variation may insert a /d/ intervocalically into a word without such a consonant, such as in the case of bacalao (cod), correctly pronounced [bakaˈlao] but occasionally hypercorrected to [bakaˈlaðo] . Outside Spain and in Andalusia ,
2442-552: The first sense, it is used for the bourgeoisie (the urban merchant and professional class) that arose between the aristocracy and the proletariat in the waning years of feudalism in the Marxist model. Vladimir Lenin stated that the "peasantry ... in Russia constitute eight- or nine-tenths of the petty bourgeoisie". However, in modern developed countries, Marxist writers define the petite bourgeoisie as primarily comprising (as
2508-403: The initial h from words; e.g. have becomes ' ave . A hypercorrection associated with this is H-adding , adding an initial h to a word which would not normally have one. An example of this can be found in the speech of the character Parker in the marionette TV series Thunderbirds , e.g. "We'll 'ave the haristocrats 'ere soon" (from the episode "Vault of Death"). Parker's speech
2574-535: The language in more formal occasions, thus using the locative even when the accusative should be used (typically, when indicating direction rather than location): " Izlazim na kolovozu " instead of " izlazim na kolovoz ". Ghil'ad Zuckermann argues that the following hypercorrect pronunciations in Israeli Hebrew are "snobbatives" (from snob + -ative , modelled upon comparatives and superlatives ): The last two hypercorrection examples derive from
2640-458: The linguists Rodney Huddleston and Geoffrey K. Pullum write that utterances such as "They invited Sandy and I" are "heard constantly in the conversation of people whose status as speakers of Standard English is clear" and that "[t]hose who condemn it simply assume that the case of a pronoun in a coordination must be the same as when it stands alone. Actual usage is in conflict with this assumption." Some British accents, such as Cockney , drop
2706-468: The literature on this topic to a "middle class:" In the United States, by the end of the twentieth century, more people identified themselves as middle-class (with insignificant numbers identifying themselves as upper-class). The Labour Party in the UK, which grew out of the organised labour movement and originally drew almost all of its support from the working-class, reinvented itself under Tony Blair in
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2772-426: The median national income. Marxism defines social classes according to their relationship with the means of production . The main basis of social class division of Marxism: the possession of means of production, the role and position it plays in social labor organization (production process), the distribution of wealth and resources and the amount. Marxist writers have used the term middle class in various ways. In
2838-583: The mid-1970s it was estimated by one authority that the Brazilian middle class comprised between 15 and 25% of the population. A 1969 economic survey estimated that 15% of Brazilians belonged to the middle class. By 1970, according to one study, the middle class of Argentina comprised 38% of the economically active population, compared with 19% in Brazil and 24% in Mexico . A 1975 study on Mexico estimated that
2904-461: The middle class as those falling between the upper-class and the working-class . The middle class includes: professionals, managers, and senior civil servants. The chief defining characteristic of membership in the middle-class is control of significant human capital while still being under the dominion of the elite upper class, who control much of the financial and legal capital in the world. Within capitalism, "middle-class" initially referred to
2970-458: The middle class in 1968 (defined as families earning between 2,000 and 5,000 pesos annually) comprised 36.4% of the population, while the upper class (defined as families earning over 5,000 pesos annually) comprised 9.4% of the population and the lower class (defined as families earning less than 2,000 pesos annually) comprised 53.9% of the population. According to a study by the World Bank ,
3036-541: The middle fifth of individuals on a nation's income ladder, to everyone but the poorest and wealthiest 20%. Theories like "Paradox of Interest" use decile groups and wealth distribution data to determine the size and wealth share of the middle class. Terminology differs in the United States , where the term middle class describes people who in other countries would be described as working class . There has been significant global middle-class growth over time. In February 2009, The Economist asserted that over half of
3102-655: The millennial generation is being pushed out of the middle class throughout the Western world. Since the beginning of the 21st century, China 's middle class has grown by significant margins. According to the Center for Strategic and International Studies , by 2013, some 420 million people, or 31%, of the Chinese population qualified as middle class. Based on the World Bank definition of middle class as those having with daily spending between $ 10 and $ 50 per day, nearly 40% of
3168-428: The name implies) owners of small to medium-sized businesses, who derive their income from the exploitation of wage-laborers (and who are in turn exploited by the "big" bourgeoisie i.e. bankers, owners of large corporate trusts, etc.) as well as the highly educated professional class of doctors, engineers, architects, lawyers, university professors, salaried middle-management of capitalist enterprises of all sizes, etc. – as
3234-572: The new language (a situation known as language transfer ). The effect can occur, for example, when a student of a new language has learned that certain sounds of their original language must usually be replaced by another in the studied language, but has not learned when not to replace them. English has no authoritative body or language academy codifying norms for standard usage , unlike some other languages . Nonetheless, within groups of users of English, certain usages are considered unduly elaborate adherences to formal rules. Such speech or writing
3300-605: The number of Latin Americans who are middle class rose from 103 million to 152 million between 2003 and 2009. In 2012, the "middle class" in Russia was estimated as 15% of the whole population. Due to sustainable growth , the pre-crisis level was exceeded. In 2015, research from the Russian Academy of Sciences estimated that around 15% of the Russian population are "firmly middle class", while around another 25% are "on
3366-411: The overapplication of a perceived rule of language-usage prescription . A speaker or writer who produces a hypercorrection generally believes through a misunderstanding of such rules that the form or phrase they use is more "correct", standard , or otherwise preferable, often combined with a desire to appear formal or educated. Linguistic hypercorrection occurs when a real or imagined grammatical rule
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#17327795189693432-407: The overapplication of rules of phonology , syntax , or morphology , resulting either from different rules in varieties of the same language or second-language learning . An example of a common hypercorrection based on application of the rules of a second (i.e., new, foreign) language is the use of octopi for the plural of octopus in English; this is based on the faulty assumption that octopus
3498-457: The phonemes /θ/ and /s/ have merged, mostly into the realization [ s ] but ceceo , i.e. the pronunciation of both as [ s̟ ] is found in some areas as well, primarily parts of Andalusia. Speakers of varieties that have [ s ] in all cases will frequently produce [ θ ] even in places where peninsular Spanish has [ s ] when trying to imitate a peninsular accent. As Spanish orthography distinguishes
3564-532: The phonetic English pronunciation which resembles the original Spanish word, /mɑːˈtʃiz.mo/ . Similarly, the z in chorizo is sometimes pronounced as /ts/ (as if it were Italian), whereas the original Spanish pronunciation has /θ/ or /s/ . Some English-Spanish cognates primarily differ by beginning with s instead of es , such as the English word spectacular and the Spanish word espectacular . A native Spanish speaker may conscientiously hypercorrect for
3630-412: The poor do, and defined it as beginning at the point where people have roughly a third of their income left for discretionary spending after paying for basic food and shelter. This allows people to buy consumer goods, improve their health care, and provide for their children's education. Most of the emerging middle class consists of people who are middle class by the standards of the developing world but not
3696-491: The poor start entering the middle class by the millions is alleged to be the time when poor countries get the maximum benefit from cheap labour through international trade , before they price themselves out of world markets for cheap goods. It is also a period of rapid urbanization, when subsistence farmers abandon marginal farms to work in factories, resulting in a several-fold increase in their economic productivity before their wages catch up to international levels. That stage
3762-448: The pronunciation of upper-middle class speakers, but were actually over-producing the very noticeable R-sound. A common source of hypercorrection in English speakers' use of the language's morphology and syntax happens in the use of pronouns (see § Personal pronouns ) . Hypercorrection can also occur when learners of a new-to-them (second, foreign) language try to avoid applying grammatical rules from their native language to
3828-638: The same period, the proportion of " upper middle class " income ($ 20–$ 50 a day) went from 1.4% to 2.3%. According to a 2014 study by the German Development Institute, the middle class of Sub-Saharan Africa rose from 14 million to 31 million people between 1990 and 2010. Over the years estimates on the size of the Latin America 's middle class have varied. A 1960 study stated that the middle strata in Latin America as
3894-698: The social division of labor ... [is] ... the reproduction of capitalist culture and capitalist class relations;" the Ehrenreichs named this group the "professional–managerial class". This group of middle-class professionals is distinguished from other social classes by their training and education (typically business qualifications and university degrees), with example occupations including academics and teachers , social workers , engineers , accountants , managers , nurses , and middle-level administrators. The Ehrenreichs developed their definition from studies by André Gorz , Serge Mallet, and others, of
3960-831: The two phonemes in all varieties, but the pronunciation is not differentiated in Latin American varieties, some speakers also get mixed up with the spelling. Many Spanish dialects tend to aspirate syllable-final /s/ , and some even elide it often. Since this phenomenon is somewhat stigmatized, some speakers in the Caribbean and especially the Dominican Republic may attempt to correct for it by pronouncing an /s/ where it does not belong. For example, catorce años '14 years' may be pronounced as catorces año . The East Franconian dialects are notable for lenition of stops /p/ /t/ /k/ to [b], [d], [g]. As such
4026-580: The vast majority of the population. Many of these methods of comparison have been harshly criticised; for example, economist Thomas Piketty , in his book Capital in the Twenty-First Century , describes one of the most commonly used comparative measures of wealth across the globe, the Gini coefficient , as being an example of "synthetic indices ... which mix very different things, such as inequality with respect to labor and capital, so that it
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#17327795189694092-402: The word escape by writing or saying scape , or for the word establish by writing or saying stablish , which is archaic , or an informal pronunciation in some dialects. As the locative case is rarely found in vernacular usage in the southern and eastern dialects of Serbia, and the accusative is used instead, speakers tend to overcorrect when trying to deploy the standard variety of
4158-597: The world's population belonged to the middle class, as a result of rapid growth in emerging countries. It characterized the middle class as having a reasonable amount of discretionary income and defined it as beginning at the point where people have roughly a third of their income left for discretionary spending after paying for basic food and shelter. The term "middle class" is first attested in James Bradshaw's 1745 pamphlet Scheme to prevent running Irish Wools to France. Another phrase used in early modern Europe
4224-414: Was "the middling sort". The term "middle class" has had several and sometimes contradictory meanings. Friedrich Engels saw the category as an intermediate social class between the nobility and the peasantry in late-feudalist society. While the nobility owned much of the countryside, and the peasantry worked it, a new bourgeoisie (literally "town-dwellers") arose around mercantile functions in
4290-593: Was based on a real person the creators encountered at a restaurant in Cookham . The same, for the same reason, is often heard when a person of Italian origins speaks English: "I'm h angry h at Francesco", "I'd like to h eat something". This should not be expected to be consistent with the h-dropping common in the Italian accent, so the same person may say "an edge-og" instead of "a hedgehog", or just say it correctly. Hyperforeignism arises from speakers misidentifying
4356-465: Was reached in China sometime between 1990 and 2005, when the Chinese "middle class" grew from 15% to 62% of the population and is just being reached in India now. The Economist predicted that surge across the poverty line should continue for a couple of decades and the global middle class will grow exponentially between now and 2030. Based on the rapid growth, scholars expect the global middle class to be
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