59-525: The Zambia Riverside Solar Power Station is a 34 megawatts solar power plant in Zambia. The privately owned solar farm was originally commissioned in April 2018, as a 1 MW power station by Copperbelt Energy Corporation (CEC), who own the energy infrastructure. In December 2021, CEC signed an engineering, procurement, and construction (EPC) contract with Sinohydro to expand the solar farm by 33 extra MW over
118-399: A 10 months period at a total cost of US$ 22 million. During the expansion, 61,300 panels, connected to 150 solar inverters were installed. Work also included the construction of 4 kilometres (2 mi) of new transmission line and six transformer stations. Photovoltaic power station A photovoltaic power station , also known as a solar park , solar farm , or solar power plant , is
177-427: A desired power output varies depending on the location, the efficiency of the solar panels, the slope of the site, and the type of mounting used. Fixed tilt solar arrays using typical panels of about 15% efficiency on horizontal sites, need about 1 hectare (2.5 acres)/MW in the tropics and this figure rises to over 2 hectares (4.9 acres) in northern Europe. Because of the longer shadow the array casts when tilted at
236-520: A generating facility that produces electricity and another form of useful thermal energy through the sequential use of energy, and meets certain ownership, operating, and efficiency criteria established by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC). Section 210 of PURPA now requires utilities to purchase energy from QFs at the utility's avoided cost. This allows QFs to receive a reasonable to excellent price for
295-414: A large-scale grid-connected photovoltaic power system (PV system) designed for the supply of merchant power . They are different from most building-mounted and other decentralized solar power because they supply power at the utility level, rather than to a local user or users. Utility-scale solar is sometimes used to describe this type of project. This approach differs from concentrated solar power ,
354-427: A life of 25 to 75 years, and normally do not require replacement during the life of a photovoltaic power station. The performance of a solar park depends on the climatic conditions, the equipment used and the system configuration. The primary energy input is the global light irradiance in the plane of the solar arrays, and this in turn is a combination of the direct and the diffuse radiation. In some regions soiling ,
413-459: A multitude of solar panels , mounted on support structures and interconnected to deliver a power output to electronic power conditioning subsystems. The majority are free-field systems using ground-mounted structures, usually of one of the following types: Many projects use mounting structures where the solar panels are mounted at a fixed inclination calculated to provide the optimum annual output profile. The panels are normally oriented towards
472-510: A new policy, under which another 12 IPPs began operations. For the development of Independent Power Producers (IPPs), Private Power and Infrastructure Board operates as one window facilitator on behalf of all the departments and Ministries of the Government of Pakistan to; process power projects in IPP mode, monitor their development, and facilitates in providing all required support on behalf of
531-453: A new solar park, and can be a significant contributor to the cost. Most stations are sited within a few kilometres of a suitable grid connection point. This network needs to be capable of absorbing the output of the solar park when operating at its maximum capacity. The project developer will normally have to absorb the cost of providing power lines to this point and making the connection; in addition often to any costs associated with upgrading
590-402: A scale of at least 1 MW p . As of 2018, the world's largest operating photovoltaic power stations surpassed 1 gigawatt . At the end of 2019, about 9,000 solar farms were larger than 4 MW AC (utility scale), with a combined capacity of over 220 GW AC . Most of the existing large-scale photovoltaic power stations are owned and operated by independent power producers , but
649-479: A solar farm in space—collecting solar power from a photovoltaic cell and beaming energy down to Earth—constituted an early feasibility demonstration completed. Such setups are not limited by cloud cover or the Sun’s cycle. Most solar parks are ground mounted PV systems, also known as free-field solar power plants. They can either be fixed tilt or use a single axis or dual axis solar tracker . While tracking improves
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#1732775858353708-565: A solar park, for example at times of low demand or high availability of other generators. Some countries make statutory provision for priority access to the grid for renewable generators, such as that under the European Renewable Energy Directive . In recent years, PV technology has improved its electricity generating efficiency , reduced the installation cost per watt as well as its energy payback time (EPBT). It has reached grid parity in most parts of
767-419: A steeper angle, this area is typically about 10% higher for an adjustable tilt array or a single axis tracker, and 20% higher for a 2-axis tracker, though these figures will vary depending on the latitude and topography. The best locations for solar parks in terms of land use are held to be brown field sites , or where there is no other valuable land use. Even in cultivated areas, a significant proportion of
826-417: A wider range of sources. The prices revealed by these auctions and tenders have led to highly competitive prices in many regions. Amongst the prices quoted are: Solar generating stations have become progressively cheaper in recent years, and this trend is expected to continue. Meanwhile, traditional electricity generation is becoming progressively more expensive. These trends led to a crossover point when
885-465: Is approximately 358 kilometres (222 mi) north of Lusaka , the national capital. The geographical coordinates of Zambia Riverside Solar Power Station are: 12°48'26.0"S, 28°14'11.0"E (Latitude:-12.807222; Longitude:28.236389). In April 2018, CEC commenced commercial use of its 1 MW solar power station in Kitwe, as an income-diversification enterprise. In December 2021, CEC contracted Sinohydro to expand
944-487: Is expected to last approximately one year and conclude during the fourth quarter of 2022. In February 2023, the completed 34 MW solar farm was officially commissioned in the presence of Hakainde Hichilema , the Zambian Head of State. The new installation sits of 30 hectares (74 acres). Its annual output is calculated at 54.7 GWh, enough to energize 10,000 Zambian homes. During expansion, 800 people were employed over
1003-457: Is lower in temperate climates or those with more significant diffuse radiation , due to overcast conditions. So dual axis trackers are most commonly used in subtropical regions, and were first deployed at utility scale at the Lugo plant. A third approach achieves some of the output benefits of tracking, with a lesser penalty in terms of land area, capital and operating cost. This involves tracking
1062-404: Is metered in real-time with readings of its energy output provided, typically on a half-hourly basis, for balancing and settlement within the electricity market. Income is affected by the reliability of equipment within the plant and also by the availability of the grid network to which it is exporting. Some connection contracts allow the transmission system operator to curtail the output of
1121-535: Is rated in megawatt-peak (MW p ), which refers to the solar array's theoretical maximum DC power output. In other countries, the manufacturer states the surface and the efficiency. However, Canada, Japan, Spain, and the United States often specify using the converted lower nominal power output in MW AC , a measure more directly comparable to other forms of power generation. Most solar parks are developed at
1180-620: Is typically warranted at plus or minus 3% during the first year of operation. Solar power plants are developed to deliver merchant electricity into the grid as an alternative to other renewable, fossil or nuclear generating stations. The plant owner is an electricity generator. Most solar power plants today are owned by independent power producers (IPP's), though some are held by investor- or community-owned utilities. Some of these power producers develop their own portfolio of power plants, but most solar parks are initially designed and constructed by specialist project developers. Typically
1239-646: The Charanka Solar Park , where there are 17 different generation projects; Neuhardenberg , with eleven plants, and the Golmud solar park with total reported capacity over 500 MW. An extreme example would be calling all of the solar farms in the Gujarat state of India a single solar park, the Gujarat Solar Park . To avoid land use altogether, in 2022, a 5 MW floating solar park
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#17327758583531298-452: The 'performance ratio' has been developed to evaluate the total value of these losses. The performance ratio gives a measure of the output AC power delivered as a proportion of the total DC power which the solar panels should be able to deliver under the ambient climatic conditions. In modern solar parks the performance ratio should typically be in excess of 80%. Early photovoltaic systems output decreased as much as 10%/year, but as of 2010
1357-557: The Equator, at a tilt angle slightly less than the latitude of the site. In some cases, depending on local climatic, topographical or electricity pricing regimes, different tilt angles can be used, or the arrays might be offset from the normal east–west axis to favour morning or evening output. A variant on this design is the use of arrays, whose tilt angle can be adjusted twice or four times annually to optimise seasonal output. They also require more land area to reduce internal shading at
1416-596: The Government of Pakistan. In 2015, Pakistan adopted a new power policy by which another 13 IPPs were established, mostly by Chinese companies. A transmission policy for development of transmission line in the private sector was also announced. More than 40 IPPs were operating in Pakistan as of 2018. India also has many IPP's like ReNew Power , Adani, KPI Green Energy, Hero, Mytrah, Ostro, Greenko, Alfanar, Mahindra Susten , Jakson Ltd.Etc. The Renewable Energy Independent Power Producer Procurement Programme (REIPPPP)
1475-654: The accumulation of dust or organic material on the solar panels that blocks incident light, is a significant loss factor. A key determinant of the output of the system is the conversion efficiency of the solar panels, which depends in particular on the type of solar cell used. There will be losses between the DC output of the solar panels and the AC power delivered to the grid, due to a wide range of factors such as light absorption losses, mismatch, cable voltage drop, conversion efficiencies, and other parasitic losses . A parameter called
1534-438: The advantage of the projects sharing the cost and risks of project infrastructure such as grid connections and planning approval. Solar farms can also be co-located with wind farms. Sometimes 'solar park' is used to describe a set of individual solar power stations, which share sites or infrastructure, and 'cluster' is used where several plants are located nearby without any shared resources. Some examples of solar parks are
1593-621: The centre of the block. String inverters are substantially lower in capacity than central inverters, of the order of 10 kW up to 250 KW for newer models (2020), and condition the output of a single array string. This is normally a whole, or part of, a row of solar arrays within the overall plant. String inverters can enhance the efficiency of solar parks, where different parts of the array are experiencing different levels of insolation, for example where arranged at different orientations, or closely packed to minimise site area. The system inverters typically provide power output at voltages of
1652-466: The developer will plan the project, obtain planning and connection consents, and arrange financing for the capital required. The actual construction work is normally contracted to one or more engineering, procurement, and construction (EPC) contractors. Major milestones in the development of a new photovoltaic power plant are planning consent , grid connection approval, financial close , construction, connection and commissioning. At each stage in
1711-731: The end of 1982, followed in 1984 by a 5.2 MW p installation in Carrizo Plain . Both have since been decommissioned (although a new plant, Topaz Solar Farm , was commissioned in Carrizo Plain in 2015). The next stage followed the 2004 revisions to the feed-in tariffs in Germany , when a substantial volume of solar parks were constructed. Several hundred installations over 1 MW p have since been installed in Germany, of which more than 50 are over 10 MW p . With its introduction of feed-in tariffs in 2008, Spain briefly became
1770-479: The energy they produce and ensures that energy generated by small producers won't be wasted. In 1994, the Government of Pakistan announced an investor-friendly policy to develop IPPs based on oil, coal and gas. Following the policy, 16 IPPs were established. The next year, a hydro power policy was announced, which resulted in the development of the country's first Hydro IPP. In 2002, the new government adopted
1829-400: The grid, so it can accommodate the output from the plant. Therefore, solar power stations are sometimes built at sites of former coal-fired power stations to reuse existing infrastructure. Once the solar park has been commissioned, the owner usually enters into a contract with a suitable counterparty to undertake operation and maintenance (O&M). In many cases this may be fulfilled by
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1888-416: The inverters or as separate units. These devices keep each solar array string close to its peak power point . There are two primary alternatives for configuring this conversion equipment; centralized and string inverters, although in some cases individual, or micro-inverters are used. Single inverters allows optimizing the output of each panel, and multiple inverters increases the reliability by limiting
1947-445: The involvement of community and utility-owned projects is increasing. Previously, almost all were supported at least in part by regulatory incentives such as feed-in tariffs or tax credits , but as levelized costs fell significantly in the 2010s and grid parity has been reached in most markets, external incentives are usually not needed. The first 1 MW p solar park was built by Arco Solar at Lugo near Hesperia, California , at
2006-413: The largest market with some 60 solar parks over 10 MW, but these incentives have since been withdrawn. The USA, China, India, France, Canada, Australia, and Italy, among others, have also become major markets as shown on the list of photovoltaic power stations . The largest sites under construction have capacities of hundreds of MW p and some more than 1 GW p . The land area required for
2065-670: The levelised cost of energy from solar parks, historically more expensive, matched or beat the cost of traditional electricity generation. This point depends on locations and other factors, and is commonly referred to as grid parity. Independent power producer An independent power producer ( IPP ) or non-utility generator ( NUG ) is an entity that is not a public utility but owns facilities to generate electric power for sale to utilities and end users. NUGs may be privately held facilities, corporations, cooperatives such as rural solar or wind energy producers, and non-energy industrial concerns capable of feeding excess energy into
2124-401: The local distribution-delivery systems. PURPA, however, established a class of non‐utility generators, called Qualifying Facilities (QFs), that were permitted to produce power for resale. PURPA was intended to reduce domestic dependence on foreign energy, to encourage energy conservation, and to reduce the ability of electric utilities to abuse the purchase of power from QFs. A QF is defined as
2183-413: The loss of output when an inverter fails. These units have relatively high capacity, typically of the order between 1 MW up to 7 MW for newer units (2020), so they condition the output of a substantial block of solar arrays, up to perhaps 2 hectares (4.9 acres) in area. Solar parks using centralized inverters are often configured in discrete rectangular blocks, with the related inverter in one corner, or
2242-507: The majority of the currently operating renewable energy generation capacity. Rare in Germany for decades, the IPP business model has grown more common since the EEG (for renewable energy). Success in the approach depends on finding a partner for distributing the produced energy to the customer. Electricity regulation in Canada is governed at the provincial level, and there are differences between
2301-414: The median degradation rate was 0.5%/year, with panels made after 2000 having a significantly lower degradation rate, so that a system would lose only 12% of its output performance in 25 years. A system using panels which degrade 4%/year will lose 64% of its output during the same period. Many panel makers offer a performance guarantee, typically 90% in ten years and 80% over 25 years. The output of all panels
2360-600: The next 12 months. CEC transmits and distributes the power to its customers in the Copperbelt Province of Zambia. The 1 MW power station was located on a piece of property measuring 1.1 hectares (2.7 acres), adjacent to the main campus of Copperbelt University , in the Riverside neighborhood in the city of Kitwe . The 33 MW expansion sits on 30 hectares (74 acres) of land in Kitwe District. Kitwe
2419-514: The order of 480 V AC up to 800 V AC . Electricity grids operate at much higher voltages of the order of tens or hundreds of thousands of volts, so transformers are incorporated to deliver the required output to the grid. Due to the long lead time, the Long Island Solar Farm chose to keep a spare transformer onsite, as transformer failure would have kept the solar farm offline for a long period. Transformers typically have
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2478-520: The original EPC contractor. Solar plants' reliable solid-state systems require minimal maintenance, compared to rotating machinery. A major aspect of the O&;M contract will be continuous monitoring of the performance of the plant and all of its primary subsystems, which is normally undertaken remotely. This enables performance to be compared with the anticipated output under the climatic conditions actually experienced. It also provides data to enable
2537-425: The other major large-scale solar generation technology, which uses heat to drive a variety of conventional generator systems. Both approaches have their own advantages and disadvantages, but to date, for a variety of reasons, photovoltaic technology has seen much wider use. As of 2019 , about 97% of utility-scale solar power capacity was PV. In some countries, the nameplate capacity of photovoltaic power stations
2596-414: The overall performance, it also increases the system's installation and maintenance cost. A solar inverter converts the array's power output from DC to AC , and connection to the utility grid is made through a high voltage, three phase step up transformer of typically 10 kV and above. The solar arrays are the subsystems which convert incoming light into electrical energy. They comprise
2655-507: The process, the developer will be able to update estimates of the anticipated performance and costs of the plant and the financial returns it should be able to deliver. Photovoltaic power stations occupy at least one hectare for each megawatt of rated output, so require a substantial land area; which is subject to planning approval. The chances of obtaining consent, and the related time, cost and conditions, vary by jurisdiction and location. Many planning approvals will also apply conditions on
2714-451: The provinces for how IPPs are integrated into the electric system. In 2002, the government of British Columbia stipulated that new clean renewable energy generation in the province would be developed by independent power producers (IPPs) not BC Hydro , save for large hydro-electric facilities. IPPs now produce a significant proportion of the power generated in BC. Taiwan's electricity market
2773-402: The same actuator can adjust the angle of several rows at once. Solar panels produce direct current (DC) electricity, so solar parks need conversion equipment to convert this to alternating current (AC), which is the form transmitted by the electricity grid. This conversion is done by inverters . To maximise their efficiency, solar power plants also vary the electrical load , either within
2832-422: The scheduling of both rectification and preventive maintenance. A small number of large solar farms use a separate inverter or maximizer for each solar panel, which provide individual performance data that can be monitored. For other solar farms, thermal imaging is used to identify non-performing panels for replacement. A solar park's income derives from the sales of electricity to the grid, and so its output
2891-440: The site of a solar farm can also be devoted to other productive uses, such as crop growing or biodiversity. The change in albedo affects local temperature. One study claims a temperature rise due to the heat island effect, and another study claims that surroundings in arid ecosystems become cooler. Agrivoltaics is using the same area of land for both solar photovoltaic power and agriculture . A recent study found that
2950-411: The sky, and as its elevation changes throughout the year. These arrays need to be spaced out to reduce inter-shading as the sun moves and the array orientations change, so need more land area. They also require more complex mechanisms to maintain the array surface at the required angle. The increased output can be of the order of 30% in locations with high levels of direct radiation , but the increase
3009-507: The solar farm to 34 MW, with anticipated annual output of 56.5 GWh. The power station, whose original design consisted of 3,864 photovoltaic panels, each rated at 270 watts, was the first grid-connected solar plant in Zambia. The expansion includes construction of new 11kV evacuation transmission lines to a location where the energy enters the CEC grid. The construction costs for the expansion are reported as US$ 19.2 million, paid by CEC. Construction
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#17327758583533068-407: The steeper winter tilt angle. Because the increased output is typically only a few percent, it seldom justifies the increased cost and complexity of this design. To maximise the intensity of incoming direct radiation, solar panels should be orientated normal to the sun's rays. To achieve this, arrays can be designed using two-axis trackers , capable of tracking the sun in its daily movement across
3127-471: The sun in one dimension – in its daily journey across the sky – but not adjusting for the seasons. The angle of the axis is normally horizontal, though some, such as the solar park at Nellis Air Force Base, which has a 20° tilt, incline the axis towards the equator in a north–south orientation – effectively a hybrid between tracking and fixed tilt. Single axis tracking systems are aligned along axes roughly north–south. Some use linkages between rows so that
3186-414: The system. An independent water and power producer ( IWPP ) is similar to an IPP, but with a unified process to also output usable treated water . For most IPPs, particularly in the renewable energy industry , a feed-in tariff or power purchase agreement provides a long-term price guarantee. IPPs have been successful in driving the electricity sector's transition to renewables globally, owning
3245-409: The treatment of the site after the station has been decommissioned in the future. A professional health, safety and environment assessment is usually undertaken during the design of a PV power station in order to ensure the facility is designed and planned in accordance with all HSE regulations. The availability, locality and capacity of the connection to the grid is a major consideration in planning
3304-454: The value of solar generated electricity coupled to shade-tolerant crop production created an over 30% increase in economic value from farms deploying agrivoltaic systems instead of conventional agriculture. A Solar landfill is a repurposed used landfill that is converted to a solar array solar farm. In some cases, several different solar power stations with separate owners and contractors are developed on adjacent sites. This can offer
3363-599: The world and become a mainstream power source. As solar power costs reached grid parity, PV systems were able to offer power competitively in the energy market. The subsidies and incentives, which were needed to stimulate the early market as detailed below, were progressively replaced by auctions and competitive tendering leading to further price reductions. The improving competitiveness of utility-scale solar became more visible as countries and energy utilities introduced auctions for new generating capacity. Some auctions are reserved for solar projects, while others are open to
3422-555: Was installed in the Alqueva Dam reservoir, Portugal, enabling solar power and hydroelectric energy to be combined. Separately, a German engineering firm committed to integrating an offshore floating solar farm with an offshore wind farm to use ocean space more efficiently. The projects involve " hybridization ", in which different renewable energy technologies are combined in one site. The first successful test in January 2024 of
3481-578: Was liberalized in January 1995. Nine IPP companies are currently operating in Taiwan. NUGs were rare before the enactment of the US Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA) of 1978. The few existing NUGs were seldom able to distribute power, as the cost of building the conveyance infrastructure was prohibitive. Public utilities generated power and owned the generating facilities, the transmission lines, and
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