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108-698: Rome started to dominate the Crimea peninsula (then called Taurica ) in the 1st century BC. The initial area of their penetration was mainly in eastern Crimea ( Bosporus kingdom ) and in the western Greek city of Chersonesos . The interior was only nominally under Roman rule. In ancient times Crimea was known as "Chersonesus Taurica", from the name of the Tauri, who were descendants of the Cimmerians . Many Greek colonists settled in Taurica: their most renowned colony

216-524: A client state. Such a re-orientation is also evidenced by the presence of Byzantine coins in the Crimea, including coinage of emperors Justin I ( r.  518–527 ) and Justinian I ( r.  527–565 ). By Justinian's time, the Bosporus was under a barbarian ruler once more: the Hunnic ruler Gordas . Though Gordas maintained good relations with Justinian, he was killed in a revolt in 527, which led

324-704: A connection with Athens ; at least it appears to have been a member of the Delian League in the 5th century. The Bosporan Kingdom was located between the Crimean and Taman peninsulas centered around the Kerch Strait , known in antiquity as the Cimmerian Bosporus, from which the kingdom's name is derived. To south sat the Black Sea , a crossroads connecting Southeast Europe to the west,

432-470: A divine power that could work miracles . The praefectus Aegypti was Tiberius Julius Alexander , who had been governor since Nero's reign. He proclaimed Vespasian emperor at Alexandria on 1 July 69 AD. The prefect was himself of Hellenized Jewish descent and related to Philo of Alexandria . The importance of the Egyptian grain harvest (Latin: claustra annonae , lit.   'key to

540-576: A fortress and stationed a sub-unit (vexillatio) of the "Ravenna squadron". Charax was a very important strategic point, because it allowed the Romans to establish control over the navigation along the Crimean coast. The military camp was fully developed under Vespasian with the intention of protecting Chersonesos and other Bosporean trade emporiums from the Scythians . By the end of the 1st century,

648-461: A large demand for grain, and the strain on their empire meant they could do little about Spartocids attacking the city of Nymphaeum, on which they relied on for Black Sea trade. The Spartocids were willing to trade their grain with Athens in exchange for mainland goods and silver, which presumably furthered Athenian decline. The Bosporan kingdom under the Spartocid kings was heavily influenced by

756-568: A new calendar (the " Pontic era ") introduced by Mithridates VI, starting with 297 BC to date their coins. Bosporan kings struck coinage throughout its period as a client state, which included gold staters bearing portraits of both the Roman emperor and Bosporan king. Like Roman coinage, Bosporan coinage became increasingly debased during the 3rd century. The coinage makes their lineages fairly clear to historians, though scarcely any events from their reigns are recorded. The Bosporan Kingdom covered

864-604: A number of omens and oracles that reinforced this belief. Although Vespasian and Titus resolved to challenge for the Principate in February 69, they made no move until later in the year. Throughout the early months of 69, Vespasian convened frequently with the Eastern generals. Gaius Licinius Mucianus was a notable ally. Governor of Syria and commander of three legions, Mucianus also held political connections to many of

972-521: A pro-Republic philosopher, was executed for his teachings. Numerous other philosophers and writers had their works seized, destroyed and denounced for being deemed too critical of Vespasian's reign, some even posthumously. Between 71 and 79, much of Vespasian's reign is a mystery. Historians report that Vespasian ordered the construction of several buildings in Rome. Additionally, he survived several conspiracies against him. Vespasian helped rebuild Rome after

1080-684: A vassal of the Hunnic Empire , regaining its independence after the empire's collapse in the 450s and 460s. The Byzantine historian Procopius describes the Goths of Crimea fighting against and then allying with the Utigurs , indicating that Gothic control of the region lasted for some time after the departure of the Huns. Despite the waves of barbarian domination, the late Bosporus remained an ancient Hellenistic state in language, culture and traditions;

1188-411: A village north-east of Rome called Falacrinae . His family was relatively undistinguished and lacking in pedigree. Vespasian was the son of Titus Flavius Sabinus , a Roman moneylender, debt collector, and tax collector. His mother, Vespasia Polla , also belonged to the equestrian order in society, with her father rising to the rank of prefect of the camp and her brother becoming a Senator . He

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1296-401: A year of civil wars . Galba was murdered by supporters of Otho , who was defeated by Vitellius . Otho's supporters, looking for another candidate to support, settled on Vespasian. According to Suetonius, a prophecy ubiquitous in the Eastern provinces claimed that from Judaea would come the future rulers of the world. Vespasian eventually believed that this prophecy applied to him, and found

1404-708: Is flanked by the Crimean mountains , with the highest peak being Roman-Kosh at 1,545 meters (5,069 ft.). Towards the west, the mountains drop steeply to the Black Sea, while to the east, they slowly develop into a steppe landscape. The southwestern coast of the Taman peninsula is bound by the Greater Caucasus half of the Caucasus Mountains . Greek colonization in the Black sea region dates back into

1512-543: Is known specifically, though. In 78 or 79, Eprius Marcellus and Aulus Caecina Alienus attempted to kill Vespasian. Why these men turned against Vespasian is not known. Agricola was appointed to the command of the Legio XX Valeria Victrix , stationed in Britain, in place of Marcus Roscius Coelius , who had stirred up a mutiny against the governor, Marcus Vettius Bolanus . Britain had revolted during

1620-460: Is often credited with restoring political stability to Rome following the chaotic reigns of his predecessors. After he died in 79, he was succeeded by his eldest son Titus, thus becoming the first Roman emperor to be succeeded by his natural son and establishing the Flavian dynasty. Vespasian (born Titus Flavius Vespasianus, pronounced [ˈt̪ɪt̪ʊs ˈfɫaːwijʊs wɛs.pasiˈjaːnʊs] ) was born in

1728-610: Is remembered by Josephus (writing as a Roman citizen), in his Antiquities of the Jews , as a fair and humane official, in contrast with the notorious Herod Agrippa II whom Josephus goes to great lengths to demonize. While under the emperor's patronage, Josephus wrote that after the Roman Legio X Fretensis , accompanied by Vespasian, destroyed Jericho on 21 June 68, Vespasian took a group of Jews who could not swim (possibly Essenes from Qumran ), fettered them, and threw them into

1836-526: The cursus honorum , holding an important military command in the Danube . In preparation for a praetorship , Vespasian needed two periods of service in the minor magistracies , one military and the other public. Vespasian served in the military in Thracia for about three years. On his return to Rome in about 30 AD, he obtained a post in the vigintivirate , the minor magistracies, most probably in one of

1944-619: The Archeanactid dynasty to create the first Bosporan state, lasting from 480-438 BC, at which point it was overthrown by the Spartocid Dynasty , beginning a period of economic expansion. The Black Sea Greeks before this period had dealt largely in goods like animals, slaves, furs, and fish, with grain playing a minor role. Stemming from conditions caused by the Peloponnesian War , the city of Athens had acquired

2052-656: The Dead Sea to test the sea's legendary buoyancy . Indeed, the captives bobbed up to the surface after being thrown in the water from the boats. At the conclusion of the Jewish war, Josephus discussed a prophecy from sacred scripture that about the time when Jerusalem and the Second Temple would be taken, a man from their own nation would become "governor of the habitable earth", as in the Messiah . Josephus interpreted

2160-567: The Greek Dark Ages , from which there is ample evidence of cultural and economic exchange as well as hostility between Greek and local populations, such as the Thracians , Dacians , and later Scythians . Scythian expansion and unification in the fifth century BC led to many of these settlements being wiped out or turned into Scythian protectorates, as was the case in the city of Olbia . It has been suggested that this pressure allowed

2268-529: The Nile Valley . By contrast, the Jewish temple at Leontopolis was sacked in 73. In January 70, an uprising occurred in Gaul and Germany, known as the second Batavian Rebellion . This rebellion was headed by Gaius Julius Civilis and Julius Sabinus . Sabinus, claiming he was descended from Julius Caesar , declared himself Emperor of Gaul. The rebellion defeated and absorbed two Roman legions before it

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2376-531: The Sindi (from central Crimea) and other branches of the Maeotae . Surviving material (texts, inscriptions and coins) do not supply enough information to reconstruct a complete chronology of kings of the region. Satyrus (431–387 BC), successor to Spartocus, established his rule over the whole region, adding Nymphaeum to his kingdom and besieging Theodosia , which was wealthy because, unlike other cities in

2484-500: The Sirace king Aripharnes , brought twenty thousand Scythian cavalry and even more infantry. The northern Black Sea underwent what some historians refer to as a "long Hellenistic Age" due to the institutions typically associated with the era occurring independently from the greater Greek world. Their relatively isolated position, and constant contact/conflict with barbarians along their borders, allowed monarchs with traditions rooted in

2592-477: The 10th and 11th centuries, which in turn gave way to Tatar domination. From time to time Byzantine Greek officers built fortresses and exercised authority at Bosporus, which constituted an archbishopric . A relevant Byzantine usage of the term is found in a newly discovered seal of a general of the early 11th century as of " Πο ⟨σ⟩ φορ(ου) ", i.e., of the Cimmerian Bosporos. Also, in

2700-663: The 13th century. Control then passed to the Empire of Trebizond , one of the successor states to the Byzantine Empire after the sack of Constantinople in 1204. Another offshoot, the Crimea-based Principality of Theodoro , endured from the 14th century until 1475, when the Ottoman Empire conquered it. Many series of Roman coins survive from the 1st century BC to about 300, and also some from

2808-674: The 2nd century AD, with huge commerce of wheat, clothing, wine and slaves: The prosperous merchant-towns (of Taurica), permanently in need of military protection amidst a flux of barbaric peoples, held to Rome as the advanced posts to the main army....(during that century) Roman troops were stationed in the peninsula, perhaps a division of the Pontic fleet, certainly a detachment of the Moesian army, (other garrisons in Panticapaeum and Chersonesos); their presence even in small numbers showed to

2916-556: The 3rd century. These are the Roman client kings of the Bosporan Kingdom : Ancient episcopal sees of Roman Crimea (Zechia) that are listed in the Annuario Pontificio as titular sees include: The Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire) re-established Roman control of the region under Emperor Justinian I ( r.  527–565 ). In the 6th century, probably at the end of the reign of Justinian I,

3024-720: The 5th century BC, particularly in Panticapaeum . Gold staters of Panticapaeum bearing Pan 's head and a griffin are especially remarkable for their weight and fine workmanship. There are coins with the names of the later Spartocids and a complete series of dated solidi issued by the later or Achaemenian dynasty. In them may be noticed the swift degeneration of the gold solidus through silver and potin to bronze. 45°15′36″N 37°02′24″E  /  45.26000°N 37.04000°E  / 45.26000; 37.04000 Vespasian Vespasian ( / v ɛ s ˈ p eɪ ʒ ( i ) ən , - z i ən / ; Latin : Vespasianus [wɛspasiˈaːnʊs] ; 17 November AD 9 – 23 June 79)

3132-554: The Bosporan Kingdom was restored to Asander and Dynamis by Caesar's great nephew and heir Octavian . Asander ruled as an archon and later as king until his death in 17 BC. After the death of Asander, Dynamis was compelled to marry a Roman usurper called Scribonius, but the Romans under Agrippa intervened and established Polemon I of Pontus (16–8 BC) in his place. Polemon married Dynamis in 16 BC and she died in 14 BC. Polemon ruled as king until his death in 8 BC. After

3240-526: The Bosporan grain exports: Leucon I of Bosporus created privileges for Athenian ships at Bosporan ports. The Attic orators make numerous references to this. In return the Athenians granted Leucon Athenian citizenship and made decrees in honour of him and his sons. After his defeat by Roman General Pompey in 66 BC, King Mithridates VI of Pontus fled with a small army from Colchis (modern Georgia) over

3348-545: The Bosporan king Cotys I . It is possible that Nero wanted to minimize the power of local client rulers and wanted the Bosporans to be subsumed into the Roman empire. The Bosporan Kingdom was incorporated as part of the Roman province of Moesia Inferior from 63 to 68. In 68, the new Roman emperor Galba restored the Bosporan Kingdom to Rhescuporis I , the son of Cotys I. Following the Jewish diaspora , Judaism emerged in

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3456-568: The Bosporan kingdom were finally swept away with the invasion of the Huns in 375/6. The largest Roman military settlement in Taurica was Charax . It was situated on a four-hectare area at the western ridge of "Ai Todor", close to the modern Yalta castle of Swallow's Nest . When in 62–66 AD the Roman garrisons were installed in Taurica, Charax became one of their strongholds. The Romans built

3564-535: The Bosporus left extensive architectural and sculptural remains, while the kurgans continue to yield spectacular Greco-Sarmatian objects, the best examples of which are now preserved in the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg . These include gold work, vases imported from Athens , coarse terracottas , textile fragments, and specimens of carpentry and marquetry . The whole area was dotted with Greek cities: in

3672-663: The Byzantine period. Bosporus kingdom The Bosporan Kingdom , also known as the Kingdom of the Cimmerian Bosporus ( Ancient Greek : Βασιλεία τοῦ Κιμμερικοῦ Βοσπόρου , romanized :  Basileía tou Kimmerikou Bospórou ; Latin : Regnum Bospori ), was an ancient Greco- Scythian state located in eastern Crimea and the Taman Peninsula on the shores of the Cimmerian Bosporus, centered in

3780-522: The Caucasus Mountains to Crimea and made plans to raise yet another army to take on the Romans. His eldest living son, Machares , regent of Cimmerian Bosporus, was unwilling to aid his father, so Mithridates had Machares killed, acquiring the throne for himself. Mithridates then ordered the conscriptions and preparations for war. In 63 BC, Pharnaces , the youngest son of Mithridates, led a rebellion against his father, joined by Roman exiles in

3888-476: The Crimea, it is possible that Rhescuporis was overthrown by a Sarmatian or Alan tribal leader, who established his own dynasty on the Bosporan throne. It is known that the Goths later held power in the Crimea, from c. 380 onwards, since a 404 letter to John Chrysostom , archbishop of Constantinople , refers to the local ruler as a rex Gothiorum ("king of the Goths"). The Gothic Bosporan realm likely became

3996-518: The Emperor's recitals on the lyre , and found himself in the political wilderness. In 66 AD, Vespasian was appointed to suppress the Jewish revolt underway in Judea . The fighting there had killed the previous governor and routed Cestius Gallus , the governor of Syria , when he tried to restore order. Two legions, with eight cavalry squadrons and ten auxiliary cohorts, were therefore dispatched under

4104-683: The Eurasian steppes to the north, the Caucasus and Central Asia to the east, Asia Minor and Mesopotamia to the south, and Greece to the southwest. To the north is the Sea of Azov , sometimes considered part of the Black Sea, with shallow waters and abundant rivers flowing toward it. Most of the kingdom fell in the Pontic-Caspian Steppe , a temperate grassland ideal for nomadic pastoralism . The south-eastern Crimean coastline

4212-524: The Roman forces were evacuated from the Crimea peninsula. Several decades later the camp was restored by a vexillatio of the Legio I Italica : it hosted a detachment of the Legio XI Claudia at the end of the 2nd century. In this century, new stone walls were added to the fortress and a new Roman road was built, connecting Charax to Chersonesos. The camp was abandoned by the Romans at the end of

4320-437: The Romans arrived at Taurica, they set up their camp and built a fortress and a temple of Jupiter Dolichenus on the coast of the harbor of Balaklava , then called Symbolon Limen . Tiberius Julius Aspurgus (8 BC – 38) founded a line of Bosporan Kings which endured with some interruptions until 341. Originally called Aspurgus, he adopted the Roman names "Tiberius Julius" because he received Roman citizenship and enjoyed

4428-491: The Senatorial and Equestrian orders, removing his enemies and adding his allies. Regional autonomy of Greek provinces was repealed. Additionally, Vespasian made significant attempts to control public perception of his rule. We know from Suetonius that the "unexpected and still quite new emperor was lacking auctoritas [English: backing, support ] and a certain maiestas [English: majesty ]". Many modern historians note

Crimea in the Roman era - Misplaced Pages Continue

4536-470: The area, called in the help of Diophantus , general of King Mithridates VI of Pontus , leaving him his kingdom. Paerisades was killed by a Scythian named Saumacus who led a rebellion against him. The Spartocids were well known as a line of enlightened and wise princes; although Greek opinion could not deny that they were, strictly speaking, tyrants , they are always described as dynasts. They maintained close relations with Athens , their best customer for

4644-555: The barbarians that the dreaded legionary stood behind (the Bosporanum Regnum). The region was temporarily conquered by the Goths in 250. The last client king of the Roman Empire in Taurica was Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis VI , who died in 342. Rhescuporis seems to have minted coins as late as 341, indicating that there was some extent of political control over the remnants of the kingdom at this point. The remnants of

4752-639: The circle of courtiers and servants around the Emperor, may have contributed to his success. Upon the accession of Claudius as emperor in 41, Vespasian was appointed legate of Legio II Augusta , stationed in Germania , thanks to the influence of the Imperial freedman Narcissus . In 43, Vespasian and the II Augusta participated in the Roman invasion of Britain , and he distinguished himself under

4860-545: The city of Chersonnesos was used by the Romans as a place of banishment: St. Clement of Rome died there in exile in 99 AD, having first preached the Gospel in the region. Another exile, the Emperor Justinian II , spent the years c.  695 to c.  703 there - after he returned to power (in 705) he allegedly destroyed the city in revenge. Most of Roman Crimea fell under Khazar overlordship in

4968-679: The civil war. He added the temple of Peace and the temple to the Deified Claudius. In 75, he erected a colossal statue of Apollo , begun under Nero , and he dedicated a stage of the theatre of Marcellus. He also began construction of the Colosseum , using funds from the spoils of the Jewish Temple after the Siege of Jerusalem . Suetonius claims that Vespasian was met with "constant conspiracies" against him. Only one conspiracy

5076-483: The command of Vespasian while his elder son, Titus, arrived from Alexandria with another. During this time he became the patron of Flavius Josephus , a Jewish resistance leader captured at the Siege of Yodfat , who would later write his people's history in Greek. Ultimately, thousands of Jews were killed and the Romans destroyed many towns in re-establishing control over Judea; they also took Jerusalem in 70. Vespasian

5184-425: The core of Mithridates's Pontic army. Mithridates VI withdrew to the citadel in Panticapaeum , where he committed suicide. Pompey buried Mithridates VI in a rock-cut tomb in either Sinope or Amasia , the capital of the Kingdom of Pontus . After the death of Mithridates VI (63 BC), Pharnaces II (63–47 BC) supplicated to Pompey, and then tried to regain his dominion during Julius Caesar's Civil War , but

5292-452: The country around Reate , where he spent every summer; however, his illness worsened and he developed severe diarrhea . With the feeling of death overwhelming him on his deathbed, he incited: "Vae, puto deus fio." ("Dear me, I think I'm becoming a god"). Then, according to Suetonius ' The Twelve Caesars : Taken on a sudden with such an attack of diarrhoea that he all but swooned, he said: "An emperor ought to die standing," and while he

5400-467: The death of Polemon, Aspurgus , the son of Dynamis and Asander, succeeded Polemon. The Bosporan Kingdom of Aspurgus was a client state of the Roman Empire , protected by Roman garrisons. Aspurgus (8 BC – AD 38) founded a dynasty of kings which endured with a couple of interruptions until AD 341. Aspurgus adopted the Roman name "Tiberius Julius" when he received Roman citizenship and enjoyed

5508-402: The early 12th century reference is made of the Byzantine Empire's reassertion of control over the Cimmerian Bosporos ( Κιμμέριον Βόσπορον) . Although considered rare among collectors prior to the demise of the Soviet Union in 1991, Bosporan coins are now well known on the international coin markets, hinting at the quantities produced. Several large series were produced by Bosporan cities from

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5616-497: The eastern half of Crimea and the Taman peninsula , and extended along the east coast of the Maeotian marshes to Tanais at the mouth of the Don in the north-east, a great market for trade with the interior. Throughout the period there was perpetual war with the native tribes of Scythians and Sarmatians , and in this the Bosporan Kingdom was supported by its Roman suzerains, who lent the assistance of garrisons and fleets. In AD 62 for reasons unknown, Roman emperor Nero deposed

5724-412: The emperor on 1 July 69. In his bid for imperial power, Vespasian joined forces with Mucianus , the governor of Syria , and Primus , a general in Pannonia , leaving his son Titus to command the besieging forces at Jerusalem . Primus and Mucianus led the Flavian forces against Vitellius, while Vespasian took control of Egypt. On 20 December 69, Vitellius was defeated, and the following day Vespasian

5832-440: The emperor to send armies to the Bosporus, conquering the lands of the kingdom and establishing imperial control there. The Bosporan cities enjoyed a revival, under Byzantine and Bulgarian protection. The ancient Greek city of Phanagoria became the capital of Old Great Bulgaria between 632 and 665. The town of Tmutarakan , on the eastern side of the strait, became the seat of the Kievan Rus principality of Tmutarakan in

5940-501: The end of his reign by the Goths and the Huns , there is no concrete evidence for this. There is an inscription by a Bosporan ruler named Douptounos from c. 483, nearly a century and a half after Rhescuporis VI, which makes it unlikely that the kingdom and its line of kings came to an end in the mid-4th century. Additionally, archaeological data from the time indicate a period with a growing economy rather than societal collapse. Because of evidence of their increasing prominence in

6048-426: The family name, more recent historians have posited he was likely of Greco-Scythian descent, as was typical of the region. Spartocus founded a dynasty which seems to have endured until c. 110 BC, known as the Spartocids . The Spartocids left many inscriptions, indicating that the earliest members of the house ruled under the titles of archons of the Greek cities and kings of various minor native tribes, notably

6156-596: The first of his family to do so. Vespasian's renown came from his military success; he was legate of Legio II Augusta during the Roman invasion of Britain in 43 and subjugated Judaea during the Jewish rebellion of 66. While Vespasian was fighting against a Jewish rebellion , emperor Nero committed suicide and plunged Rome into a year of civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors. After Galba and Otho perished in quick succession, Vitellius became emperor in April 69. The Roman legions of Roman Egypt and Judaea reacted by declaring Vespasian, their commander,

6264-410: The grain supply') to Rome helped Vespasian assert control over the whole empire. Vespasian was the first emperor (and pharaoh ) since Augustus to appear in Egypt. At the hippodrome of Alexandria he was hailed as pharaoh ; recalling the welcome of Alexander the Great at the Oracle of Zeus-Ammon of the Siwa Oasis , Vespasian was proclaimed the son of the creator-deity Amun (Zeus-Ammon), in

6372-515: The hostile Durotriges and Dumnonii tribes, and captured twenty oppida (towns, or more probably hill forts , including Hod Hill and Maiden Castle in Dorset ). He also invaded Vectis (now the Isle of Wight ), finally setting up a fortress and legionary headquarters at Isca Dumnoniorum ( Exeter ). During this time he injured himself and had not fully recovered until he went to Egypt. These successes earned him triumphal regalia ( ornamenta triumphalia ) on his return to Rome. His success as

6480-457: The increased amount of propaganda that appeared during Vespasian's reign. A component of the propaganda was the theology of victory , which legitimized the right to rule through successful conquest. This revolved around Vespasian's victory in Judea. Stories of a supernatural emperor who was destined to rule circulated in the empire. Nearly one-third of all coins minted in Rome under Vespasian celebrated military victory or peace. The word vindex

6588-416: The late 7th century. In the mid-8th century, the Khazars put down the rebellious Crimean Goths and their city, Doros (modern Mangup), was occupied. A Khazar tudun (ruler) was resident at Chersonesos already in 690, despite the fact that this town was nominally subject to the Byzantine Empire . The Byzantine emperors controlled the southern shores of the Crimea peninsula (the theme of Cherson ) until

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6696-447: The leadership of Marcus Antonius Primus . They defeated Vitellius' army (which had awaited him in Mevania ) at Bedriacum (or Betriacum), sacked Cremona and advanced on Rome. Vitellius hastily arranged a peace with Antonius, but the Emperor's Praetorian Guard forced him to retain his seat. After furious fighting, Antonius' army entered Rome. In the resulting confusion, the Capitol was destroyed by fire and Vespasian's brother Sabinus

6804-426: The legate of a legion earned him a consulship in 51, after which he retired from public life, having incurred the enmity of Claudius ' wife, Agrippina , who was the most powerful and influential figure in her husband's reign. He came out of retirement in 63 when he was sent as governor to Africa Province . According to Tacitus (ii.97), his rule was "infamous and odious" but according to Suetonius ( Vesp. 4), he

6912-419: The local material culture from the third to sixth centuries is distinguished both by its great complexity and by syncretism , intertwining both ancient and new barbarian elements. Through some means, the Goths appear to have left or been driven away, leading to the resumption of local self-rule in the late 5th century under rulers such as Douptounos, who re-oriented the kingdom towards the Byzantine Empire as

7020-420: The longest surviving Roman client kingdom . The 1st and 2nd centuries AD saw a period of a new golden age of the Bosporan state. It was briefly incorporated as part of the Roman province of Moesia Inferior from AD 63 to 68 under Emperor Nero , before being restored as a Roman client kingdom. At the end of the 2nd century AD, King Sauromates II inflicted a critical defeat on the Scythians and included all

7128-447: The mixing of local Scythian and Greeks at all levels of society, particularly in the nobility. In an internal conflict between Satyrus II and his brother Eumelus , the royal Bosporan army was said to contain no more than two thousand Greeks, and an equal number of Thracians fighting as mercenaries. The vast majority of the army was Scythian, with ten thousand cavalry and more than twenty thousand infantry reported. Eumelus, allied with

7236-582: The most powerful Roman military commanders from Illyricum to Britannia by virtue of his service to the famous Neronian general Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo . In May 69, Mucianus formally implored Vespasian to challenge Vitellius. His appeal was followed by Vespasian's official proclamation as Emperor in early July. Under instructions from the prefect Tiberius Alexander, the legions at Alexandria took an oath of loyalty to Vespasian on 1 July. They were swiftly followed by Vespasian's Judaean legions on 3 July and thereafter by Mucianus' Syrian legions on 15 July. Vitellius ,

7344-409: The northern shores of the Black Sea from the Caucasus to what is now Romania-Moldova-Ukraine, but his death stopped the project. For this reason, he probably put Taurica under direct Roman rule and created the Charax castrum. He extended the Roman province of Lower Moesia to Tyras , Olbia and Taurica (the peninsula of Crimea). Taurica enjoyed a relative golden period under Roman leadership during

7452-412: The occupant of the throne, had the veteran legions of Gaul and the Rhineland . But the feeling in Vespasian's favour quickly gathered strength, and the armies of Moesia , Pannonia , and Illyricum soon declared for him, and made him the de facto master of half of the Roman world. While Vespasian himself was in Egypt securing its grain supply , his troops entered Italy from the northeast under

7560-503: The overall command of Aulus Plautius . After participating in crucial early battles on the rivers Medway and Thames , he was sent to reduce the south west, penetrating through the modern counties of Hampshire , Wiltshire , Dorset , Somerset , Devon and Cornwall with the probable objectives of securing the south coast ports and harbours along with the tin mines of Cornwall and the silver and lead mines of Somerset. Vespasian marched from Noviomagus Reginorum ( Chichester ) to subdue

7668-517: The passage of the Lex de imperio Vespasiani ; the Egyptians had declared him emperor in the summer. In the short-term, administration of the empire was given to Mucianus , who was aided by Vespasian's son, Domitian . Mucianus started off Vespasian's rule with tax reform that was to restore the empire's finances. After Vespasian arrived in Rome in mid-70, Mucianus continued to press Vespasian to collect as many taxes as possible. Vespasian and Mucianus renewed old taxes and instituted new ones, increased

7776-436: The patronage of the first two Roman Emperors , Augustus and Tiberius . All of the following kings adopted these two Roman names followed by a third name, mostly of Pontic , Thracian or Sarmatian origin. Bosporan kings struck coinage throughout the kingdom period, which included gold staters bearing portraits of the respective Roman Emperors . In 67, Emperor Nero prepared a military expedition to conquer for Rome all

7884-496: The patronage of the first two Roman Emperors , Augustus and Tiberius . All of the following kings adopted these two Roman names followed by a third name, of Thracian (Kotys, Rhescuporis or Rhoemetalces) or local origin (such as Sauromates, Eupator, Ininthimeus, Pharsanzes, Synges, Terianes, Theothorses or Rhadamsades). The Roman client kings of the dynasty had descended from King Mithridates VI of Pontus and his first wife, his sister Laodice , through Aspurgus. The kings adopted

7992-601: The period such as Tacitus , Suetonius and Josephus speak suspiciously well of Vespasian while condemning the emperors who came before him. Tacitus admits that his status was elevated by Vespasian, Josephus identifies Vespasian as a patron and saviour. Meanwhile, Pliny the Elder dedicated his Natural Histories to Vespasian's son, Titus. Those who spoke against Vespasian were punished. A number of Stoic philosophers were accused of corrupting students with inappropriate teachings and were expelled from Rome. Helvidius Priscus ,

8100-421: The posts in charge of street cleaning. His early performance was so unsuccessful that Emperor Caligula reportedly stuffed handfuls of muck down his toga to correct the uncleaned Roman streets, formally his responsibility. During the period of the ascendancy of Sejanus , there is no record of Vespasian engaging in any significant political activity. After completion of a term in the vigintivirate, Vespasian

8208-466: The present-day Strait of Kerch . It was the first truly 'Hellenistic' state, in the sense that a mixed population adopted the Greek language and civilization, under aristocratic consolidated leadership. Under the Spartocid dynasty , the aristocracy of the kingdom adopted a double nature of presenting themselves as archons to Greek subjects and as kings to barbarians, which some historians consider unique in ancient history. The Bosporan Kingdom became

8316-400: The prophecy as denoting the government of Vespasian. Tacitus agreed that the prophecy discussed Vespasian (as well as Titus), but that "the common people, with the usual blindness of ambition, had interpreted these mighty destinies of themselves, and could not be brought even by disasters to believe the truth." After the death of Nero in 68, Rome saw a succession of short-lived emperors and

8424-465: The region to establish independent kingdoms from those of the successor states.   According to Greek historian Diodorus Siculus (xii. 31) the region was governed between 480 and 438 BC by a line of kings called the Archaeanactidae , probably a ruling family, usurped by a tyrant called Spartocus (438–431 BC). While Spartocus was traditionally considered to be a Thracian due to

8532-403: The region, and Jewish communities developed in some of the cities of the region (especially Tanais ). The Jewish or Thracian influence on the region may have inspired the foundation of a cult to the "Most High God", a distinct regional cult which emerged in the 1st century AD, which professed monotheism without being distinctively Jewish or Christian. The balance of power among the local tribes

8640-443: The region, it had a port which was free of ice throughout the year, allowing it to trade grain with the rest of the Greek world, even in winter. Satyrus' son Leucon (387–347 BC) eventually took the city. He was succeeded jointly by his two sons, Spartocus II, and Paerisades; Spartocus died in 342 BC, allowing Paerisades to reign alone until 310 BC. After Paerisades' death, a war of succession between his sons Satyrus and Eumelus

8748-459: The status of Roman Crimea changed. Taurica became the Province of Chersonesos , which also included Bosporos and the southern coast of Crimea. This enlargement of Byzantine Taurica resulted in the elevation of the ranks of its governors. In the second half of the 6th century, the military and civil authorities in the region were entrusted to the military deputy, " doux Chersonos ". Furthermore,

8856-581: The style of the ancient pharaohs, and an incarnation of Serapis in the manner of the Ptolemies. As Pharaonic precedent demanded, Vespasian demonstrated his divine election by the traditional methods of spitting on and trampling a blind and crippled man, miraculously healing him, according to Egyptian religious elites. Vespasian was declared emperor by the Senate while he was in Egypt on 21 December 69 through

8964-649: The territories of the Crimean Peninsula in the structure of his state. The prosperity of the Bosporan Kingdom was based on the export of wheat, fish and slaves . As a result, the Kingdom became the economic center of the Black Sea and is often dubbed the ancient Jewel of the Black Sea. The profit of the trade supported a class whose conspicuous wealth is still visible from newly discovered archaeological finds, excavated, often illegally, from numerous burial barrows known as kurgans . The once-thriving cities of

9072-550: The treasury. Vespasian's policy was not well received by his son. Writing about Vespasian in their history books, Dio Cassius and Suetonius mentioned "When [Vespasian's] son Titus blamed him for even laying a tax upon urine, he applied to his nose a piece of the money he received in the first instalment, and asked him if it stunk. And he replying no, 'And yet,' said he, 'it is derived from urine". Since then, this phrase "Money does not stink" has been used to whitewash dubious or illegal origin of money . In early 70 Vespasian

9180-452: The tribute of the provinces, and kept a watchful eye upon the treasury officials. The Latin proverb Pecunia non olet ("Money does not stink") may have been created when he had introduced a urine tax on public toilets. Before Vespasian, this tax was imposed by Emperor Nero under the name of vectigal urinae in the 1st century AD. However, the tax was removed after a while; it was re-enacted by Vespasian around AD 70 in order to fill

9288-530: The uprising in Egypt, unrest and civil war continued in the rest of the empire in 70. Judea had been rebelling since 66 . Vespasian's son, Titus , finally subdued the rebellion with the capture of Jerusalem and destruction of the Jewish Temple in 70. According to Eusebius , Vespasian then ordered all descendants of the royal line of David to be hunted down, causing the Jews to be persecuted from province to province. Several modern historians have suggested that Vespasian, already having been told by Josephus that he

9396-413: The west, Panticapaeum ( Kerch )—the most significant city in the region, Nymphaeum and Myrmekion ; on the east Phanagoria (the second city of the region), Kepoi , Hermonassa , Portus Sindicus and Gorgippia. These Greek colonies were originally settled by Milesians in the 7th and 6th centuries BC. Phanagoria (c. 540 BC) was a colony of Teos , and the foundation of Nymphaeum may have had

9504-591: The year of civil war, and Bolanus was a mild governor. Agricola reimposed discipline on the legion and helped to consolidate Roman rule. In 71, Bolanus was replaced by a more aggressive governor, Quintus Petillius Cerialis , and Agricola was able to display his talents as a commander in campaigns against the Brigantes in northern England. In his ninth consulship Vespasian had a slight illness in Campania and, returning at once to Rome, he left for Aquae Cutiliae and

9612-540: The years to come. During his time in North Africa, he found himself in financial difficulties and was forced to mortgage his estates to his brother. To revive his fortunes he turned to the mule trade and gained the nickname mulio (muleteer). Returning from Africa, Vespasian toured Greece in Nero 's retinue, but lost Imperial favor after paying insufficient attention (some sources suggest he fell asleep) during one of

9720-623: Was Roman emperor from 69 to 79. The last emperor to reign in the Year of the Four Emperors , he founded the Flavian dynasty , which ruled the Empire for 27 years. His fiscal reforms and consolidation of the empire brought political stability and a vast building program. Vespasian was the first emperor from an equestrian family who rose only later in his lifetime into the senatorial rank as

9828-587: Was "upright and, highly honourable". On one occasion, Suetonius writes, Vespasian was pelted with turnips . Vespasian used his time in North Africa wisely. Usually, governorships were seen by ex-consuls as opportunities to extort huge amounts of money to regain the wealth they had spent on their previous political campaigns. Corruption was so rife that it was almost expected that a governor would come back from these appointments with his pockets full. However, Vespasian used his time in North Africa making friends instead of money, something that would be far more valuable in

9936-545: Was Chersonesos. In 114 BC the Bosporus kingdom accepted the overlordship of Mithridates VI Eupator , king of Pontus, as a protection from tribes of Scythians . For nearly five centuries after the defeat of Mithridates by the Roman Pompey , Crimea was under the suzerainty of Rome. The main Roman settlement was Charax , a castrum probably built around 60–65, and the main naval Roman base was in Chersonesos. When

10044-611: Was declared emperor by the Senate. Little information survives about the government during Vespasian's ten-year rule. He reformed the financial system of the Roman Empire after the campaign against Judaea ended successfully, and initiated several ambitious construction projects, including the building of the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known today as the Roman Colosseum . Through his general Agricola , Vespasian increased imperial expansion in Britain. Vespasian

10152-509: Was defeated by Caesar at Zela and was later killed by his former governor and son-in-law Asander . Before the death of Pharnaces II, Asander had married Pharnaces II's daughter Dynamis . Asander and Dynamis were the ruling monarchs until Caesar commanded a paternal uncle of Dynamis, Mithridates II to declare war on the Bosporan Kingdom and claimed the kingship for himself. Asander and Dynamis were defeated by Caesar's ally and went into political exile. However, after Caesar's death in 44 BC,

10260-469: Was educated in the countryside, in Cosa , near what is today Ansedonia , Italy , under the guidance of his paternal grandmother, so much so that even when he became emperor, he often returned to the places of his childhood, having left the former villa exactly as it had been. Early in his life he was somewhat overshadowed by his older brother, Titus Flavius Sabinus , who had entered public life and pursued

10368-614: Was entitled to stand for election as quaestor ; a senatorial office. But his lack of political or family influence meant that Vespasian served as quaestor in one of the provincial posts in Crete , rather than as assistant to important men in Rome. Next he needed to gain a praetorship, carrying the Imperium , but non- patricians and the less well-connected had to serve in at least one intermediary post as an aedile or tribune . Vespasian failed at his first attempt to gain an aedileship but

10476-475: Was especially generous to men of letters and rhetors , several of whom he pensioned with salaries of as much as 1,000 gold pieces a year. Quintilian is said to have been the first public teacher who enjoyed this imperial favor. Pliny the Elder 's work, the Natural History , was written during Vespasian's reign, and dedicated to Vespasian's son Titus. Vespasian distrusted philosophers in general. It

10584-583: Was fought. Satyrus defeated his younger brother Eumelus at the Battle of the River Thatis in 310 BC but was then killed in battle, giving Eumelus the throne. Eumelus' successor was Spartocus III (303–283 BC) and after him Paerisades II. Succeeding princes repeated the family names, so it is impossible to assign them a definite order. The last of them, however, Paerisades V, unable to make headway against increasingly violent attacks from nomadic tribes in

10692-507: Was killed by a mob. At Alexandria , on receiving the tidings of his rival's defeat and death, the new emperor at once forwarded supplies of urgently-needed grain to Rome, along with an edict assuring he would reverse the laws of Nero, especially those relating to treason . While in Egypt, he visited the Temple of Serapis where he reportedly experienced a vision . Later, he was confronted by two labourers, who were convinced that he possessed

10800-627: Was prophesied to become emperor whilst in Judaea, was probably reacting to other widely known Messianic prophecies circulating at the time, to suppress any rival claimants arising from that dynasty. Titus attended the consecration of a new Apis bull at Memphis in 70, and Vespasian's reign saw imperial patronage given to Egyptian temples: at the Dakhla Oasis in the Western Desert as well as Esna , Kom Ombo , Medinet Habu , Silsila in

10908-419: Was removed from coins so as not to remind the public of rebellious Vindex . Construction projects bore inscriptions praising Vespasian and condemning previous emperors. A temple of peace was constructed in the forum as well. Vespasian approved histories written under his reign, ensuring biases against him were removed. Vespasian also gave financial rewards to writers. The ancient historians who lived through

11016-422: Was severely disturbed by westward migration in the 3rd–4th centuries. In the 250s AD, the Goths and Borani were able to seize Bosporan shipping and even raid the shores of Anatolia . There are no known coins from the Bosporan Kingdom after the last ones minted by Rhescuporis VI in 341, which makes constructing a chronology very difficult. Though the kingdom is traditionally believed to have been destroyed at

11124-418: Was still criticizing him, he sent the exiled philosopher the message: "You are doing everything to force me to kill you, but I do not slay a barking dog." According to Suetonius, Vespasian "bore the frank language of his friends, the quips of pleaders, and the impudence of the philosophers with the greatest patience". He was also noted for his benefactions to the people. Much money was spent on public works and

11232-667: Was still in Egypt, the source of Rome's grain supply, and had not yet left for Rome. According to Tacitus , his trip was delayed due to bad weather. Modern historians theorize that Vespasian had been and was continuing to consolidate support from the Egyptians before departing. Stories of a divine Vespasian healing people circulated in Egypt. During this period, protests erupted in Alexandria over his new tax policies and grain shipments were held up. Vespasian eventually restored order and grain shipments to Rome resumed. In addition to

11340-580: Was struggling to get on his feet, he died in the arms of those who tried to help him, on the ninth day before the Kalends of July [June 23], at the age of sixty-nine years, seven months and seven days. He died on June 23, 79 AD, and was succeeded by his sons Titus and then Domitian . Vespasian was known for his wit and his amiable manner alongside his commanding personality and military prowess. He could be liberal to impoverished Senators and equestrians and to cities and towns desolated by natural calamity. He

11448-436: Was successful in his second attempt, becoming an aedile in 38. Despite his lack of significant family connections or success in office, he achieved praetorship in either 39 or 40, at the youngest age permitted (30), during a period of political upheaval in the organisation of elections. His long-standing relationship with freed-woman Antonia Caenis , confidential secretary to Antonia Minor (the Emperor's grandmother) and part of

11556-430: Was suppressed by Vespasian's son-in-law, Quintus Petillius Cerialis , by the end of 70. In mid-70, Vespasian first went to Rome, dating his tribunician years from 1 July 69. Vespasian immediately embarked on a series of efforts to stay in power and prevent future revolts. He offered gifts to many in the military and much of the public. Soldiers loyal to Vitellius were dismissed or punished. Vespasian also restructured

11664-477: Was the talk of philosophers, who liked to glorify the Republic , that provoked Vespasian into reviving the obsolete penal laws against this profession as a precautionary measure. Only Helvidius Priscus was put to death after he repeatedly affronted the Emperor with studied insults which Vespasian initially tried to ignore. The philosopher Demetrius was banished to an island and when Vespasian heard that Demetrius

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