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108-452: The main body of the zemtsvo was the assembly to which members were elected. The assembly generally met once a year to address the docket. Assemblies could then appoint deputies to carry out orders and objectives in response to issues the zemstvo considered. Alexander II instituted these bodies in 1864. The original decree made 33 provincial zemstvos with administrative regions corresponding to existing governorships. Each provincial governorship

216-457: A social stratum in European societies before the term inteligencja was coined in 19th-century Poland, to identify the intellectual people whose professions placed them outside the traditional workplaces and labours of the town-and-country social classes (royalty, aristocracy, bourgeoisie) of a monarchy; thus the inteligencja are a social class native to the city. In their functions as

324-511: A status class of people characterised by intellect and Polish nationalism ; qualities of mind, character, and spirit that made them natural leaders of the modern Polish nation. That the intelligentsia were aware of their social status and of their duties to society: Educating the youth with the nationalist objective to restore the Republic of Poland; preserving the Polish language; and love of

432-806: A 2012 survey 62% of the population of Tula Oblast adheres to the Russian Orthodox Church , 2% are unaffiliated generic Christians , 1% are Muslims . In addition, 19% of the population declares to be "spiritual but not religious", 13% is atheist , and 3% follows other religions or did not give an answer to the question. Tula Oblast is part of the Central economic region . It is a prominent industrial center with metalworking , engineering , coalmining , and chemical industries. Major industrial cities include Novomoskovsk and Aleksin . Historical industries, such as firearm , samovar , and accordion manufacturing, still play an important role in

540-611: A dedicated order, almost a secular priesthood, devoted to the spreading of a specific attitude to life." The Idea of Progress , which originated in Western Europe during the Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century, became the principal concern of the intelligentsia by the mid-19th century; thus, progress social movements, such as the Narodniks , mostly consisted of intellectuals. The Russian philosopher Sergei Bulgakov said that

648-485: A enactment had taken effect. After 1890 with expanded oversight powers, the Ministry of Interior began to consistently obstruct the work of provincial zemstvos. The 10th objective, distribution of state funds assigned to zemstvos was one of the main objectives. About 20% of Russia's annual state revenue was assigned to the zemstvos in the early years. Zemstvos were able to draw taxes from a variety of other sources and for

756-601: A lack of authority and independence. In 1864, the first law on Zemstvos was enacted by the Emperor which outlined the powers of the zemstvos. These powers were administrative and focused on local issues which were mostly not addressed by existing institutions. In 1865, zemstvos were opened in nineteen provinces, and between 1866 and 1876 another sixteen were established, 35 zemstvos in total in European Russia and Bessarabia , with some exceptions: there were no zemstvos in

864-401: A large effect on schools because most zemstvos never ceded financial control over the schools to the school boards and many of the supposed inspections simply never occurred. Peasants mostly supported zemstvo schools over existing schools created by the crown or clergy. The number of Synod administrated schools fell from 24,000 in 1886 to 4,000 by 1880. The zemstvo school system was built from

972-413: A physician-patient ratio worse than 1 to 10,000. Practitioners suffered from a lack of trust on the zemstvos' part. Recommendations such as funding for hospital improvements would be weighed against ideas from the assembly. Practitioners made several attempts to form a national organization for the advancement of medicine, but this was delayed until 1885. One of the goals this national system would achieve

1080-400: A status class, the intellectuals realised the cultural development of cities, the dissemination of printed knowledge (literature, textbooks, newspapers), and the economic development of housing for rent (the tenement house ) for the teacher, the journalist, and the civil servant. In On Love of the fatherland (1844), the Polish philosopher Karol Libelt used the term inteligencja , which

1188-415: A variety of purposes. It is difficult to summarize what a typical zemstvo's taxation looks like. For example, land tax accounted for between 3 and 90 percent of a zemstvo's revenue depending on the zemstvo and year. In many districts, police were supposed to collect harvest taxes on behalf of the zemstvo. However, there was significant difficultly in actually collecting because the zemstvo had no control over

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1296-457: A weekly study of six hours in the Word of God, three hours of Slavonic Church, eight hours of Russian Language, two hours of writing, and five hours of arithmetic. From 1902-1905, there were widespread reports of a total loss of independence of the peasant members of the zemstvos. Authority was ceded to the land captains . During this time, period sections of the government more closely connected to

1404-437: A zemstvo even though nobles were a tiny minority of the population. District zemstvos were required to have 40% of their assembly elected by the peasants, but provincial assemblies were elected from the district without such a quota. This resulted in much lower peasant representation at the provincial level. Persons under 25 years of age, under criminal investigation, convicted criminals, and foreigners were not permitted to be in

1512-653: A zemstvo required permission from the Minister of the Interior and could only consider the specific issues on which the Minister permitted them. Provincial meetings were opened and closed by the local governor while the district meetings were opened and closed by the Marshal of the Nobility . These zemstvos typically created a small number of delegations for handling decisions the assembly came to. One such typical delegation

1620-588: Is 5 years, with some exceptions when the term is 3 years. Local government bodies in the Tula Oblast are headed by 103 heads of municipalities and 84 heads of municipal administrations. In accordance with the regional law of 2017, village elders carry out activities to organize interaction between local government bodies and residents of rural settlements when resolving issues of local importance. As of 1 November 2022, 1,071 village elders operate in 23 municipal districts and urban districts. Their powers extend to

1728-413: Is a status class composed of the university-educated people of a society who engage in the complex mental labours by which they critique, shape, and lead in the politics, policies, and culture of their society; as such, the intelligentsia consists of scholars , academics , teachers, journalists, and literary writers. Conceptually, the intelligentsia status class arose in the late 18th century, during

1836-512: Is administratively part of the Central Federal District , covering an area of 25,700 square kilometers (9,900 sq mi). It has a population of 1,553,925 ( 2010 Census ) . Tula is the largest city and the administrative center of the oblast. Tula Oblast borders Moscow Oblast in the north, Ryazan Oblast in the east, Lipetsk Oblast in the southeast, Oryol Oblast in the southwest, and Kaluga Oblast in

1944-538: Is not brain, but dung". (На деле это не мозг, а говно) The Russian Revolution of 1917 divided the intelligentsia and the social classes of Tsarist Russia. Some Russians emigrated, the political reactionaries joined the right-wing White movement for counter-revolution, some became Bolsheviks, and some remained in Russia and participated in the political system of the Soviet Union . In reorganizing Russian society,

2052-482: Is part of the Moscow coal basin . Tula Oblast has a moderate continental climate , with warm summers and cold winters. Average January temperature is −10 °C (14 °F) in the north and −9 °C (16 °F) in the south. Average July temperature is about +19 °C (66 °F) to +20 °C (68 °F). Annual precipitation is 470 millimetres (19 in) in the southeast and 575 millimetres (22.6 in) in

2160-750: Is the Oblast Government, which includes territorial executive bodies such as district administrations, committees, and commissions that facilitate development and run the day to day matters of the province. The Oblast administration supports the activities of the Governor who is the highest official and acts as guarantor of the observance of the oblast Charter in accordance with the Constitution of Russia . Representative bodies of urban and rural settlements and urban districts consist of deputies elected in municipal elections. The representative body of

2268-427: Is uniform medical records to support analyzing cases from other provinces. Practitioners also demanded changing from the circuit system in which they spent most of the their time traveling to each remote village to see patients to a stationary system in which they held regular hours at a medical center. Zemstvos opposed the stationary system throughout the 1870s on the grounds that remote villagers which paid taxes towards

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2376-552: The Fatherland . Nonetheless, the writers Stanisław Brzozowski and Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński criticised Libelt's ideological and messianic representation of a Polish republic, because it originated from the social traditionalism and the reactionary conservatism that pervaded Polish culture and impeded socio-economic progress. Consequent to the Imperial Prussian, Austrian, Swedish and Russian Partitions of Poland ,

2484-624: The Intelligenzaktion Pommern . In eastern Poland, the Soviet Union proceeded with the extermination of the Polish intelligentsia with operations such as the Katyn massacre (April–May 1940), during which university professors, physicians, lawyers, engineers, teachers, military, policeman, writers and journalists were murdered. The Russian intelligentsiya also was a mixture of messianism and intellectual élitism, which

2592-479: The Partitions of Poland (1772–1795). Etymologically, the 19th-century Polish intellectual Bronisław Trentowski coined the term inteligencja (intellectuals) to identify and describe the university-educated and professionally active social stratum of the patriotic bourgeoisie ; men and women whose intellectualism would provide moral and political leadership to Poland in opposing the cultural hegemony of

2700-458: The Party of Pensioners of Russia . Since 2011, the "People's Budget" project has been implemented in the Tula Oblast, aimed at identifying and solving socially significant problems in the territories of the region’s municipalities. Project activities are financed from the budget of the Tula Oblast, the budgets of municipalities, and personal funds of residents and sponsors. The target orientation of

2808-605: The Russian Empire . Before the Russian Revolution , the term intelligentsiya ( Russian : интеллигенция ) identified and described the status class of university-educated people whose cultural capital (schooling, education, and intellectual enlightenment ) allowed them to assume the moral initiative and the practical leadership required in Russian national, regional, and local politics. In practice,

2916-651: The Socialist Revolutionary Party and the nihilists , met them with hostility, believing that the reforms were too minor. Still, in his 1901 article " What is to be done ", Lenin advocated for a short-term alliance with the zemstvos against Tsarist oppression. In 1906, each zemstvo was able to elect one deputy to represent them in the State Council . Absenteeism increased dramatically during this period and many zemstvos were considered to be in good attendance if half their members showed up to

3024-603: The Tula State Arms Museum , the Tula Kremlin , and the Tula Samovar Museum . Another important cultural tourist attractions is the home and country estate of Leo Tolstoy , Yasnaya Polyana , located 12 kilometres (7.5 miles) outside of the city of Tula. The oblast also has four professional theaters, a philharmonic orchestra, and a circus . Intelligentsia The intelligentsia

3132-578: The Vyatichi , an East Slavic tribe who cultivated the land, traded, and worked at crafts, confirmed by records in property registers which mention an "ancient settlement" located at the confluence of the Upa River and Tulitsa River. The first mention of the city of Tula in 1146 is found in the Nikon Chronicle , in reference to the campaign of Prince Svyatoslav Olgovich of Chernigov . At

3240-510: The power of government office, such as the Bildungsbürgertum , the cultured bourgeoisie of Germany, as well as the professionals of Great Britain. In a society, the intelligentsia is a status class of intellectuals whose social functions, politics, and national interests are (ostensibly) distinct from the functions of government, commerce, and the military. In Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology (1921),

3348-484: The "People's Budget" project is to enhance the participation of residents of the Tula Oblast in solving local problems, creating comfortable living conditions, and supporting the initiatives of residents. In 2022, an annual survey of the population was conducted in the Tula Oblast on the effectiveness of the activities of heads of local government bodies and enterprises operating at the regional and municipal levels, in which 20,141 people participated. Efficiency assessment

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3456-430: The 1905-6 year 66 districts boycotted taxes in protest of the taxes being too high. Discontent was most severe where the zemstvo's tax on land allotted to the peasants was taxed much higher than privately owned land. Notable participants in the 1905 revolution affiliated with the zemstvos include Dmitry Shipov , Dmitry Shakhovskoy , Georgy Lvov , Pavel Dolgorukov , and Fedor Redichev . Several of these men overlap with

3564-409: The 20th century, from the status class term Intelligentsia , sociologists derived the term mass intelligentsia to describe the populations of educated adults, with discretionary income, who pursue intellectual interests by way of book clubs and cultural associations, etc. That sociological term was made popular usage by the writer Melvyn Bragg , who said that mass intelligentsia conceptually explains

3672-664: The Bolsheviks deemed non-Bolshevik intelligentsia class enemies and expelled them from society, by way of deportation on Philosophers' ships , forced labor in the gulag , and summary execution . The members of the Tsarist-era intelligentsia who remained in Bolshevik Russia (the USSR) were proletarianized. Although the Bolsheviks recognized the managerial importance of the intelligentsia to the future of Soviet Russia,

3780-423: The Ministry of Education created a national pension fund which all teachers could participate in. Additional administrative action in 1913 caused the existing zemstvo schools to become more under the influence of the Ministry of Education than the zemstvos themselves. In 1914, zemstvos lost the power to direct school teachers and the ministry gained the power to fire any school teachers they deemed as unfit. Prior to

3888-486: The Polish intelligentsia were the think tank of the State, intellectual servants whose progressive social and economic policies decreased the social backwardness (illiteracy) of the Polish people, and also decreased Russian political repression in partitioned Poland . In 1844 Poland, the term inteligencja , identifying the intellectuals of a society, first was used by the philosopher Karol Libelt , which he described as

3996-495: The Russian intelligentsia was the creation of Peter , that they were the "window to Europe through which the Western air comes to us, vivifying and toxic at the same time." Moreover, Bulgakov also said that the literary critic of Westernization , Vissarion Belinsky was the spiritual father of the Russian intelligentsia. In 1860, there were 20,000 professionals in Russia and 85,000 by 1900. Originally composed of educated nobles,

4104-487: The Russian social stratum of people educated at university who engage in the intellectual occupations (law, medicine, engineering, the arts) who produce the culture and the dominant ideology by which society functions. According to the theory of Dr. Vitaly Tepikin, the sociological traits usual to the intelligentsia of a society are: In The Rise of the Intelligentsia, 1750–1831 (2008) Maciej Janowski said that

4212-611: The Tsars did not recognize "progress" as a legitimate aim of the state, to the degree that Nicholas II said "How repulsive I find that word" and wished it removed from the Russian language. In Russia, the Bolsheviks did not consider the status class of the intelligentsiya to be a true social class , as defined in Marxist philosophy. In that time, the Bolsheviks used the Russian word prosloyka (stratum) to identify and define

4320-451: The bourgeois origin of this stratum gave reason for distrust of their ideological commitment to Marxist philosophy and Bolshevik societal control. In the late Soviet Union the term "intelligentsia" acquired a formal definition of mental and cultural workers. There were subcategories of "scientific-technical intelligentsia" (научно-техническая интеллигенция) and "creative intelligentsia" (творческая интеллигенция). Between 1917 and 1941, there

4428-459: The case that enactments were not approved, governors were expected to notify the assembly and deliberate on adjustments to the enactment that would allow it to pass. If compromise could not be found, the Senate would hear the case. The governor was expected to act as a plaintiff and prove that the zemstvo's enactment was unjust. The governor could also revoke their approval and begin this process after

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4536-407: The central bureaucracy and the zemstvos was recognized by Tsar Nicholas II in his 1903 manifesto on provincial administration. This manifesto served as public support for the reforms led by Minister of Interior Vyacheslav von Plehve . The goal of Plehve's reforms was to bring tighter control of the zemstvos through gubernatorial oversight. These reforms faced significant opposition from the zemstvos,

4644-521: The central bureaucracy such as the governors' offices, the ministers of finance, the ministers of interior, and special police investigations became more and more involved in zemstvo affairs. This was unpopular with zemstvo officials many of which were contributing to a liberal constitutionalist political movement. Financial and practical burdens from the Russo-Japanese War contributed to increased tensions on all sides. Rising distrust between

4752-457: The clergy, Jews, and non-landowning peasants were deprived of the right to vote in zemstvo elections. Part of the motivation for the election reform was a decline in land ownership of the nobles which resulted in too few nobles to fill the deputy and assembly roles. These election reforms decreased the size of assemblies and number of deputies 20-30%. Zemstvo assemblies met at least once a year for not more than twenty days. Extraordinary meetings of

4860-563: The conduct of all citizens outside of townships in a wide variety of issues. In return, citizens gained the right to appeal the zemstvo's enactments to the Senate. In the 15 years that followed, the Senate heard 226 of these appeals, which primarily involved tax disputes. The reforms changed the legal status of men serving on the zemstvo from private citizen to government official. Zemstvo officials could enforce these regulation by bringing violators before criminal courts. Prior to 1890, zemstvo sessions were often cut short due to assemblies not meeting

4968-474: The current zemstvo employees had never been submitted to the governor for approval as required by law. Literacy rose from 10% to 68% during the existence of the zemstvo system. The zemstvo education system was built on top of the existing peasant and clerical education systems. From 1907 to 1917, the Ministry of Education developed control over the education system. Beginning in 1886 and continuing throughout

5076-451: The direct costs of medical care and aimed to compensate providers through tax funds. The medical experts supported by the zemstvos put significant focus on hygiene education and preventative medicine. The zemstvo officials and practitioners appreciated the difficulty of not only making illiterate, god fearing peasants trust a largely secular medical system based on rational analysis, but making them understand this distinction at all. Growth of

5184-403: The employment, but they also donated their time as civic service. The third element was a source of significant distrust of the zemstvos by the central government. Unlike the zemstvo administrators (first element) and deputies (second element), the third element often came from the peasant class. For this, they were suspected of being liberal radicals (and some were) which resulted in persecution of

5292-445: The existence of zemstvos, the central bureaucracy sought and found additional control over primary education. This started with special school inspections which could result in the closing of unsatisfactory schools. The Marshall of Nobility was given special privileges such as school inspections, sole authority to open new schools, and chair positions on school boards in the 1874 primary school legislation, but these privileges did not have

5400-432: The existing peasant education system. Prior to 1870, peasant communities were required to provide the facilities, and the zemstvos did not reliably pay teachers. In the 1870s, zemstvos shifted to reliable salaries and began providing additional materials such as blackboards. The shift from these schools being funded by peasant communities to zemstvo budgets took several decades. The zemstvo did not even reach budget parity with

5508-524: The first representatives of what has become, in our time, a mass intelligentsia, a group possessing many of the cultural and political characteristics of a [social] class in Marx's sense. By intelligentsia I mean those [people] engaged vocationally in the production, distribution, interpretation, criticism, and inculcation of cultural values. The concept of free-floating intelligentsia , coined by Alfred Weber and elaborated by Karl Mannheim , closely relates to

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5616-443: The governor was appointed/elected alongside elected regional parliament . The Charter of Tula Oblast is the fundamental law of the region. The Tula Oblast Duma is the province's standing legislative (representative) body. The Oblast Duma exercises its authority by passing laws, resolutions, and other legal acts and by supervising the implementation and observance of the laws and other legal acts passed by it. The highest executive body

5724-456: The greater benefit of society. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the Polish word and the sociologic concept of the inteligencja became a European usage to describe the social class of men and women who are the intellectuals of the countries of central and of eastern Europe; in Poland, the critical thinkers educated at university, in Russia, the nihilists who opposed traditional values in

5832-744: The imposition of Tsarist cultural hegemony caused many of the political and cultural élites to participate in the Great Emigration (1831–70). After the invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939, the Nazis launched the extermination of the Polish intelligentsia, by way of the military operations of the Special Prosecution Book-Poland , the German AB-Aktion in Poland , the Intelligenzaktion , and

5940-417: The intelligentsia as a separating layer without an inherent class character. In the creation of post-monarchic Russia, Lenin was firmly critical of the class character of the intelligentsia, commending the growth of "the intellectual forces of the workers and the peasants" will depose the "bourgeoisie and their accomplices, intelligents, lackeys of capital who think that they are brain of the nation. In fact it

6048-415: The intelligentsia became dominated by raznochintsy (classless people) after 1861. In 1833, 78.9 per cent of secondary-school students were children of nobles and bureaucrats, by 1885 they were 49.1 per cent of such students. The proportion of commoners increased from 19.0 to 43.8 per cent, and the remaining percentage were the children of priests. In fear of an educated proletariat, Tsar Nicholas I limited

6156-424: The issue of eliminating the district zemstvos and centralizing all functionality within the provincial zemstvo was seriously debated. This debate was especially significant in Moscow where Dmitry Shipov , chairman of the provincial zemstvo, resigned in protest to bring attention to the debate. The first formal curriculum for zemstvo schooling was created by the Ministry of Education in 1897. This program prescribed

6264-557: The land a noble member represented. By 1905, each peasant assembly member represented 6.47 times the land a noble member represented. Zemstvo expenditure grew from 89.1 million rubles in 1900 to 290.5 million rubles in 1913. Of the latter sum, 90.1 million rubles were spent on education, 71.4 million on medical assistance, 22.2 million on improvements in agriculture, and 8 million on veterinary measures. The chief sources of zemstvo revenue were rates on lands, forests, country dwellings, factories, mines and other real estate. From 1897 to 1899,

6372-433: The larger Great Reforms with the specific goal of creating the organs of local, self-government on an elected basis. The existing system of elected bodies of local self-government in the Russian Empire was represented at the lowest level by the mir and at the regional level by the volost . These institutions continued during the zemstvo period; however, they were seen as insufficient for addressing local politics due to

6480-536: The local peasant communities until 1889. Afterwards, zemstvos budgets rapidly expanded, and education became the largest share of the budget. In 1893 the total zemstvo expenditure on education was 9 million rubles, by 1913 it was nearly 90 million rubles. Students of zemstvo schools could be subjected to year-end examinations at the zemstvos discretion. Pass rates for these exams were used to evaluate teacher performance and male students that passed were required to do less military service. Zemstvo teachers mostly came from

6588-466: The lyrics and memorize the tones of church songs was encouraging to all. In 1907, the Duma created a fund to establish a school for every village in Russia. These funds were dispensed through the zemstvos to existing school or were given to school curators which often resulted in the construction of new schools. Herein arose a new class of "state schools" which were not affiliated with the zemstvos. In 1910,

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6696-520: The medical service would not receive equal access. In the 1880s the stationary system became more popular as the number of practitioners grew. As the circuit system faded away, the zemstvos engaged in heated debate over what to do with the feldshers . These positions represented the gap between the ideal medical care the zemstvo system sought and the practical limitations of what could be provided. Restrictions were placed on feldshers such that much of their day to day job became technically illegal, but there

6804-424: The medical system was slow and depended on growth of the third element. The first zemstvo bureaucracies for managing the various salaried positions connected with the zemstvo did not emerge until the 1870s. Growing numbers of salaried workers inevitably lead to growing budgets. At several points in the early zemstvo period budget concerned lead to push back and laying off practitioners. By 1910, nearly all districts had

6912-435: The meetings. As Prime Minister, Pyotr Stolypin gave zemstvos the budget and authority needed to carry out many of the projects in his agrarian reforms. His administration expanded the number of the zemstvos from 34 to 43. The new Duma electoral law resulted in 30% of the legislators of the third and fourth Duma coming from zemstvo backgrounds. In the period leading up the 1905 Revolution and throughout Stolypin's governance,

7020-550: The members of Beseda : a clandestine organization for liberals to discuss the issues of the zemstvo. In response to the Russian Peasants' uprising of 1905–1906 , the zemstvos turned sharply conservative. Georgy Lvov was voted off the zemstvo for being a 'dangerous liberal'. The zemstvo assemblies, still dominated by nobility, were frightened by the violence of 1905. Many members joined the United Nobility and

7128-427: The middle class. There was a mix of male and female teachers which leaned towards the females. Teachers were united by low pay, isolation in communities unfamiliar to them, and being unmarried. Only 17% of female teachers were married and 47% of male teachers were married in 1911. Choir was a popular way to boost scholastic engagement. Nearly every other form of education received criticism, but teaching students to read

7236-581: The ministers of finance, and several governors. In Saint Petersburg , Plehve was able to force the governor to resign over his opposition to the reforms. Plehve worked closely with the Police Department of Russia , which he formerly lead, to oust many zemstvo members. Several prominent zemstvo figures, including Shipov, were formally reprimanded by the Tsar. The participants of Russian Revolution of 1905 largely overlapped with zemstvo participants. In

7344-462: The municipal district consists of the heads of settlements that are part of the municipal district, and of deputies of the representative bodies of these settlements, elected by the representative bodies of the settlements from among their members in accordance with the same norm of representation, regardless of the population of the settlement. The term of office of representative bodies of cities, rural settlements, city districts, and municipal districts

7452-573: The municipalities of Kireyevsky District - 73.15%, Zaoksky District - 76.34%, Shchyokinsky District - 77.19%, Tula Urban Okrug - 77.29%, Aleksin city - 77.63%. Population : 1,501,214 ( 2021 Census ) ; 1,553,925 ( 2010 Census ) ; 1,675,758 ( 2002 Census ) ; 1,867,013 ( 1989 Soviet census ) . Vital statistics for 2022: Total fertility rate (2022): 1.15 children per woman Life expectancy (2021): Total — 68.97 years (male — 64.05, female — 73.85) Ethnic composition (2010): According to

7560-606: The name of reason and progress . In the late 20th century, the sociologist Pierre Bourdieu said that the intelligentsia has two types of workers: (i) intellectual workers who create knowledge (practical and theoretic) and (ii) intellectual workers who create cultural capital . Sociologically, the Polish inteligencja translates to the intellectuels in France and the Gebildete in Germany. The intelligentsia existed as

7668-654: The northwest. During the Soviet period, the high authority in the oblast was shared between three persons: The first secretary of the Tula CPSU Committee (who in reality had the biggest authority), the chairman of the oblast Soviet (legislative power), and the Chairman of the oblast Executive Committee (executive power). Since 1991, CPSU lost all the power, and the head of the Oblast administration, and eventually

7776-519: The number of university students to 3,000 per year, yet there were 25,000 students, by 1894. Similarly the number of periodicals increased from 15 in 1855 to 140 periodical publications in 1885. The "third element" were professionals hired by zemstva . By 1900, there were 47,000 of them, most were liberal radicals. Although Tsar Peter the Great introduced the Idea of Progress to Russia, by the 19th century,

7884-439: The philosopher Isaiah Berlin described as follows: "The phenomenon, itself, with its historical and literally revolutionary consequences, is, I suppose, the largest, single Russian contribution to social change in the world. The concept of intelligentsia must not be confused with the notion of intellectuals. Its members thought of themselves as united, by something more than mere interest in ideas; they conceived themselves as being

7992-424: The police, and the assemblies were forbidden from awarding police including even thanking them. In the beginning of the zemstvo system, natural obligations such as road work and like kind taxes such as wheat, were of greater concern to the peasants than monetary taxation. These taxes were unpopular and formed large part of the zemstvo's resources. Overtime, these were mostly converted into monetary taxes. This policy

8100-579: The police. The term 'third element' was coined by Vice Governor Vladimir Kondoidi in 1900, to refer to radical zemstvo employees in Samara . He charged that the third element had largely taken control of the actual operations of the zemstvo. The zemstvo board has no choice but to rely exclusively on the third element, since there is no participation in the assembly at all. In this regard, the upcoming session terrifies me. The governor of Samara subsequently lead an investigation which discovered that over half of

8208-473: The political economist Max Weber applied the term intelligentsia in chronological and geographical frames of reference, such as "this Christian preoccupation with the formulation of dogmas was, in Antiquity , particularly influenced by the distinctive character of ‘intelligentsia’, which was the product of Greek education", thus the intelligentsia originated as a social class of educated people created for

8316-412: The popularity of book clubs and literary festivals that otherwise would have been of limited intellectual interests to most people from the middle class and from the working class. In the book Campus Power Struggle (1970), the sociologist Richard Flacks addressed the concept of mass intelligentsia: What [Karl] Marx could not anticipate . . . was that the anti-bourgeois intellectuals of his day were

8424-414: The purpose of preventing fires. These powers were expanded in 1879 to allow regulation to prevent the spread of epidemics and zoological diseases. From 1864 to 1889, zemstvos elected the justices of the peace . Following this period the zemskii nachalnik position was created. The zemskii nachalnik was appointed by the local nobility but the zemstvo was required to pay his salary. This was unpopular with

8532-407: The quorum. This was in part because officials were not allowed to receive a salary or other compensation for their position. The 1890 reforms also expanded the nobility's representation in the zemstvos from 55% in 1886 to 72% by 1903. Some historians represent the equality in terms of the amount of land one member of the zemstvo represented. In 1877, each peasant assembly member represented 1.76 times

8640-408: The region. The oblast also has a developed agricultural sector, which ranks 33rd in Russia in agricultural production. The sector includes farming grain ( wheat and rye ), potatoes , sugar beets , and vegetable growing , livestock raising, and dairying . Tula Oblast has more than 100 museums. Several are located in the administrative center of the oblast, the city of Tula , notably

8748-418: The repressive experience in their self-narratives. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, the popularity and influence of the intelligentsia has significantly declined. Therefore, it is typical for the post-Soviet intelligentsia to feel nostalgic for the last years of the Soviet Union ( perestroika ), which they often regard as the golden age of the intelligentsia. Vladimir Putin has expressed his view on

8856-478: The social duty of intelligentsia in modern Russia. We should all be aware of the fact that when revolutionary—not evolutionary—changes come, things can get even worse. The intelligentsia should be aware of this. And it is the intelligentsia specifically that should keep this in mind and prevent society from radical steps and revolutions of all kinds. We've had enough of it. We've seen so many revolutions and wars. We need decades of calm and harmonious development. In

8964-483: The soviets instead. After the October Revolution, the uniform system of zemstvos broke apart. In some places such as Ukraine the institutions remained and took on more nationalist forms. Tula Oblast Tula Oblast ( Russian : Ту́льская о́бласть , romanized :  Tul'skaya oblast' ) is a federal subject (an oblast ) of Russia . It is geographically located in European Russia and

9072-436: The status and social function of the intelligentsia varied by society. In Eastern Europe , the intellectuals were at the periphery of their societies and thus were deprived of political influence and access to the effective levers of political power and of economic development. In Western Europe , the intellectuals were in the mainstream of their societies and thus exercised cultural and political influence that granted access to

9180-708: The style of debate among zemstvo gentry changed; what began as consensus building and doing favors for friends and family turned into partisan parliamentary politics more typical of 20th century governance. The All-Russian Zemstvo Union was set up in August 1914 to provide a common voice for all the zemstvos. It was a liberal organisation which after 1915 operated in conjunction with the Union of Cities . In 1917 rural societies in Stavropol refused to pay taxes and boycotted schools, medical centers, and all other services after

9288-486: The taxes and the sphere of activity of zemtsvo institutions which were only in their first year of existence, noticed the exceptional increase in local taxes. During the Russian Revolution , the zemstvos lost all authority and the only real authority remaining in Russia was the soviets . The zemstvo elections were boycotted because the people considered the soviets as the authority. Much of the third element stopped showing up to their zemstvo appointed positions and worked for

9396-629: The territory of more than 1,700 settlements, home to about 160,000 inhabitants. In the Tula Oblast, regional branches of dozens of political parties are registered, the largest in terms of membership being United Russia , the Communist Party of the Russian Federation (CPRF), the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (LDPR), Patriots of Russia , the Party of Growth , A Just Russia – For Truth , Yabloko , and

9504-671: The three Baltic governorates , the nine western governorates annexed from Poland by Catherine II , in most of Caucasus , and in Finland . Created in 1875 after much consultation with Cossack officials, the zemstvos of the Don Host Oblast collapsed and were abolished after six years of operation. By 1913 there were zemstvos in 43 governorates. Zemstvos were originally restricted from making binding rules on every citizen within their jurisdiction. In 1873, zemstvos were permitted to make binding regulation on every citizen strictly for

9612-566: The time the lands belonged to the Ryazan Principality , and Prince Sviatoslav passed through a number of settlements, including Tula, while heading for Ryazan . Tula Oblast is located in Russia's Central Federal District and borders Moscow , Ryazan , Lipetsk , Oryol , and Kaluga Oblasts . Tula Oblast contains more than 1,600 rivers and streams. Major rivers include: The oblast is rich in iron ore , clay , limestone , and deposits of lignite (coal). The lignite deposit

9720-404: The voice of the zemstvo to reach the throne. The Emperor considered this a senseless dream. The Minister of Interior expressly forbade zemstvo officials from Tver from contacting other provinces on any issue of national politics. In 1866, the Senate ruled that zemstvos were not allowed to tax industrial output. As time went on, additional gubernatorial oversight was placed on zemstvos. In 1867,

9828-559: The west. Tula Oblast is one of the most developed and urbanized territories in Russia, and the majority of the territory forms the Tula- Novomoskovsk Agglomeration, an urban area with a population of over 1 million. The Tula Oblast area has been inhabited since the Stone Age , as shown by the discoveries of burial mounds ( kurgans ) and old settlements. By the eighth century, these lands were occupied by

9936-419: The zemstvo medical system, Russian peasants mostly relied on faith healers specializing in magical chants and remedies for their medical care. The zemstvos viewed raising support for medical systems as their first most important task. Therefore, the zemstvo medical system became as much a popular movement for supporting an ideal as an actual service. To accomplish this, the zemstvos promoted policies that limited

10044-436: The zemstvo or added to the roster based on public comment. Voters had to be present to vote in person on candidates who were self nominated. The electoral bodies were not allowed to give instructions for how candidates should perform once elected. The governor could object to the proceedings and suspend electoral decisions. Election reform in 1890 resulted in separate electoral bodies for the noble and ignoble voters. At this time,

10152-400: The zemstvo was first introduced there. Rising tensions resulted in three protesters being killed by the police and the zemstvo remaining in power. Their governor reported: The dissatisfaction of the rural population with the introduction of the zemstvo was evident almost everywhere in the province shortly after the distribution of the tax lists. The peasants, being insufficiently informed about

10260-408: The zemstvo. The assembly tried to lower the salary which became the subject of several lawsuits in the Senate. From 1866 to 1905, zemstvo officials were largely prevented from contracting each other on the ground that these were local organizations. Occasional exemptions were made for fire reinsurance contracts or large agricultural machinery sales. In 1902, zemstvo leaders petitioned Nicholas II for

10368-521: The zemstvos became more focused on protecting the interests of the nobility than addressing the grievances of 1905. The rules governing elections to the zemstvos were taken as a model for the electoral law of 1906 and are sufficiently indicated by the account of this given below. The zemstvos were originally given large powers in relation to the incidence of taxation and such questions as education, medical relief, public welfare , food supply, and road maintenance in their localities, but radicals , such as

10476-477: The zemstvos were prevented from publishing minutes or debates unless given specific permission by the governor. In 1879, the governors were given the power to dismiss any zemstvo employee at their discretion. The largest single change in the zemstvos powers came from Alexander III (law of 25 June [ O.S. 12 June] 1890). The 1890 law instituted the Bureau of Zemstvo Affairs as additional oversight of

10584-518: The zemstvos. Bureau officials were appointed by the emperor and from local governments officials such as Marshall of the Nobility, district prosecutor, and district courts. Procedures were still led by the governor. The bureau overturned 116 zemstvo enactments during the 1891 to 1892 year with 51 of these enactments from the Vladimir Provincial Assembly alone. This reform also gave zemstvos the power to issue binding regulation on

10692-505: The zemstvos. Women who owned sufficient property to gain a seat on a zemstvo could appoint a male proxy to vote for them. By 1913, 20-40% of the eligible voters in Tula Oblast were women depending on the election. Women were de facto denied the right to serve as deputies with this confirmed de jure in 1903. Prior to each election, lists of eligible voters for a given zemstvo were published for public comment. Voters could be stricken by

10800-414: Was a contemporaneously known issue during the zemstvo period because nearly one in two peasant children did not reach adulthood. This is a notable area in which the zemstvos failed. At the peak of midwifery during the zemstvo system, only 2% of births were attended. The primary cause of this failure was peasant women did not want strangers involved in their labor. Defunct Zemstvos were created as part of

10908-444: Was a massive increase in the number of engineering graduates: from 15,000 to over 250,000. In the post-Soviet period, the members of the former Soviet intelligentsia have displayed diverging attitudes towards the communist government. While the older generation of intelligentsia has attempted to frame themselves as victims, the younger generation, who were in their 30s when the Soviet Union collapsed, has not allocated so much space for

11016-555: Was also not popular as the zemstvos were often seen by contemporary peasants as worthless institutions that raised a lot of taxes. The zemstvo executive boards were highly involved in the administration of the staff working for the zemstvo. These staff were professional experts from the Intelligentsia known as 'the third element'. Aside from the medical and educational staff, the agronomists and statisticians were common third element professions. These professionals profited from

11124-456: Was an executive board which worked year around. It was not uncommon for one individual to serve as the Marshal of the Nobility and chairman of the executive for a number of years. Enactments from the zemstvos generally needed approval from the governor or Minister of the Interior. These approvals could be withheld on the grounds that an enactment was either illegal or against state interests. In

11232-401: Was an increasing professionalism through more formal training as physicians assistants. Sanitary councils began meeting in the 1870s, but were not effective until after 1879 when zemstvos gained the power to issue sanitary legislation binding on all citizens. Moscow was a particular leader in the development of sanitary councils and then full time bureau of sanitation professionals. Midwifery

11340-522: Was carried out according to the following criteria: population satisfaction with the organization of transport services and the quality of roads, housing, and communal services. The overall percentage of satisfaction in municipal areas and urban districts was 88.13% (2020 - 81.01%, 2021 - 83.14%). The highest overall satisfaction rate in the municipalities is Kamensky District - 99.75, Tyoplo-Ogaryovsky District - 99.65%, Chernsky District - 99.12%, Donskoy city - 98.86%. Low satisfaction rates were noted in

11448-411: Was divided into several districts with each district administered by their district zemstvo. The law creating the zemstvo outlined 14 objectives for each zemstvo to accomplish. They consisted of a representative council ( zemskoye sobranye ) and of an executive board ( zemskaya uprava ) nominated by the former. The board consisted of five classes of members: The nobles received more weight in voting for

11556-485: Was no one else to provide medical care. This was widely known and tolerated by all, but the increasing criminality of the feldsher work symbolized what the zemstvo medical system still needed to achieve. One reason for the zemstvos' opposition to feldshers was they blurred the lines between the traditional spiritual medicine and modern medicine. Rather than fading away, the feldsher practice was opened to women in 1871 to meet growing needs. Alongside growing numbers of feldshers

11664-446: Was the status class, composed of scholars, teachers, lawyers, and engineers, et al. as the educated people of society who provide the moral leadership required to resolve the problems of society, hence the social function of the intelligentsia is to "guide for the reason of their higher enlightenment." In the 1860s, the journalist Pyotr Boborykin popularised the term intelligentsiya ( интеллигенция ) to identify and describe

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