Zhawar is an area within the Khost Province of Afghanistan .
84-585: Jalaluddin Haqqani was known by Afghani mujahideen as master of the Zhawar Kili tunnel complex. Mir Bahmanyar writes of the tunnels during 1986. He states there were tunnels carved into the rock face on the side facing Pakistan. The tunnels were ten metres long at the maximum, four metres wide and three metres tall. The tunnel sides had walls of brick. Altogether there were forty-one tunnels. The tunnels had doors of iron painted over with bright colours. All
168-464: A war of religion , sometimes also known as a holy war ( Latin : sanctum bellum ), is a war and conflict which is primarily caused or justified by differences in religion and beliefs. In the modern period , there are frequent debates over the extent to which religious, economic , ethnic or other aspects of a conflict are predominant in a given war. The degree to which a war may be considered religious depends on many underlying questions, such as
252-555: A war of succession . Nolan (2006) named religion as one of several significant causes, summarising the Hussites' motives as "doctrinal as well as 'nationalistic' and constitutional", and providing a series of issues that led to war: the trial and execution of Jan Hus (1415) "provoked the conflict", the Defenestration of Prague (30 July 1419) "began the conflict", while "fighting began after King Wenceslaus died, shortly after
336-551: A "holy war" or "Commanded War" ( Hebrew : מלחמת מצווה Milkhemet Mitzvah ) in the eyes of Rabbinic Judaism at the time. He asserted that this concept may have re-emerged in modern times within some factions of the Zionist movement , particularly Revisionist Zionism . In 2016, however, Firestone made a distinction between what he regarded as the Hebrew Bible's concept and the 'Western' concept of holy war: "Holy war"
420-718: A Taliban military commander north of Kabul, and was accused of ethnic cleansing against local Tajik populations. During the Taliban government , he served as the Minister of Borders and Tribal Affairs and governor of Paktia Province . In October 2001, Haqqani was named the Taliban's military commander. He may have had a role in expediting the escape of Osama bin Laden . Initially the Americans tried to convince him to turn against
504-453: A belligerent's legitimisation of the war to the public. Repgen therefore concluded: ...wars should only be termed [religious wars], in so far as at least one of the belligerents lays claim to 'religion', a religious law, in order to justify his warfare and to substantiate publicly why his use of military force against a political authority should be a bellum iustum . Philip Benedict (2006) argued that Repgen's definition of 'religious war'
588-476: A complex set of socio-economic and political factors allowed this enthusiasm to manifest itself." The Crusades against Muslim expansion in the 11th century were recognized as a "holy war" or a bellum sacrum by later writers in the 17th century. The early modern wars against the Ottoman Empire were seen as a seamless continuation of this conflict by contemporaries. Jim Bradbury (2004) noted that
672-549: A concept of holy war ( bellum sacrum ), whereby fighting itself might be considered a penitential and spiritually meritorious act. During the ninth and tenth centuries, multiple invasions occurred which led some regions to make their own armies to defend themselves and this slowly lead to the emergence of the Crusades, the concept of "holy war", and terminology such as "enemies of God" in the 11th century. In early Christianity, St. Augustine's concept of just war ( bellum iustum )
756-490: A cover for the underlying secular power, ethnic, social, political, and economic reasons for conflict. Other scholars have argued that what is termed "religious wars" is a largely "Western dichotomy" and a modern invention from the past few centuries, arguing that all wars that are classed as "religious" have secular (economic or political) ramifications. In several conflicts including the Israeli–Palestinian conflict ,
840-714: A historical reality for the Jews of antiquity. Among at least some of the Jewish groups of the late Second Temple period until the middle of the second century, C.E., holy war was an operative institution. That is, Jews engaged in what is defined here as holy war." He mentioned the Maccabean Revolt (167–160 BCE), the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE) and the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 CE) as three examples of
924-665: A holy cause, and are required to cleanse themselves afterwards to restore their ritual purity. The Israelite campaign against Midian was blessed by the Israelite god Yahweh , and could therefore be considered a holy war. Olson (2012), who believed the war narrative to be a fictional story with a theological purpose, noted that the Israelite soldiers' actions in Numbers 31 closely followed the holy war regulations set out in Deuteronomy 20:14, although Moses ' commandment to also kill
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#17327752653771008-566: A king over all German tribes, and of universal Christianity in all of his kingdom, it changed into a mission from heaven." Similarly, a successful Carolingian campaign against the Pannonian Avars in the 790s led to their forced conversion to Christianity. The earlier Merovingian conquests of Thuringia, Allemannia and Bavaria had also resulted in their Christianisation by 555, although the Frisians resisted with similar determinacy as
1092-737: A long illness in Afghanistan . Jalaluddin was born in 1939 in the village of Karezgay in the Zadran District of Paktia Province , Afghanistan. He was an ethnic Pashtun from the Zadran tribe of Khost . His father was a wealthy landowner and trader. The family later moved to Sultankhel. He started advanced religious studies at Darul Uloom Haqqania , a Deobandi Islamic seminary ( darul uloom ), in Pakistan in 1964. He graduated in 1970 with an advanced qualification that entitled him to
1176-517: A religious leader and fought by pious soldiers, a religious war does not, he reasoned. His definition of 'war of religion' thus became: a war legitimised by religion and/or for religious ends (but possibly fought by secular leaders and soldiers). Some commentators have questioned the applicability of religion to war, in part because the word "religion" itself is difficult to define, particularly posing challenges when one tries to apply it to non-Western cultures. Secondly, it has been argued that religion
1260-741: A series of military campaigns against the Muslim Conquests that were waged from the end of the 11th century through the 13th century. Originally, the goal of the Crusaders was the recapture of Jerusalem and the Holy Land from the Muslims , and the provision of support to the besieged Christian Byzantine Empire which was waging a war against Muslim Seljuq expansion into Asia Minor and Europe proper. Later, Crusades were launched against other targets, either for religious reasons, such as
1344-404: A similar union between "imperial law" and universal or "Buddha law", but these later became independent sources of power. According to McGarry & O'Leary (1995), it is evident that religion as one aspect of a people's cultural heritage may serve as a cultural marker or ideological rationalization for a conflict that has deeper ethnic and cultural differences. They argued this specifically in
1428-647: A single god of the ruling elite (as Marduk in the Babylonian empire , Assur in the Assyrian empire , etc.), or more directly by deifying the ruler in an imperial cult , the concept of "holy war" enters a new phase with the development of monotheism . During classical antiquity , the Greco-Roman world had a pantheon with particular attributes and interest areas. Ares personified war. While he received occasional sacrifice from armies going to war, there
1512-511: A specific and limited geography. Several scholars regard war narratives in the Hebrew Bible , such as the war against the Midianites in Numbers 31 , to be a holy war, with Niditch (1995) asserting the presence of a "priestly ideology of war in Numbers 31". Hamilton (2005) argued that the two major concerns of Number 31 are the idea that war is a defiling activity, but Israelite soldiers need to be ritually pure, so they may only fight wars for
1596-616: A strong influence on how many wars may be properly labelled 'religious wars', and thus how prevalent religious wars have been as opposed to other wars. According to Kalevi Holsti (1991, p. 308, Table 12.2), who catalogued and categorised wars from 1648 to 1989 into 24 categories of 'issues that generated wars', 'protect[ion of] religious confrères ' (co-religionists) was (one of) the primary cause(s) of 14% of all wars during 1648–1714, 11% during 1715–1814, 10% during 1815–1914, and 0% during 1918–1941 and 1945–1989. Additionally, he found 'ethnic/religious unification/ irredenta ' to be (one of)
1680-407: Is a Western concept referring to war that is fought for religion, against adherents of other religions, often in order to promote religion through conversion, and with no specific geographic limitation. This concept does not occur in the Hebrew Bible, whose wars are not fought for religion or in order to promote it but, rather, in order to preserve religion and a religiously unique people in relation to
1764-702: Is difficult to isolate as a factor, and is often just one of many factors driving a war. For example, many armed conflicts may be simultaneously wars of succession as well as wars of religion when two rival claimants to a throne also represent opposing religions. Examples include the War of the Three Henrys and the Succession of Henry IV of France during the French Wars of Religion , the Hessian War and
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#17327752653771848-456: Is incorrect to label any violent event as "religious". Theologian William T. Cavanaugh in his Myth of Religious Violence (2009) argues that the very concept of "religion" is a modern Western concept that was invented recently in history. As such, he argues that the concept of "religious violence" or "religious wars" are incorrectly used to anachronistically label people and conflicts as participants in religious ideologies that never existed in
1932-575: Is no precise equivalent of "religion" in Hebrew, and there is no clear definition of jewishness, it could be defined by religion, roots of national origin and ethnic. Jewishness could have been multi-racial. In the Quran, the Arabic word deen is often translated as "religion" in modern translations, but up to the mid-17th century, translators expressed deen as "law". It was in the 19th century that
2016-471: Is slightly adjusted compared to the 121 that is indeed found in the Encyclopedia of Wars itself. The Encyclopedia of War , edited by Gordon Martel, using the criteria that the armed conflict must involve some overt religious action, concludes that 6% of the wars listed in their encyclopedia can be labelled religious wars. While early empires could be described as henotheistic , i.e. dominated by
2100-558: Is truly All-Powerful, Almighty. This happened many times throughout history, beginning with Muhammad's battles against the polytheist Arabs including the Battle of Badr (624), and battles in Uhud (625), Khandaq (627), Mecca (630) and Hunayn (630). Reuven Firestone (2012) stated "that holy war is a common theme in the Hebrew Bible. Divinely legitimized through the authority of biblical scripture and its interpretation, holy war became
2184-426: Is truly Most Capable of helping them ˹prevail˺. ˹They are˺ those who have been expelled from their homes for no reason other than proclaiming: "Our Lord is Allah." Had Allah not repelled ˹the aggression of˺ some people by means of others, destruction would have surely claimed monasteries, churches, synagogues, and mosques in which Allah's Name is often mentioned. Allah will certainly help those who stand up for Him. Allah
2268-729: The 2008 Indian embassy bombing in Kabul and the February 2009 Kabul raids . Haqqani was the commander, with his son Sirajuddin , of the Haqqani network . The network is made up of resistance forces waging a jihad against US -led NATO forces and the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan . On 16 October 2011, "Operation Knife Edge" was launched by NATO and Afghan forces against the Haqqani network in south-eastern Afghanistan. Afghan Defense Minister , Abdul Rahim Wardak , explained that
2352-742: The Albigensian Crusade , the Northern Crusades , or because of political conflicts, such as the Aragonese Crusade . In 1095, at the Council of Clermont , Pope Urban II raised the level of the war from a bellum iustum (a "just war"), to a bellum sacrum (a "holy war"). This does not refer to religious conflict. Dharma-yuddha in Hindu texts , refers to the protocol to be followed by both parties at war. It sets
2436-651: The Saxons under Widukind were described by Jim Bradbury (2004) as "in essence a frontier struggle and a religious war against pagans – devil-worshippers according to Einhard ." He noted that Charlemagne ordered the destruction of the Irminsul , an object sacred to the Saxons. Per Ullidtz (2014) stated that previous Frankish–Saxon conflicts spanning almost a century "had been mostly a border war", "but under Charles it changed character": because of "Charles' idea of unity, of
2520-595: The Syrian civil war , and the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq , religious elements are overtly present, but variously described as fundamentalism or religious extremism —depending upon the observer's sympathies. However, studies on these cases often conclude that ethnic animosities drive much of the conflicts. According to the Encyclopedia of Wars , out of all 1,763 known/recorded historical conflicts, 121, or 6.87%, had religion as their primary cause. Matthew White's The Great Big Book of Horrible Things gives religion as
2604-868: The War of the Jülich Succession during the Reformation in Germany, and the Jacobite risings (including the Williamite –Jacobite wars) during the Reformation in Great Britain and Ireland. John Morreall and Tamara Sonn (2013) have argued that since there is no consensus on definitions of "religion" among scholars and no way to isolate "religion" from the rest of the more likely motivational dimensions (social, political, and economic); it
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2688-477: The definition of religion , the definition of 'religious war' (taking religious traditions on violence such as 'holy war' into account), and the applicability of religion to war as opposed to other possible factors. Answers to these questions heavily influence conclusions on how prevalent religious wars have been as opposed to other types of wars. According to scholars such as Jeffrey Burton Russell , conflicts may not be rooted strictly in religion and instead may be
2772-428: The philologist Max Müller , what is called ancient religion today, would have only been understood as "law" by the people in the ancient world. In Sanskrit word dharma , sometimes translated as "religion", also means law. Throughout the classical Indian subcontinent , the study of law consisted of concepts such as penance through piety and ceremonial as well as practical traditions . Medieval Japan at first had
2856-685: The American Embassies in Kenya and Tanzania in 1998 . The United States Air Force performed bombings during 2001. A bombing during November 2001, was indirectly caused by Richard A. Beck , a geologist at the University of Cincinnati who informed the Department of Defense he could identify the rocks showing within video footage of Osama bin Laden released during October 2001, from a field trip he had made to Khowst. Ascertainment of
2940-584: The Battle of Al-Uqab (معركة العقاب), was fought on 16 July 1212 and it was an important turning point in both the Reconquista and the medieval history of Spain . The forces of King Alfonso VIII of Castile were joined by the armies of his Christian rivals, Sancho VII of Navarre , Pedro II of Aragon and Afonso II of Portugal in battle against the Berber Muslim Almohad conquerors of
3024-578: The Franks waged wars against other European nations who followed Arian Christianity , which was seen by Catholics as heretical. During his war with the Arian Visigoths, Clovis reportedly said: "I take it very hard that these Arians hold part of the Gauls. Let us go with God's help and conquer them and bring the land under our control." The Saxon Wars (772–804) of Frankish king Charlemagne against
3108-406: The Hussites as a "movement which developed from a religious denomination to a nationalist faction, opposed to German and Papal influence; in the bloody Hussite Wars (1419–1438), they managed to resist." It did not mention the succession of Wenceslaus by Sigismund, but noted elsewhere that it was Sigismund's policy of Catholic Church unity which prompted him to urge Antipope John XXIII to convene
3192-464: The Saxons during the Frisian–Frankish wars (7th and 8th century), with both tribes killing several Christian missionaries in defence of their Germanic paganism , to the horror of Christian hagiographers . The Crusades are a prime example of wars whose religious elements have been extensively debated for centuries, with some groups of people in some periods emphasising, restoring or overstating
3276-593: The Soviet helicopters. However, none of the Soviet helicopters came and Charles Wilson was unable to fire any missile. This episode highlights the type of relationship which U.S. officials and Haqqani network used to share. He was a key US and Pakistani ally in resisting the Soviet-backed Afghanistan. Some news media outlets report that Haqqani even received an invitation to, and perhaps even visited, President Ronald Reagan 's White House , although
3360-605: The Soviet-led Afghan forces in Afghanistan , according to an account in The Bin Ladens , a 2008 book by Steve Coll . He reputedly attracted generous support from prosperous Arab countries compared to other resistance leaders. At that time, Haqqani helped and protected Osama bin Laden , who was building his own militia to fight Soviet-backed Afghanistan. Mujahids under his command were also responsible for
3444-543: The Taliban. He refused their offers on the grounds that, as a Muslim, he was duty bound to resist them as "infidel invaders", just as he had the Soviets in earlier decades. His base in Khost was attacked and four Guantanamo detainees— Abib Sarajuddin , Khan Zaman , Gul Zaman and Mohammad Gul—were captured and held because American intelligence officials received a report that one of them had briefly hosted Haqqani shortly after
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3528-494: The U.S. and NATO were not targeting Haqqani's network in Afghanistan. Media reports emerged in late July 2015 that Haqqani had died the previous year. According to the reports, he died in Afghanistan and was buried in Khost Province of Afghanistan. These reports were denied by the Taliban and some members of the Haqqani family. On 3 September 2018, the Taliban released a statement announcing that Haqqani had died after
3612-623: The applicability of the term has been questioned. The reason is that the very notion of a "religious war" as opposed to a "secular war" is the result of the Western concept of the separation of Church and State . No such division has ever existed in the Islamic world, and consequently, there cannot be a real division between wars that are "religious" from such that are "non-religious". Islam does not have any normative tradition of pacifism , and warfare has been integral part of Islamic history both for
3696-501: The aspect of struggle "by the sword". The first forms of military jihad occurred after the migration ( hijra ) of Muhammad and his small group of followers to Medina from Mecca and the conversion of several inhabitants of the city to Islam. The first revelation concerning the struggle against the Meccans was Quran 22:39-40 : Permission ˹to fight back˺ is ˹hereby˺ granted to those being fought, for they have been wronged. And Allah
3780-658: The assassination of Faiz Mohammed and two other diplomats in Lake Tiga, Paktia Province . The influential U.S. Congressman Charlie Wilson , who helped to direct tens of millions of dollars to the Afghan Islamists, was so taken by Haqqani that he referred to him as "goodness personified". Charles Wilson also desired to fire a Stinger missile at one of the Soviet helicopters. Haqqani was happy to make Charles Wilson's wartime fantasy come true. They dragged chains and tires on road to create dust cloud which will attract
3864-824: The belligerents in the Reconquista were not all equally motivated by religion, and that a distinction should be made between 'secular rulers' on the one hand, and on the other hand Christian military orders which came from elsewhere (including the three main orders of Knights Templar , Knights Hospitaller and Teutonic Knights ), or were established inside Iberia (such as those of Santiago , Alcántara and Calatrava ). "[The Knights] were more committed to religious war than some of their secular counterparts, were opposed to treating with Muslims and carried out raids and even atrocities, such as decapitating Muslim prisoners." The Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa , known in Arab history as
3948-487: The captive male children and non-virgin women was a marked departure from these regulations. He concluded: "Many aspects of this holy war text may be troublesome to a contemporary reader. But understood within the symbolic world of the ancient writers of Numbers, the story of the war against the Midianites is a kind of dress rehearsal that builds confidence and hope in anticipation of the actual conquest of Canaan that lay ahead." Dawn (2016, translating Rad 1958) stated: "From
4032-549: The case of The Troubles in Northern Ireland, often portrayed as a religious conflict of a Catholic vs. a Protestant faction, while the more fundamental cause of the conflict was supposedly ethnic or nationalistic rather than religious in nature. Since the native Irish were mostly Catholic and the later British-sponsored immigrants were mainly Protestant, the terms become shorthand for the two cultures, but McGarry & O'Leary argued that it would be inaccurate to describe
4116-416: The conflict as a religious one. In their 2015 review of violence and peacemaking in world religions, Irfan Omar and Michael Duffey stated: "This book does not ignore violence committed in the name of religion. Analyses of case studies of seeming religious violence often conclude that ethnic animosities strongly drive violence." The definition of 'religious war' and the applicability of religion to war have
4200-562: The defenestration" (that is, after 19 August 1419). Nolan described the wars' goals and character as follows: "The main aim of the Hussites was to prevent the hated Sigismund mounting the throne of Bohemia, but fighting between Bohemian Hussites and Catholics spread into Moravia. (...) cross-class support gave the Hussite Wars a tripartite and even 'national' character unusual for the age, and a religious and social unity of purpose, faith, and hate". Winkler Prins / Encarta (2002) described
4284-462: The defense and the spread of the faith since the time of Muhammad. This was formalised in the juristic definition of war in Islam , which continues to hold normative power in contemporary Islam, inextricably linking political and religious justification of war. This normative concept is known as Jihad , an Arabic word with the meaning "to strive; to struggle" (viz. "in the way of God"), which includes
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#17327752653774368-411: The destruction of this. At the location the men also found classrooms, rooms for cooking, quarters for sleep, and offices, which were constructed using bricks, concrete and steel beams. The location is the site of a suspected Taliban or al Qaeda base that was bombed in 1998 and 2001. American cruise missiles bombed a suspected al Qaeda site in Zhawar Kili in 1998 in retaliation for the bombing of
4452-628: The earliest days of Israel's existence as a people, holy war was a sacred institution, undertaken as a cultic act of a religious community". Other wars known to Judaism include a mandatory war and a voluntary war . In Greek antiquity , four (or five) wars were fought in and around the Panhellenic sanctuary at Delphi (the Pythia (Oracle) residing in the Temple of Apollo ) against persons or states who allegedly committed sacrilegious acts before
4536-520: The east and the Ottoman Empire in the west with the onset of the modern period . There were also a number of periods of infighting among Muslims; these are known by the term Fitna and mostly concern the early period of Islam, from the 7th to 11th centuries, i.e. before the collapse of the Caliphate and the emergence of the various later Islamic empires . While technically, the millennium of Muslim conquests could be classified as "religious war",
4620-421: The fall of the Taliban. A September 2008 US airstrike that allegedly targeted Haqqani resulted in the deaths of between ten and twenty-three people. The missile hit the house of Haqqani in the village Dandi Darpa Khail in North Waziristan and a close by seminary . The madrasah, though, was closed and Haqqani had previously left the area. Haqqani has been accused by the United States of involvement in
4704-471: The first place. The concept of "religion" as an abstraction which entails distinct sets of beliefs or doctrines is a recently invented concept in the English language since such usage began with texts from the 17th century due to the splitting of Christendom during the Protestant Reformation and more prevalent colonization or globalization in the age of exploration which involved contact with numerous foreign and indigenous cultures with non-European languages. It
4788-438: The god Apollo . The following are distinguished: Firestone (2012) stated that in the eyes of ancient Rabbinic Judaism , the Maccabean Revolt (167–160 BCE), the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE) and the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 CE) were "holy wars" or "Commanded Wars" ( Hebrew : מלחמת מצווה Milkhemet Mitzvah ). "Never was there a war more prolonged nor more cruel than this, nor one that required greater efforts on
4872-472: The government, he went into exile and based himself in and around Miranshah , Pakistan. From there he began to organise a rebellion against the government of Daoud Khan in 1975. After the 1978 Marxist revolution by the PDPA, Haqqani joined the Hezb-i Islami movement of Mawlawi Mohammad Yunus Khalis . In the 1980s, Jalaluddin Haqqani was cultivated as a "unilateral" asset of the CIA and received tens of millions of dollars in cash for his work in fighting
4956-450: The kingdom of Hastinapura. Ramayana was fought over the abduction of Rama's wife Sita by Ravana. The two epics are of great importance in Hindu tradition. However, according to Torkel Berkke, the Mahabharata does not provide a clear discussion on who has the authority to initiate a war ( jus ad bellum ), nor on what makes a war just ( bellum justum ). The Muslim conquests were a military expansion on an unprecedented scale, beginning in
5040-444: The lens of religion and that after that time wars were explained through the lens of wars as a way to further sovereign interests. Some commentators have concluded that only 123 wars (7%) out of these 1763 wars were fundamentally originated by religious motivations. Andrew Holt (2018) traced the origin of the "only 123 religious wars" claim back to the 2008 book The Irrational Atheist of far-right activist Vox Day , which he notes
5124-406: The lifetime of Muhammad and spanning the centuries, down to the Ottoman wars in Europe . Until the 13th century, the Muslim conquests were those of a more or less coherent empire , the Caliphate , but after the Mongol invasions , expansion continued on all fronts (other than Iberia which was lost in the Reconquista ) for another half millennium until the final collapse of the Mughal Empire in
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#17327752653775208-522: The location was facilitated by the utilization of GIS technology and remote sensing . During 2002, a period of bombing began, apparently, during the 3rd of January, and included a period from the 6th to the 14th of January 2002. The United States (of America) Department of Defense released a video of the bombardment of Zhawar Kili during March 2002. Jalaluddin Haqqani Jalaluddin Haqqani ( Pashto : جلال الدين حقاني , romanized: Jalāl al-Dīn Ḥaqqānī ) (1939 – 3 September 2018)
5292-557: The operation will "help eliminate the insurgents before they struck in areas along the troubled frontier". Both he and his son, Sirajuddin appear to have been the first Taliban to adopt the Iraqi tactic of using suicide bombers, and their network is accused of engaging in kidnappings, beheadings, the killing of women, and assassinations. George Gittoes , the Australian maker of Pashto-language films at his Yellow House in Jalalabad says Haqqani, who has befriended him, would be ready to support Ashraf Ghani in future Afghan elections. Haqqani
5376-505: The part of the Frankish people. For the Saxons (...) are by nature fierce, devoted to the worship of demons and hostile to our religion, and they think it no dishonour to confound and transgress the laws of God and man. On both sides of the frontier murder, robbery, and arson were of constant occurrence, so the Franks declared open war against them." – Einhard on the origins of the Saxon Wars in Vita Karoli Magni (c. 820) According to Gregory of Tours ' writings, King Clovis I of
5460-428: The photographs used to support the allegation of such a meeting have cast doubt that Haqqani ever visited the US. (The pictures originally purporting to show this meeting are, in fact, of Mohammad Yunus Khalis .) During the rule of Najibullah in 1991, Haqqani captured the city of Khost , which became the first communist city to fall to the jihadis. After the fall of Kabul to the Mujahideen forces in 1992, he
5544-413: The pioneering study of Manfred Weippert, "»Heiliger Krieg« in Israel und Assyrien" (1972), scholars have been comparing the holy war concept in the (monotheistic) Hebrew Bible with other (polytheistic) ancient Near Eastern war traditions, and found "many [striking] similarities in phraseology and ideology". According to historian Edward Peters, before the 11th century, Christians had not developed
5628-494: The primary cause of 11 of the world's 100 deadliest atrocities. Konrad Repgen (1987) pointed out that belligerents may have multiple intentions to wage a war, may have had ulterior motives that historians can no longer discover, and therefore, calling something a 'religious war' (or ' war of succession ') based merely on a motive that a belligerent may have had, does not necessarily make it one. Although ulterior motives may never be known, war proclamations do provide evidence for
5712-448: The primary cause(s) of 0% of all wars during 1648–1714 and 1715–1814, 6% during 1815–1914, 17% during 1918–1941, and 12% during 1945–1989. In their 1997 Encyclopedia of Wars , authors Charles Phillips and Alan Axelrod documented 1763 notable wars in world history, out of which 121 wars were in the "religious wars" category in the index. They note that before the 17th century, much of the "reasons" for conflicts were explained through
5796-439: The religious aspects, and other groups of people in some periods denying, nuancing or downplaying the religious aspects of the Crusades in favour of other factors. Winkler Prins / Encarta (2002) concluded: "The traditional explanation for the Crusades (a religious enthusiasm that found an outlet in a Holy War) has also retained its value in modern historical scholarship, keeping in mind the fact that it has been pointed out that
5880-404: The rules for both sides to conduct the war fairly ( jus in bello ). It is important in Vedic and epic literature such as the Mahabharata and the Ramayana . The word Dharma may be interpreted variously as righteousness or responsibility or duty based on the context. Neither the Mahabharata nor the Ramayana were religious conflicts. The Mahabharata was fought over the inheritance of
5964-408: The southern half of the Iberian Peninsula . The relative importance of the various factors that caused the Hussite Wars (1419–1434) is debated. Kokkonen & Sundell (2017) claimed that the death of king Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia on 19 August 1419 is the event that sparked the Hussite rebellion against his nominal heir Sigismund (then king of Germany, Hungary and Croatia) , making it essentially
6048-504: The status of mawlawi , and added "Haqqani" to his name, as some alumni of Darul Uloom Haqqania had done. After King Zahir Shah 's exile and President Daoud Khan rose to power in 1973, the political situation in Afghanistan began to slowly change. A number of parties, such as the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), and other people were seeking power. Haqqani was one of them, and after being suspected of plotting against
6132-518: The terms "Buddhism", "Hinduism", "Taoism", and "Confucianism" first emerged. Throughout its long history, Japan had no concept of "religion" since there was no corresponding Japanese word, nor anything close to its meaning, but when American warships appeared off the coast of Japan in 1853 and forced the Japanese government to sign treaties demanding, among other things, freedom of religion, the country had to contend with this Western idea. According to
6216-515: The time, stated the site was a very large complex (approximately 4.8 by 4.8 kilometres square roughly). Rear Adm. J.D. Stufflebeem stated of the Zhawar Kili al Badr training camp, that it contained at least sixty buildings and tunnels of a number greater than fifty. January 2002 saw the insertion of a supported Navy Seals team, who were positioned to perform reconnaissance . Upon discovering a complex of approximately seventy tunnels converted to facilities for ordnance , they instead proceeded to perform
6300-467: The tunnels were fitted with electrical power. Zhawar Kili is suspected to have been an area where al Qaeda fighters regrouped after the bombardment of Tora Bora and is located at 33.148792 N, 69.912658 E. The Zhawar Kili al Badr training camp was based here during 2002. A statement published January 2002, showing the report of the deputy director of operations for the Joint Chiefs of Staff at
6384-547: Was an Afghan insurgent commander who founded the Haqqani network , an insurgent group who fought in guerilla warfare against US -led NATO forces and the former Islamic Republic of Afghanistan government that they supported. He distinguished himself as an internationally sponsored insurgent fighter in the 1980s during the Soviet–Afghan War , including in Operation Magistral . He earned U.S. praise and
6468-466: Was appointed Justice Minister of the Islamic State of Afghanistan , and refrained from taking sides in the fratricidal conflict that broke out between Afghan factions during the 1990s, a neutrality that was to earn him respect. Haqqani was not an original member of the Taliban ; in 1995, just prior to the Taliban's occupation of Kabul, he switched his allegiance to them. In 1996–97, he served as
6552-607: Was called "goodness personified" by the U.S. officials. US officials have admitted that during the Soviet–Afghan War, he was a prized asset of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Former U.S. president Ronald Reagan called Jalaluddin Haqqani a "freedom fighter" during the Soviet–Afghan War. By 2004, he was directing pro- Taliban insurgent group to launch a holy war in Afghanistan. In 2016, U.S. Lieutenant General John W. Nicholson Jr. claimed that
6636-566: Was fluent in Persian , Arabic , Urdu and his native Pashto language . He had two wives, a Pashtun wife and an Arab wife from the United Arab Emirates , and had at least seven sons from his Pashtun wife: On 3 September 2018, the Taliban released a statement via Twitter proclaiming Haqqani's death of an unspecified terminal illness in Afghanistan. He was buried in Afghanistan . Holy war A religious war or
6720-511: Was in the 17th century that the concept of "religion" received its modern shape despite the fact that the Bible, the Quran, and other ancient sacred texts did not have a concept of religion in the original languages and neither did the people or the cultures in which these sacred texts were written. The modern word religion comes from the Latin word religio which, in the ancient and medieval world,
6804-527: Was only a very limited "cult of Ares". In Sparta , however, each company of youths sacrificed to Enyalios before engaging in ritual fighting at the Phoebaeum. Hans M. Barstad (2008) claimed that this ancient Greek attitude to war and religion differed from that of ancient Israel and Judah : "Quite unlike what we find with the Greeks, holy war permeated ancient Israelite society." Moreover, ever since
6888-492: Was too narrow, because sometimes both legitimisation and motivation can be established. David Onnekink (2013) added that a 'religious war' is not necessarily the same as a 'holy war' ( bellum sacrum ): "After all, it is perfectly acceptable to suggest that a worldly prince, say, a Lutheran prince in Reformation Germany, engages in religious warfare using mercenary armies." While a holy war needs to be authorised by
6972-553: Was understood as an individual virtue of worship, never as doctrine, practice, or actual source of knowledge. Cavanaugh argued that all wars that are classed as "religious" have secular (economic or political) ramifications. Similar opinions were expressed as early as the 1760s, during the Seven Years' War , widely recognized to be "religious" in motivation, noting that the warring factions were not necessarily split along confessional lines as much as along secular interests. There
7056-528: Was widely accepted, but warfare was not regarded as a virtuous activity and expressions of concern for the salvation of those who killed enemies in battle, regardless of the cause for which they fought, was common. During the era of the Crusades , some of the Crusaders who fought in the name of God were recognized as the Milites Christi , the soldiers or the knights of Christ. The Crusades were
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