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98-632: Since the usurping Yongle Emperor of the Ming dynasty claimed to receive the divine assistance of Xuanwu during his successful Jingnan Campaign against his nephew, he had a number of Taoist monasteries constructed in the Wudang Mountains of Hubei , where Xuanwu allegedly attained immortality. Xuanwu is one of the Four Symbols of the Chinese constellations , representing the north and

196-504: A butcher who had killed many animals mercilessly. Yet as time passed, his conscience grew and he felt remorse for his actions. Upon repenting, he abandoned butchery and retired to a remote mountain for cultivation of the Tao. One day, after assisting a woman in labor, as he cleaned her blood stained clothes in a river nearby, the words "Dark (or Mysterious) Heavenly Highest Deity" ( 玄天上帝 Xuántiān Shàngdì ) appeared before him. The woman in labor

294-468: A campaign to clear away disorders. At the start of the war, Zhu Di commanded a force of 100,000 soldiers and only held control over the immediate area surrounding Beiping. Despite the Nanjing government's larger number of armies and greater material resources, Zhu Di's soldiers were of higher quality and he possessed a strong Mongol cavalry. Most importantly, his military leadership skills were superior to

392-798: A clearly associated etymological character, including: Teochew shares characters with Hokkien for cognate words, but it is also influenced by the Cantonese written tradition . There are two principal romanization systems for Teochew: While Peng'im has some presence in academic works published in PRC, many publications on Teochew use their custom IPA-based romanizations. 買 bói bhoi [ᵐ̥boi 鵝 gô gho ᵑ̊ɡo 來 lāi lai ⁿ̥ɺai 食 tsia̍h ziah tsiaʔ] 買 鵝 來 食 bói gô lāi tsia̍h bhoi2 gho5 lai7 ziah8 [ᵐ̥boi ᵑ̊ɡo ⁿ̥ɺai tsiaʔ] "buy geese to eat" Teochew, like other Southern Min varieties,

490-519: A defeat at Dongchang, but in April he was victorious at Jia River. The front continued to move back and forth for the rest of the year. In 1402, instead of launching another attack along the Grand Canal, Zhu Di advanced further west and bypassed Dezhou. He then conquered Xuzhou in early March. The government troops retreated south to Zhili and were repeatedly defeated. In July, the rebels reached

588-535: A new hereditary military nobility. While their income from the state treasury (2200–2500 shi of grain for dukes, 1500–800 for marquises, and 1000 for counts; with 1 shi being equivalent to 107 liters) was not particularly high, the prestige associated with their titles was more significant. They commanded armies in the emperor's name, without competition from the princes who had been stripped of their influence. The nobility also held immunity from punishment by local authorities. However, there were notable differences from

686-630: A part of Hokkien or an independent Southern Min variety. In the Namoa island , there are two dialects, both distinct from the mainland Teochew, with Western Namoa dialect inclining towards the Northern Teochew, and Eastern Namoa dialect showing Hokkien influence, as this part of the island was included in Zhangzhou prefecture in 16—19 centuries. Chawan dialect , spoken in Fujian along

784-585: A result of colonialism and assimilation to the dominant Cantonese culture. Teochew speakers are also found among overseas Chinese communities in Japan and the Western world (notably in the United States , Canada , Australia , United Kingdom , France and Italy ), a result of both direct emigration from Teochew to these nations and secondary emigration from Southeast Asia. In Singapore, Teochew remains

882-456: A result, ministers held their posts for longer periods of time, leading to a more professional and stable state administration. However, it was not just officials who enjoyed the emperor's favor and support. He ruled the empire primarily "from horseback", traveling between the two capitals, similar to the Yuan emperors. He also frequently led military campaigns into Mongolia. However, this behavior

980-601: A sharp reprimand from the emperor. In April 1398, Zhu Di's elder brother, the Prince of Jin, died, leaving Zhu Di as the undisputed leader of the northern border defense. Two months later, Zhu Di's father, the Hongwu Emperor, also died. After the death of the Hongwu Emperor, Zhu Yunwen ascended the throne as the Jianwen Emperor. His closest advisers immediately began reviewing the Hongwu Emperor's reforms, with

1078-520: A skilled military leader, gaining popularity among soldiers and achieving success as a statesman. In 1399, he rebelled against his nephew, the Jianwen Emperor , and launched a civil war known as the Jingnan campaign , or the campaign to clear away disorders. After three years of intense fighting, he emerged victorious and declared himself emperor in 1402. After ascending the throne, he adopted

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1176-613: A successful attack on the Mongols in Liaodong, led by Feng Sheng . The following year, a Ming army led by Lan Yu made a foray into eastern Mongolia and defeated the Mongol khan Tögüs Temür , capturing many prisoners and horses. However, both generals were accused of mistreating captives and misappropriating booty, which was reported to the emperor by the prince. In January 1390, the emperor entrusted his sons with independent command for

1274-638: Is a 1566 edition of the Tale of the Lychee Mirror , a folk drama written in a mixture of Teochew and Chinchew Hokkien . Teochew writing is neither standardized nor is widely used. In Imperial China , most writing was conducted in Classical Chinese , while vernacular writing was only used in novels, songbooks and opera scripts. After the Xinhai revolution , only written Mandarin was supported by

1372-412: Is celebrated annually every the 25th day, 2nd month, of Chinese calendar. The worshipers of Chen Fu Zhen Ren , especially at Tik Liong Tian Temple, Rogojampi, Banyuwangi Regency , East Java , believe that Xuantian Shangdi is their patron deity. That's why they put his altar at the right side of Chen Fu Zhen Ren's altar, in the middle room of the temple which is always reserved for the main deity. Xuanwu

1470-506: Is commonly known by his era name as the Hongwu Emperor. After taking the throne, Zhu Di claimed to be the son of Zhu Yuanzhang's primary wife, Lady Ma , who had been empress since 1368. However, other sources suggest that his real mother was a concubine of the Hongwu Emperor with the title Consort Gong, who was either Mongolian (from the Khongirad tribe) or possibly Korean. After becoming emperor, Zhu Di attempted to present himself as

1568-529: Is known among the Thai people as Chao Pho Suea (Tiger God) or Tua Lao Yah ( 大老爷 "Big Deity") according by Teochew dialect . There are many shrines that worship him in the country and the most famous shrine is Bangkok's San Chao Pho Suea near Giant Swing and Sam Phraeng neighbourhood. This shrine has been highly worshipped with both Thais and Chinese, especially in Chinese New Year 's Day. In

1666-556: Is not mutually intelligible with Mandarin, Cantonese or Shanghainese. It has only limited intelligibility with Hokkien. Even within the Teochew dialects, there is substantial variation in phonology between different regions and between different Teochew communities overseas. The dialects of Teochew include: Some classifications consider the Hai Lok Hong dialect a part of Teochew (as the third branch), while others consider it

1764-657: Is one of the few modern Sinitic languages which have voiced obstruents (stops, fricatives and affricates); however, unlike Wu and Xiang Chinese , the Teochew voiced stops and fricatives did not evolve from Middle Chinese voiced obstruents, but from nasals . The voiced stops [b] and [ɡ] and also [l] are voicelessly prenasalized [ᵐ̥b] , [ᵑ̊ɡ] , [ⁿ̥ɺ] , respectively. The voiced affricate dz , initial in such words as jī 字 ri (/dzi˩/), jĭ 二 ri (/dzi˧˥/), jiâng 然 riang (/dziaŋ˥/), jia̍k 若 riag (/dziak˦/) loses its affricate property with some younger speakers abroad, and

1862-497: Is portrayed as a warrior in dark-coloured imperial robes, his left hand holding the "three mountain seal", somewhat similar to Guan Yu 's hand seal, while his right hand is holding a sword, which is said to have belonged to Lü Dongbin , one of the Eight Immortals . Another legend says that he borrowed the sword from Lü Dongbin to subdue a strong demon, and after being successful, he refused to bring it back after witnessing

1960-570: Is relaxed to [z]. Unlike in Hokkien, nasal initials in Teochew are not generally considered allophones of the voiced plosives, as nasals are relatively more common in Teochew and have less usage restrictions. For example, Teochew allows for syllables like nge̍k 逆 ngêg , which are impossible in Hokkien. In Southern dialects of Teochew, labial initials (/p/, /pʰ/, /b/, /m/) have labiodental allophones ([pf], [pfʰ], [bv], [mv~ɱ]) before /-u-/. Syllables in Teochew contain an onset consonant,

2058-467: The Chaoshan region of eastern Guangdong and by their diaspora around the world. It is sometimes referred to as Chiuchow , its Cantonese rendering, due to English romanization by colonial officials and explorers. It is closely related to Hokkien , as it shares some cognates and phonology with Hokkien. Teochew preserves many Old Chinese pronunciations and vocabulary that have been lost in some of

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2156-604: The Emperor Chengzu of Ming , personal name Zhu Di , was the third emperor of the Ming dynasty , reigning from 1402 to 1424. He was the fourth son of the Hongwu Emperor , the founder and first emperor of the dynasty. In 1370, he was granted the title of Prince of Yan. By 1380, he had relocated to Beijing and was responsible for protecting the northeastern borderlands. In the 1380s and 1390s, he proved himself to be

2254-533: The Grand Canal , which was crucial for supplying the capital and the armies in the north. The emperor was a strong supporter of both Confucianism and Buddhism. He supported the compilation of the massive Yongle Encyclopedia by employing two thousand scholars. This encyclopedia surpassed all previous ones, including the Four Great Books of Song from the 11th century. He also ordered the texts of

2352-754: The Philippines , and the Timurid Empire in Central Asia. Zheng He's famous voyages even reached the shores of Southeast Asia , India , Persia , and East Africa . A major threat to the security of the empire was posed by the Mongols, who were divided into three groups—the Uriankhai in the southeast were mostly loyal, while the eastern Mongols and western Oirats were problematic. Ming China alternately supported and opposed them. The Yongle Emperor personally led five campaigns into Mongolia, and

2450-591: The Shantou city , the urban Swatow dialect is perceived as "energetic", "gentle", but also "snobbish" or "pretentious" by speakers of other dialects; the Chenghai dialect (similar to urban Chaozhou dialect) is perceived as "soft", "cute", and "high-pitched"; the Teoyeo dialect is perceived as "harsh", "aggressive" and "countrified". Written Southern Min is known since at least the 16th century. The earliest known work

2548-412: The era name Yongle, which means "perpetual happiness". His reign is often referred to as the "second founding" of the Ming dynasty, as he made significant changes to his father's political policies. Upon ascending the throne, he faced the aftermath of a civil war that had devastated the rural areas of northern China and weakened the economy due to a lack of manpower. In order to stabilize and strengthen

2646-417: The 1350s and 1360s and was experiencing growth. Along with the hundreds of thousands of soldiers stationed in the region, the city was also home to officials administering the province, as well as artisans and laborers from all over the country. The main concern of the local authorities was providing enough food for the population. Peasants were relocated to the north, soldiers and convicts were sent to cultivate

2744-630: The Grand Secretaries quickly gained dominance in the civil administration. The Grand Secretariat was established in August 1402, when the emperor began to address current administrative issues during a working dinner with Huang Huai and Xie Jin after the evening audience. In September 1402, he appointed five additional Grand Secretaries. These Grand Secretaries were all from the south or southeast and were highly educated and skilled in administration, having previously served in lower positions in

2842-677: The Guangdong border, is quite different from other southern dialects of Hokkien . It has some lexical influence from Teochew and relatively higher mutual intelligibility with it, yet in other aspects it clusters more with Hokkien than Teochew. The main criterion in the classification of Teochew dialects is the presence or absence of the vowel /ɯ/ . It is found in Northern Teochew in words like hṳ̂ 魚 he "fish" and sṳ̄ 事 se "thing; matter". Southern Teochew has /u/ instead ( hû 魚 hu , sū 事 su ). Hai Lok Hong and Eastern Namoa dialects have /i/ or /u/ instead, depending on

2940-504: The Hongwu Emperor's legitimate successor by declaring himself and his fifth son, Zhu Su , as the only sons of Empress Ma in the 1403 edition of the official Veritable Records of Emperor Taizu . This was clearly absurd, as it was unlikely that a son of the empress would not be named as successor during the Hongwu Emperor's lifetime. Therefore, in the later version of 1418, all five of the Hongwu Emperor's sons were recognized as her descendants. Zhu Di spent his childhood in Nanjing, where he

3038-615: The Hongwu era. During that time, the generals, who were former comrades-in-arms of the emperor, held a higher status, had their own followers, and wielded considerable power in their assigned areas. This eventually posed a threat to the emperor, leading to their elimination. Under the Yongle Emperor, members of the nobility did not participate in regional or civil administration, nor were they assigned permanent military units. Instead, they were given ad hoc assembled armies. Additionally,

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3136-411: The Jianwen Emperor administration. Despite their relatively low status (at most fifth rank), they were given high titles in the crown prince's household. Over time, they evolved from subordinate assistants responsible for organizing correspondence and formulating responses to becoming influential politicians who proposed solutions to problems. Their close proximity to the emperor gave them an advantage over

3234-714: The Jianwen era and extending the Hongwu era until the end of 1402. In addition, Zhu Di abolished the reforms and laws implemented by the Jianwen government, restored the titles and privileges of the princes, and destroyed government archives (with the exception of financial and military records). He also attempted to involve respected supporters of the Jianwen Emperor, such as Fang Xiaoru and Liu Jing ( 劉璟 ), in his administration. However, they refused and were subsequently executed. Similarly, Huang Zicheng and Qi Tai were executed, along with their family members, teachers, students, and followers. Many others were imprisoned or deported to

3332-470: The Mongol-led Yuan dynasty , Beiping served as the capital of China. After being conquered by the Ming dynasty in 1368, it became a crucial stronghold for the troops guarding the northern border of China and was also designated as the capital of the province with the same name. At that time, Zhu Di was given his own household, with adviser Hua Yunlong and tutor Gao Xian at its head. Gao Xian spent

3430-565: The Neo-Confucians to be organized and used as textbooks for training future officials. The civil service examinations , held in a three-year cycle, produced qualified graduates who filled positions in the state apparatus. The emperor was known for his strict punishments for failures, but also for quickly promoting successful servants. While he, like his father, was not afraid to use violence against opponents when necessary, he differed from his father in his abandonment of frequent purges. As

3528-463: The Yongle Emperor's reign, four out of the six ministries ( Personnel , Revenue , Rites , and Works ) were headed by the same minister. This continuity of leadership continued even after the emperor's death, with many ministers remaining in their positions. Teochew dialect Teochew , also known as Teo-Swa (or Chaoshan ) , is a Southern Min language spoken by the Teochew people in

3626-489: The acquisition and transportation of materials and supplies for warfare. It was during this period that his organizational skills began to emerge, which he later utilized effectively in his battles. He also took the opportunity to disguise himself as a regular soldier and immerse himself in the lives of ordinary people. Looking back, he considered his time in Fengyang to be the happiest days of his life. In 1376, Li Wenzhong,

3724-511: The ancestral language of many Chinese Singaporeans , with Chinese of Teochew descent making up second largest Chinese group in Singapore, after the Hoklo . Despite this many Teochew people, particularly the younger generations, are shifting towards English and Mandarin as their main spoken language. This is due to the Singapore government's stringent bilingual policy that promotes English as

3822-533: The border, resulting in a purge that affected tens of thousands of people. After Zhu Di ascended to the imperial throne, the Veritable Records of Emperor Taizu were rewritten. The original version, created in 1402 at the court of the Jianwen Emperor, was deemed unacceptable by the new regime. In late 1402, the authors of the original version began to revise their work, completing it in July 1403. However,

3920-401: The city, a decision that would have consequences during the civil war when his son, Li Jinglong , unsuccessfully attempted to besiege Beiping in 1399. In April 1380, at the age of twenty, he moved to Beiping. He encountered a strong Mongolian influence, which the government tried to suppress by banning Mongolian customs, clothing, and names. The city had recovered from the famine and wars of

4018-584: The civilian administration, gaining the support of officials who had often served under the previous government. He restored the administrative structure of the Hongwu era, while also making some changes. First and foremost, in 1402, the Grand Secretariat was created to act as an intermediary between the emperor and the government, partially replacing the Central Secretariat that had been abolished in 1380. Despite their informal position,

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4116-608: The classic novel Journey to the West , Xuanwu was a king of the north who had two generals serving under him, a "Tortoise General" and a "Snake General" . This king had a temple at Wudang Mountains in Hubei , thus there is a Tortoise Mountain and a Snake Mountain on the opposite sides of a river in Wuhan , the capital of Hubei. Yongle Emperor The Yongle Emperor (2 May 1360 – 12 August 1424), also known by his temple name as

4214-403: The court in August and December 1399, as well as through a public statement. In his letters and statements, he repeatedly asserted that he had no desire for the throne. However, as the eldest living son of the deceased emperor, he felt a duty to restore the laws and order that had been dismantled by the new government. He explained that this was out of respect for his late father. He also accused

4312-422: The current emperor and his advisors of withholding information about his father's illness and preventing him from attending the funeral. Furthermore, he condemned their unjust treatment of the emperor's uncles, who were his own younger brothers. He justified his actions as necessary self-defense, not against the emperor himself, but against his corrupt ministers. He referred to these actions as the Jingnan campaign ,

4410-886: The daughter of Xu Da , who was ranked first among all of the early Ming generals. She was two years younger than him. Lady Xu was known for her intelligence, decisiveness, and energy. The couple welcomed their first son, Zhu Gaochi , on 16 August 1378, followed by their second son, Zhu Gaoxu , in 1380. Their third son, Zhu Gaosui , was born three years later. A few weeks after the wedding, he traveled to Fengyang (then known as Zhongdu—the Central Capital) where he underwent seven months of military training alongside his elder brothers, Zhu Shuang and Zhu Gang. Two years later, he returned to Fengyang with his younger brothers, Zhu Su, Zhu Zhen, and Zhu Fu, and stayed for an additional two years. During this time, he not only trained in command and combat, but also gained knowledge in logistics and

4508-474: The decision to elevate Beijing to the capital in 1403, reducing the significance of Nanjing . The construction of the new capital, which took place from 1407 to 1420, employed hundreds of thousands of workers daily. At the heart of Beijing was the official Imperial City, with the Forbidden City serving as the palace residence for the emperor and his family. The emperor also oversaw the reconstruction of

4606-454: The decision to move the capital from Nanjing to Beijing was motivated by the need to keep a close eye on the restless northern neighbors. The Yongle Emperor was a skilled military leader and placed great emphasis on the strength of his army. However, his wars were ultimately unsuccessful. The war in Jiaozhi (present-day northern Vietnam ), which began with an invasion in 1407, lasted until

4704-453: The dignitaries who had defected to his side before the fall of Nanjing—Li Jinglong, Chen Xuan ( 陳瑄 ), Ru Chang ( 茹瑺 ), and Wang Zuo ( 王佐 ). In June 1403, an additional nine generals from the civil war were appointed as marquises or counts. In the following years, meritorious military leaders from the campaign against the Mongols were also granted titles of dukes, marquises, and counts, including those of Mongolian origin. The emperor established

4802-429: The economy, the emperor first had to suppress any resistance. He purged the state administration of supporters of the Jianwen Emperor as well as corrupt and disloyal officials. The government also took action against secret societies and bandits. To boost the economy, the emperor promoted food and textile production and utilized uncultivated land, particularly in the prosperous Yangtze Delta region. Additionally, he made

4900-455: The education of his sons, enlisting the help of prominent scholars from the empire. Initially, Song Lian was appointed as the teacher for the crown prince, and also gave lectures to the other princes. Song Lian's successor, Kong Keren ( 孔克仁 ), had a significant influence on Zhu Di, teaching him philosophy and ethics. However, Zhu Di's favorite subject was the history of the Han dynasty , particularly

4998-446: The emperor and approval from the prince. Meanwhile, the prince had the freedom to train and deploy his own guard. In 1381, Zhu Di had his first experience in the field when he joined Xu Da's campaign against the Mongols, led by Nayur Buqa. In the 1380s, Zhu Di served in border defense under the leadership of his father-in-law, Xu Da. After Su's death in 1385, Fu Youde , Xu's deputy, took over leadership. In 1387, Zhu Di participated in

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5096-462: The emperor of his loyalty. He even asked for mercy for his friend Zhu Su and begged for permission to return his sons, who had been staying in Nanjing since the funeral of the Hongwu Emperor. This was done by the government as a precaution, effectively holding them as hostages. However, in June 1399, the emperor's adviser, Huang Zicheng , convinced the emperor that releasing Zhu Di's sons would help calm

5194-404: The emperor often personally led campaigns accompanied by the nobility, strengthening their personal relationships. As a result, the military nobility was closely tied to the emperor and remained loyal. There was no need for purges, and any isolated cases of punishment were due to the failures and shortcomings of those involved. Overall, the nobility elevated the emperor's prestige and contributed to

5292-402: The emperor ultimately prevailed and Fang Bin committed suicide, while Wu Zhong and Xia Yuanji were imprisoned. However, after the Yongle Emperor's death, they were exonerated and returned to their positions of authority. Other notable ministers who served for many years included Jian Yi ( 蹇義 ), Song Li ( 宋禮 ), Liu Quan ( 劉觀 ), and Zhao Hong, who held various ministerial positions. During most of

5390-402: The emperor was dissatisfied with the revised version and in 1411, he ordered a new version to be prepared. This new version was completed in June 1418, and changes focused primarily on Zhu Di's claim to the throne. It included claims that he was the son of Empress Ma, that the Hongwu Emperor had considered appointing him as successor, that he was to be the regent of the Jianwen Emperor, and that he

5488-412: The emperor, his empress, and his son. On 17 July 1402, Zhu Di ascended the throne, officially succeeding his father, the Hongwu Emperor. However, even as late as the summer of 1402, the new emperor was still dealing with the followers of the Jianwen Emperor. These followers denied the legitimacy of Zhu Di's rule and he responded by erasing the Jianwen Emperor's reign from history. This included abolishing

5586-470: The emperors Gaozu and Wudi . In fact, he often referenced examples from the life of Qin Shi Huang in his decrees. On 22 April 1370, the emperor's sons, with the exception of the crown prince, were granted princely titles. Zhu Di was bestowed with the title of Prince of Yan. Yan was a region located in the northeast of China, with its most significant city being Beiping (present-day Beijing ). During

5684-456: The end of his reign, the princes had lost much of their political influence. One of the Yongle Emperor's first actions upon assuming the throne was to reorganize the military command. He promoted loyal generals and granted them titles and ranks. In October 1402, he appointed two dukes ( gong ; 公 )— Qiu Fu and Zhu Neng ( 朱能 ), thirteen marquises ( hou ; 侯 ), and nine counts ( bo ; 伯 ). Among these appointments were one duke and three counts from

5782-538: The end of his reign. Four years after his death, the Ming army was forced to retreat back to China. Despite his efforts, the Yongle Emperor's Mongol campaigns did not significantly alter the balance of power or ensure the security of the northern border. The Yongle Emperor died in 1424 and was buried in the Chang Mausoleum, the largest of the tombs of the Ming emperors located near Beijing. Zhu Di

5880-704: The etymology of the word ( hî 魚 hi , but sū 事 su ), similarly to the Chiangchew Hokkien . Southern Teochew may be further divided into Huilai—Puning dialects and Teoyeo dialects, based on their tone contours. The prestige dialects of Teochew all belong to the Northern branch. The Northern Teochew dialects are mutually intelligible between each other, but less so with the Southern branch. Various stereotypes and cultural traits are associated with different Teochew dialects. For instance, within

5978-456: The first time. The princes of Jin (Zhu Gang), Yan (Zhu Di), and Qi (Zhu Fu) were given the task of leading a punitive expedition against the Mongol commanders Nayur Buqa and Alu Temür, who were threatening Shanxi and Gansu . Zhu Di demonstrated excellent command skills when he defeated and captured both Mongol commanders in battle. They then served under him with their troops. The emperor himself appreciated Zhu Di's success, which contrasted with

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6076-554: The government, while speakers of other Sinitic languages, including Teochew, remaining largely illiterate in their own tongues. Teochew rime dictionaries appeared relatively late, the earliest of them being "Fifteen consonants of Teochew language" ( 潮語十五音 , 1911) by Chio Ju-lim ( 蔣儒林 ) and "Fifteen consonants of Teochew sound" ( 潮聲十五音 , 1913) by Teo See-tiang ( 張世珍 ). Most of the Teochew vocabulary can be traced back to Old Chinese, and thus can be written using Chinese characters. There are different ways to write words that do not have

6174-485: The hesitancy of the Prince of Jin. Zhu Di continued to lead armies into battle against the Mongols repeatedly and with great success. In 1392, the emperor's eldest son and crown prince, Zhu Biao , died. The court then discussed who would succeed him, and ultimately, the primogeniture viewpoint, advocated by scholars from the Hanlin Academy and high officials, prevailed. As a result, Zhu Biao's son, Zhu Yunwen ,

6272-484: The indecisiveness and lack of coordination displayed by the government's generals. In September 1399, a government army of 130,000 soldiers, led by the experienced veteran general Geng Bingwen , marched towards Zhending , a city located southwest of Beiping. However, by the end of the month, they were defeated. In response, the court appointed a new commander, Li Jinglong , who then led a new army to besiege Beiping on 12 November. Zhu Di, who had been gathering troops in

6370-433: The judiciary, and routine tasks. As a result, the atomization of administration that was characteristic of the Hongwu Emperor's rule diminished, allowing the emperor to focus less on routine details. The political influence of the bureaucratic apparatus gradually increased, and under the Yongle Emperor's rule, ministers were able to challenge the emperor, even at the cost of their freedom or lives. The most significant change

6468-416: The land, and merchants were granted licenses to trade salt in exchange for bringing grain to the region. The government also transported food supplies to the city. Zhu Di's interest in the military was put into practice when he personally trained his own guard. He used his detachments as a means of balancing the power of the provincial commander, who was unable to mobilize troops without authorization from

6566-404: The latter half of his reign, the Yongle Emperor accused many of these princes of committing crimes and punished them by removing their personal guards. Interestingly, he had previously condemned the same actions when they were carried out by the Jianwen Emperor. In order to reduce political threats, the Yongle Emperor relocated several border princes from the north to central and southern China. By

6664-444: The military successes of his reign. Grand Secretaries during the reign of the Yongle Emperor, from 1402–1424. The first two were appointed in August 1402, while the rest were appointed a month later. At the head of the Grand Secretariat stood briefly in 1402 Huang Huai, followed by Xie Jin, and from 1407 by Hu Guang until his death in 1418, when Yang Rong took over until the end of the Yongle Emperor's reign. The emperor reorganized

6762-410: The ministers. The emperor kept his Grand Secretaries with him, and some even accompanied him on his Mongol campaigns. During this period, the empire was governed by the crown prince with the assistance of other Grand Secretaries and selected ministers. The crown prince developed a close relationship with the Grand Secretaries and became the de facto representative of the officials. The Yongle Emperor

6860-408: The most dangerous of all the princes. He was an experienced military leader and the oldest surviving descendant of the Hongwu Emperor. Due to this, the government treated him with caution and limited his power. They replaced military commanders in the northeast with generals loyal to the Jianwen Emperor and transferred Zhu Di's personal guard outside of Beiping. Despite this, Zhu Di managed to convince

6958-401: The most significant change being an attempt to limit and eventually eliminate the princes who were the sons of the Hongwu Emperor and served as the emperor's support and controlled a significant portion of the military power during his reign. The government employed various methods to remove the five princes, including exile, house arrest, and even driving them to suicide. Zhu Di was considered

7056-461: The nephew and adopted son of the Hongwu Emperor, who was responsible for defending the north, was given the responsibility of preparing the prince's palace in Beijing. He utilized the former palaces of the Yuan emperors, providing Zhu Di with a larger and more fortified residence compared to his brothers, some of whom resided in converted temples or county offices. General Li also focused on fortifying

7154-560: The next four to five years lecturing him on Confucian classics, history, agriculture, and irrigation. He also trained the prince in poetry and prose writing, and explained the rules of governance and the selection of subordinates. After Hua's death and Gao's dismissal, Fei Yu, Qiu Guang, Wang Wuban, and Zhu Fu took over Zhu Di's education. Despite receiving a comprehensive education from esteemed teachers, Zhu Di's true passion always lay in military pursuits rather than scholarly pursuits and palace discussions. In early 1376, he married Lady Xu ,

7252-472: The north bank of the Yangtze River . The commander of the government fleet defected to Zhu Di's side, allowing the rebel army to cross the river without resistance and advance on Nanjing. Due to the betrayal of Li Jinglong and Zhu Hui, Zhu Di's younger brother, the capital city was captured on 13 July 1402, with little resistance. During the clashes, the palace was set on fire, resulting in the deaths of

7350-636: The northeast, swiftly returned and defeated the surprised Li army. The soldiers from the south, who were not accustomed to the cold weather, were forced to retreat to Dezhou in Shandong. In 1400, there were battles in the southern part of Beiping province and northwestern Shandong , with varying levels of success. In the spring, Zhu Di led a successful attack into Datong , defeating Li Jinglong near Baoding in May and outside Dezhou in June. However, due to concerns about potential enemy reinforcements, Zhu Di ended

7448-590: The northern border, Zhu Di was the second oldest but also the most capable. He had operated in a vast territory, stretching from Liaodong to the bend of the Yellow River. He was not afraid to take risks, as demonstrated by his defeat of the Mongols led by Polin Temür at Daning in the summer of 1396. He also went on a raid with the Prince of Jin several hundred kilometers north of the Great Wall, which earned them

7546-477: The official language of education, government and commerce and promotes Mandarin at the expense of other Chinese languages. Some Teochew assimilated with the larger Hokkien community and speak Hokkien rather than Teochew due to Hokkien's prominent role as a lingua franca previously among the Singaporean Chinese community. Teochew is a Southern Min language. As with other Sinitic languages , it

7644-563: The other modern varieties of Chinese . As such, Teochew is described as one of the most conservative Chinese languages. Historically, the Teochew prefecture included modern prefecture-level cities of Chaozhou , Jieyang and Shantou . In China, this region is now known as Teoswa . Parts of the Hakka-speaking Meizhou city, such as Dabu County and Fengshun , were also parts of the Teochew prefecture and contain pocket communities of Teochew speakers. As Teochew region

7742-423: The prince was cautious not to give any reason for criticism. For example, he did not object to the execution of his generals Nayur Buqa and Alu Temür, who were accused of treason. He also exercised caution in diplomatic relations, such as when he welcomed Korean delegations passing through Beiping, to avoid any indication of disrespect towards the emperor's authority. Out of the six princes responsible for guarding

7840-469: The siege of Jinan in September and retreated to Beiping. Li Jinglong's lackluster performance led the government to appoint Sheng Yong as the new commander of the counterinsurgency army. In 1401, Zhu Di attempted to weaken the enemy by attacking smaller units, which disrupted the supply of government troops. Both sides then focused on breaking through along the Grand Canal . In January, Zhu Di suffered

7938-454: The situation. Unfortunately, the result was the exact opposite. In early August 1399, Zhu Di used the arrest of two of his officials as a pretext for rebellion. He claimed that he was rising up to protect the emperor from the corrupt court officials. With the support of Beijing dignitaries, he gained control of the city's garrison and occupied the surrounding prefectures and counties. He attempted to justify his actions through letters sent to

8036-601: The states of Johor , Malacca , Penang , Kedah and Selangor with significant minorities in Sarawak ) and Indonesia (especially in West Kalimantan ). Waves of migration from Teochew region to Hong Kong , especially after the communist victory of the Chinese Civil War in 1949, has also resulted in the formation of a community there, although most descendants now primarily speak Cantonese and English as

8134-435: The sword's power. The sword itself would magically return to its owner if Xuanwu released it, so it is said that he always holds his sword tightly and is unable to release it. However, not only does he outrank Lü in terms of divinity, Xuanwu also dates back longer in history than Lü Dongbin, putting this claim in suspect. He is usually seated on a throne with the right foot stepping on the snake and left leg extended stepping on

8232-655: The title of Xuántiān Shàngdì . After he became an immortal, his stomach and intestines absorbed the essence of the earth. His viscera transformed into a demonic turtle and a demonic snake, who started to hurt people. No one could subdue the demonic animals. Eventually, Xuanwu returned to earth to subdue them. After defeating them, he later used them as his subordinates. Xuanwu is sometimes portrayed with two generals standing besides him, General Wan Gong ( 萬公 ) and General Wan Ma ( 萬媽 ). The two generals are deities that handle many local issues from children's birth, medication, family matters as well as fengshui consultation. Xuanwu

8330-456: The turtle. His face is usually red with bulging eyes. His birthday is celebrated on the third day of the third lunar month. In Indonesia, almost every Taoist temple provides an altar for Xuantian Shangdi. The story states that the first temple that worshiped him was a temple at Welahan Town, Jepara, Central Java . And the temples that were built in honor of him are the temples at Gerajen and Bugangan, Semarang City, Central Java . His festival

8428-518: The winter season. It is usually depicted as a turtle entwined together with a snake . One story says that Xuanwu was originally a prince of Jing Le State in northern Hebei during the time of the Yellow Emperor . As he grew up, he felt the sorrow and pain of the life of ordinary people and wanted to retire to a remote mountain for cultivation of the Tao . Another says that Xuanwu was originally

8526-428: Was a manifestation of the goddess Guanyin . To redeem his sins, he dug out his own stomach and intestines and washed them in the river. The river then became dark and murky. After a while, the river flowed clear and pure once again. Xuanwu lost his stomach and intestines while he was washing them in the river. The Jade Emperor was moved by his sincerity and determination to clear his sins, and made him an immortal with

8624-491: Was an exceptionally talented military leader who was highly favored by his father. In contrast to the frequent changes in offices during the Hongwu Emperor's reign, the high levels of the Yongle Emperor's administration remained stable. While the emperor did occasionally imprison a minister, the mass purges seen in the Hongwu era did not occur again. The most significant political matters were overseen by eunuchs and generals, while officials were responsible for managing finances,

8722-417: Was appointed as the new successor. Generals Feng Sheng, Fu Youde, and Lan Yu (who were related to the successor by blood) were chosen as his tutors and teachers. However, due to a recommendation from Zhu Di, the Hongwu Emperor began to suspect the three generals of treason. It is worth noting that Zhu Di did not have a good relationship with Lan Yu, and according to historian Wang Shizhen ( 王世貞 ; 1526–1590), he

8820-619: Was born on 2 May 1360, as the fourth son of Zhu Yuanzhang . At the time, Zhu Yuanzhang was based in Nanjing and was an independent general of the Han Song dynasty. This dynasty was one of the states formed during the Red Turban Rebellion , which was a rebellion against the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty that controlled China. In the 1360s, Zhu Yuanzhang conquered China, established the Ming dynasty , and declared himself emperor. He

8918-417: Was deeply affected by the death of his two eldest sons and the strained relations between his remaining sons and the heir, made the decision to revise the rules governing the imperial family for the fourth time. The new edition significantly limited the rights of the princes. However, these changes had little impact on Zhu Di's status as they did not affect his main area of expertise—the military. Furthermore,

9016-487: Was meticulous in his selection of the top officials for the state apparatus, including the members of the Grand Secretariat and the ministers. He placed particular trust in those who had served him during the civil war, such as Jin Zhong ( 金忠 ), Guo Zi, Lü Zhen ( 呂震 ), and Wu Zhong ( 吳中 ). These ministers came from all over China, but were all highly educated and capable administrators. Among them, Minister of Revenue Xia Yuanji

9114-578: Was one of the major sources of Chinese emigration to Southeast Asia during the 18th to 20th centuries, a considerable Overseas Chinese community in that region is Teochew-speaking. In particular, the Teochew people settled in significant numbers in Cambodia , Thailand and Laos , where they form the largest Chinese sub-language group. Additionally, there are many Teochew-speakers among Chinese communities in Vietnam , Singapore , Malaysia (especially in

9212-538: Was opposed by officials who felt threatened by the growing influence of eunuchs and military elites. These groups relied on imperial favor for their power. The emperor also made significant efforts to strengthen and consolidate the empire's hegemonic position in East Asia through foreign policy. Diplomatic messages and military expeditions were sent to "all four corners of the world". Missions were sent to countries near and far, including Manchuria , Korea , Japan ,

9310-503: Was raised with a strong emphasis on discipline and modesty, along with the other children of Zhu Yuanzhang. Out of all his siblings, he had a special fondness for Princess Ningguo ( 寧國公主 ), Zhu Fu ( 朱榑 ), and Zhu Su, who was only 15 months younger. Despite their contrasting personalities, Zhu Di and Zhu Su became the closest of friends. While Zhu Di enjoyed activities such as archery and horseback riding, Zhu Su preferred studying literature and tending to plants. The emperor took great care in

9408-619: Was responsible for Lan Yu's execution in March 1393. The other two generals also died under unclear circumstances at the turn of 1394 and 1395. In their place, princes were appointed. For example, in 1393, the Prince of Jin was given command of all the troops in Shanxi province, and the Prince of Yan was given command in Beiping province. Additionally, Zhu Shuang, Prince of Qin, was in charge of Shaanxi , but he died in 1395. The Hongwu Emperor, who

9506-475: Was the emergence of the Grand Secretariat , which played a crucial role in the politics of the Yongle Emperor's successors. Led by the Grand Secretaries, officials gained control of the government. The emperor restored the titles of the princes of Zhou, Qi, and Min, which had been abolished by the Jianwen Emperor. However, these titles did not come with the same power and authority as before. During

9604-430: Was the most trusted by the emperor. Xia advocated for moderation in spending and using resources for the benefit of the population, which earned him the respect of the Yongle Emperor for his honesty and transparency. Xia held this position for nineteen years until 1421, when he, along with Minister of Justice Wu Zhong and Minister of War Fang Bin, protested against the costly campaign into Mongolia. Despite their objections,

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