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28-666: The Baltic tribe Galindians lived in the Kaluga region for a long time. Therefore, many names of rivers, like that of the Zhizdra river , and settlements in Russia are of Baltic origin. Zhizdra was first mentioned in 1146. Town status was granted to it in 1777. During World War II , the town was occupied by the German Army from 5 October 1941 to 16 August 1943. Within the framework of administrative divisions , Zhizdra serves as

56-701: A West Baltic tribe , and later an Old Prussian clan – lived in Galindia , roughly the area of present-day Masuria but including territory further south in what would become the Duchy of Masovia . The region lay adjacent to the territory of the Yotvingians , which is today in Podlaskie Voivodeship . Ptolemy was the first to mention the Galindians ( Koine Greek : Galindoi – Γαλίνδοι ) in

84-426: A city-state, such a unit as Jericho might have become in its later stages … tribalism can be viewed as reaction to the formation of complex political structure rather than a necessary preliminary stage in its evolution. The term "tribe" was in common use in the field of anthropology until the late 1950s and 1960s. The continued use of the term has attracted controversy among anthropologists and other academics active in

112-505: A leadership responsive to the needs of neighboring states (the so-called tribes of the United States or British India provide good examples of this). The British favored the label "aboriginal tribe" for some communities. India adopted a republican constitution in 1950, after three years of debate in its Constituent Assembly. During the debate, Jaipal Singh, a member of Munda tribe from Central India advocated for special provisions for

140-852: A political unit formed from an organisation of families (including clans and lineages) based on social or ideological solidarity. Membership of a tribe may be understood as being based on factors such as kinship ("clan"), ethnicity ("race"), language, dwelling place, political group, religious beliefs, oral tradition and/or cultural practices . Archaeologists continue to explore the development of pre-state tribes. Current research suggests that tribal structures constituted one type of adaptation to situations providing plentiful yet unpredictable resources. Such structures proved flexible enough to coordinate production and distribution of food in times of scarcity, without limiting or constraining people during times of surplus. Anthropologist Morton Fried argued in 1967 that bands organized into tribes in order to resist

168-527: Is generally held by linguists to be a compound formed from two elements: tri- 'three' and bhu , bu , fu , a verbal root meaning 'to be'. Latin tribus is held to derive from the Proto-Indo-European compound * tri-dʰh₁u/o- ('rendered in three, tripartite division'; compare with Umbrian trifu 'trinity, district', Sanskrit trídha 'threefold'). Considerable debate has accompanied efforts to define and characterize tribes. In

196-443: Is often contrasted by anthropologists with other social and kinship groups, being hierarchically larger than a lineage or clan , but smaller than a chiefdom , ethnicity , nation or state . These terms are similarly disputed. In some cases tribes have legal recognition and some degree of political autonomy from national or federal government, but this legalistic usage of the term may conflict with anthropological definitions. In

224-550: Is the result of a borrowing from a Romance language source (such as Old French tribu ) or if the form is a result of borrowing directly from Latin (the Middle English plural tribuz 1250 may be a direct representation of Latin plural tribūs ). Modern English tribe may also be a result of a common pattern wherein English borrows nouns directly from Latin and drops suffixes, including -us . Latin tribus

252-466: Is used in many different contexts to refer to a category of human social group . The predominant worldwide usage of the term in English is in the discipline of anthropology . Its definition is contested, in part due to conflicting theoretical understandings of social and kinship structures, and also reflecting the problematic application of this concept to extremely diverse human societies. The concept

280-703: The Laurentian Codex , where it is written that they were conquered by Iziaslav I of Kiev in 1058. This shows that even at the height of the power of the Kievan Rus' , were not its subjects or tributaries . Second, the Hypatian Codex mentions that Sviatoslav Olgovich defeated the Golyad' who lived up the Porotva (now Protva ) river in 1147 ("взя люди Голядь, верхъ Поротве"). In addition

308-655: The Novgorod Fourth Chronicle mentioned that Mikhail Khorobrit "was killed by 'Litva' (Lithuanians) on the Porotva" ( Russian : убьенъ бысть от Литвы на Поротве , romanized :  ubien byst' ot Litvy na Porotve ) in 1248. Historian Valentin Sedov  [ ru ] argues that this 'Litva' people were descendants the Galindians, because he sees no reason why would actual Lithuanians make military excursions so far from their lands. The Russians probably did not completely assimilate them until

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336-565: The administrative center of Zhizdrinsky District , to which it is directly subordinated. As a municipal division , the town of Zhizdra is incorporated within Zhizdrinsky Municipal District as Zhizdra Urban Settlement . [REDACTED] Media related to Zhizdra at Wikimedia Commons Galindians Galindians were two distinct, and now extinct, tribes of the Balts . Most commonly, Galindians refers to

364-723: The social sciences with scholars of anthropological and ethnohistorical research challenging the utility of the concept. In 1970, anthropologist J. Clyde Mitchell wrote: Despite the membership boundaries for a tribe being conceptually simple, in reality they are often vague and subject to change over time. In his 1975 study, The Notion of the Tribe , Fried provided numerous examples of tribes that encompassed members who spoke different languages and practiced different rituals, or who shared languages and rituals with members of other tribes. Similarly, he provided examples of tribes in which people followed different political leaders, or followed

392-464: The 'Adibasi' -- a translation into Hindi of 'aboriginal'. His arguments proved persuasive. These communities were to have seats in the legislatures and positions in government employment 'reserved' for them. Each of the assembly members prepared a list of communities that deserved special protections. These names were listed in a "Schedule" (appendix) to the Constitution. So these came to be called

420-444: The 'Scheduled Tribes', often abbreviated to ST. Second, bands could form "secondary" tribes as a means to defend against state expansion. Members of bands would form more clearly bounded and centralized polities, because such polities could begin producing surpluses that could support a standing army that could fight against states, and they would have a leadership that could co-ordinate economic production and military activities. In

448-619: The 15th (or 16th) century. There are several toponyms probably related to golyad : two villages named Голяди, a village Голяжье, and the Golyada River, a tributary of the Moskva River . In folk traditions that lived on into the 20th century there are tales about mighty giants with the (personal) name Golyada . However, this may have been conflated with the Biblical mention about Goliath . Tribe The term tribe

476-857: The 2nd century AD. From the 6th/7th century until the 17th century the former central part of the Galindian tribe continued to exist as the Old Prussian clan of *Galindis. The language of the Old Prussians in Galindia became extinct by 17th century, mainly because of the 16th centuries influx of Protestants seeking refuge from Catholic Poland into the Galindian area and German-language administration of Prussia. The Eastern Galindians (East Galindian: * Galindai , Russian : голядь , lit.   'Goliadj', from Old East Slavic голѧдь golędĭ ), an extinct East Baltic tribe , lived from

504-833: The 4th century in the basin of the Protva River, near the modern Russian towns of Mozhaysk , Vereya , and Borovsk . It is probable that the Eastern Galindians, as the bearers of the Moshchiny culture , also occupied all the Kaluga Oblast before the Early East Slavs populated the Moshchiny culture's area at the turn of the 7th and 8th centuries. The contemporary sources mention Golyad only twice, briefly. The Golyad are first mentioned in

532-505: The United States, Native American tribes are legally considered to have "domestic dependent nation" status within the territorial United States, with a government-to-government relationship with the federal government. The modern English word tribe stems from Middle English tribu , which ultimately derives from Latin tribus . According to the Oxford English Dictionary , it remains unclear if this form

560-528: The Western Galindians who lived in the southeast part of Prussia . Less commonly, it is used for a tribe that lived in the area of what is today Moscow ( Russian : Голядь ). Johannes Voigt (supported by many others) suggested that name is derived from the Baltic word * galas ("the end", probably synonymous to "located farthest", "located near the border of the territory or area"), alluding to

588-408: The fact that they settled for some time further west and further east than any other Baltic tribe. Polish historian Jerzy Nalepa  [ pl ] suggested another etymology: the name Galind - may be derived from the hydronym of Gielądzkie Lake  [ pl ] in the province of Olsztyn , in what was the very center of ancient Galindia . J. Nalepa (1971) suggested the root * gal -

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616-1280: The modern state system. Tribes have lost their legitimacy to conduct traditional functions, such as tithing , delivering justice and defending territory, with these being replaced by states functions and institutions, such as taxation, law courts and the military. Most have suffered decline and loss of cultural identity. Some have adapted to the new political context and transformed their culture and practices in order to survive, whilst others have secured legal rights and protections. Fried proposed that most surviving tribes do not have their origin in pre-state tribes, but rather in pre-state bands. Such "secondary" tribes, he suggested, developed as modern products of state expansion. Bands comprise small, mobile, and fluid social formations with weak leadership . They do not generate surpluses, pay no taxes, and support no standing army. Fried argued that secondary tribes develop in one of two ways. First, states could set them up as means to extend administrative and economic influence in their hinterland, where direct political control costs too much. States would encourage (or require) people on their frontiers to form more clearly bounded and centralized polities, because such polities could begin producing surpluses and taxes, and would have

644-479: The nature, structure and practices of tribes. Writing on the Kurdish peoples, anthropologist Martin van Bruinessen argued, "the terms of standard anthropological usage, 'tribe', 'clan' and 'lineage' appear to be a straitjacket that ill fits the social reality of Kurdistan". There are further negative connotations of the term "tribe" that have reduced its use. Writing in 2013, scholar Matthew Ortoleva noted that "like

672-412: The popular imagination, tribes reflect a primordial social structure from which all subsequent civilizations and states developed. Anthropologist Elman Service presented a system of classification for societies in all human cultures, based on the evolution of social inequality and the role of the state . This system of classification contains four categories: Tribes are therefore considered to be

700-416: The same leaders as members of other tribes. He concluded that tribes in general are characterized by fluid boundaries, heterogeneity and dynamism, and are not parochial. Part of the difficulty with the term is that it seeks to construct and apply a common conceptual framework across diverse cultures and peoples. Different anthropologists studying different peoples therefore draw conflicting conclusions about

728-422: The violence and exploitation of early kingdoms and states. He wrote: In fact, there is no absolute necessity for a tribal stage as defined by Sahlins and Service, no necessity, that is, for such a stage to appear in the transit from a single settlement with embedded political organization, to a complex-state structured polity. Such a developmental process could have gone on within a unit that we may conceptualize as

756-415: The word Indian , [t]ribe is a word that has connotations of colonialism." Survival International says "It is important to make the distinction between tribal and indigenous because tribal peoples have a special status acknowledged in international law as well as problems in addition to those faced by the wider category of indigenous peoples." Few tribes today remain isolated from the development of

784-539: Was originally a different ablaut grade of the same root found in Lithuanian " gilus " – deep, and " gelmė " – depth. The original meaning referred to the depth of the lake mentioned, which is one of the deepest in the area. The Russian 'golyad' is the result of the common shift of nasal '-en'(ę) into '-ya'(я) in Russian language. The Western Galindians ( Old Prussian : * Galindis , Latin : Galindae ) – at first

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