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47-457: Due to differing interpretations of the evidence, proposed dates for when Peking Man inhabited this site vary greatly, including: 700,000–200,000 years ago, 670,000–470,000 years ago, or no earlier than 530,000 years ago. The Peking Man Site was first discovered by Johan Gunnar Andersson in 1921 , and was first excavated by Otto Zdansky in 1921 and 1923 , unearthing two human teeth. These were later identified by Davidson Black as belonging to

94-405: A candle in the other. A second skullcap was discovered close to the first in 1930 , and by 1932 nearly 100 workers were deployed at the site each day. Despite the conditions at the site, eminent researchers continued to visit. French palaeontologist Pierre Teilhard de Chardin had been a regular visitor to the site since 1926. French archaeologist Henri Breuil visited in 1931 and confirmed

141-486: A depth of 7m through Layers 3–6, and have unearthed stone tools, burned bones and ashes, and fossils of bird, reptile, and mammal species. Pigeon Hall was named in honour of its frequent avian visitors, and was connected with the Peking Man Site by workmen in 1928. Excavations from 1930 to 1931 unearthed numerous Peking Man bones (including mandible , clavicle , and parietal bones), signs of fire use (including

188-506: A good place to search for the remains of primitive man. Excavations were undertaken by Andersson's assistant, Austrian palaeontologist Otto Zdansky in 1921 and 1923 , unearthing a great deal of material that was sent back to Uppsala University in Sweden for further analysis. In 1926 , Anderson announced the discovery of two human molars amongst this material, and the following year Zdansky published his finding, cautiously identifying

235-508: A halt in 1937 by the Japanese invasion of China. Reports of Japanese atrocities include the torture and murder of workers at the site, with three bayoneted to death, and a fourth forced to pull a rickshaw until dying of starvation. In 1941 , the bulk of the finds were lost, never to be recovered, while in transport to safety. Fortunately, Weidenreich had made copies of the fossils to preserve their physical characteristics. Excavation work

282-569: A human premolar, and the fossilised remains of 40 mammalian species including macaque, pig, bear, and horse. This deposit, located 60m above the riverbed, is filled with layers of sand and gravel, and dates to the late Early Pliocene era. Excavations from 1937 to 1938 unearthed mammalian fossils including civet and bamboo rat. Discovered in 1967 , this cave connects with Locality 4 to its south. The deposits formed by hydrostatic sedimentation in stagnant water conditions contained no fossils or human-related artefacts. Discovered in 1933, when Locality 3

329-566: A large amount of material was shipped to Uppsala for analysis. Eventually in 1926, on the occasion of a visit by the Swedish Prince to Beijing , Andersson announced the discovery of two human teeth. These were later identified as being the first finds of the Peking Man . In collaboration with Chinese colleagues such as Yuan Fuli and others, he then discovered prehistoric Neolithic remains in central China's Henan Province , along

376-406: A lower layer of red clay containing lithics, and bird and mammalian fossils including woolly rhino, giant deer, and gazelle. The site has yet to be fully excavated. Johan Gunnar Andersson Johan Gunnar Andersson (3 July 1874 – 29 October 1960) was a Swedish archaeologist , geomorphologist , and paleontologist who was closely associated with the beginnings of Chinese archaeology in

423-423: A lower-level burial ground, while a small recess on the lower level acted as a natural animal trap. Finds unearthed included three human skulls, and other remains from at least eight individuals identified as archaic Homo sapiens , tools and ornaments made from stone and bone, and numerous animal bones, including complete skeletons of large mammals caught in the lower-level trap. Also, white powder sprinkled around

470-508: A mandible fragment was unearthed. Excavations led by Pei in 1966 unearthed a premolar and two pieces of skull fragment – these were discovered to match fragments retained from previous excavations in 1934 and 1936, and the only extant example of a nearly complete skullcap was pieced together. Excavations at Locality 4 in Zhoukoudian, from 1972 – 73 , unearthed a Homo sapiens premolar. Modern scientific dating techniques confirm that

517-740: A new variety, Canis lupus variabilis , for the Zhoukoudian Locality 1 small wolf. Canadian paleoanthropologist Davidson Black , who was working for the Peking Union Medical College at the time, was excited by Andersson and Zdansky's find, and applied to the Rockefeller Foundation for funding to undertake a systematic excavation of the site. Funding was granted, and the Zhoukoudian Project commenced excavations in 1927 under

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564-453: A previously unknown species, and extensive excavations followed. Fissures in the limestone -containing middle Pleistocene deposits have yielded the remains of about 45 individuals, as well as animal remains, and stone flake and chopping tools . The oldest animal remains date from as early as 690,000 years ago, with tools as old as 670,000 years ago, while another authority dates the tools found as no earlier than 530,000 years ago. During

611-421: A scorched redbud stick), and stone tools of quartz, and green sandstone. Situated on the upper part of Dragon Bone Hill, this cave was discovered in 1930 , and excavated from 1933 – 34 , during which time the roof and north-facing opening were removed. Excavations found evidence of human habitation in the cave dating back to 10,000 to 20,000 years ago. The cave was divided into an upper-level living quarters, and

658-600: A staff member of China's National Geological Survey, conducted archaeological excavations in the provinces of Gansu and Qinghai , in the following years, 1923–24, again in collaboration with his Chinese colleagues, and he published numerous books and scientific papers on Chinese archaeology, many in the Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities , which he founded and launched in 1929, and in it, he published his most significant scientific reports on his own work, including

705-481: Is filled with breccia , and dates to the late Middle Pleistocene era. Excavations in 1933 unearthed mammalian fossils including porcupine, raccoon dog, and badger. Discovered in 1927, this north–south running fissure is filled with yellow sandy clay, and dates to the late Middle Pleistocene era. Excavations from 1937 – 38 unearthed lithics, burned bones and seeds (indicating fire use in early man), and fossils of jackal and deer. A second excavation in 1973 unearthed

752-564: The Geological Survey of China was established within the Peking Union Medical College in 1928 by Canadian paleoanthropologist Davidson Black and Chinese geologists Ding Wenjing and Weng Wenhao for the research and appraisal of Peking Man fossils unearthed at Zhoukoudian . Davidson Black founded the laboratory with an $ 80,000 grant from the Rockefeller Foundation and stayed on as honorary director until he died in his office, surrounded by his finds, in 1934 . He

799-663: The Upper Palaeolithic , the site was re-occupied, and remains of Homo sapiens and their stone and bone tools have also been recovered from the Upper Cave. The crater Choukoutien on asteroid 243 Ida was named after the location. The caves are located in Zhoukoudian Town, Fangshan District , southwest of central Beijing. Here is primitive man, now all we have to do is find him! Swedish geologist Johan Gunnar Andersson first started his explorations of

846-695: The Yellow River . The remains were named the Yangshao culture after the village where they were first excavated, in 1921. This discovery was another extremely important breakthrough, because the prehistory of what is now China had not yet been investigated in scientific archaeological excavations and the Yangshao and other prehistoric cultures were completely unknown (they had never been mentioned in any historical documents, and they had never been recognized and investigated). The decoration of Yangshao pottery

893-610: The 1920s. After studies at Uppsala University , and research in the polar regions, Andersson served as Director of Sweden's National Geological Survey . He participated in the Swedish Antarctic Expedition of 1901 to 1903 (on the ship Antarctic ). His work on the Falkland Islands and the Bjørnøya , where he first coined the term solifluction , influenced Walery Łoziński 's creation of

940-678: The Discovery of China's Prehistory. Stockholm: Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities [Östasiatiska museet], 2004. In 1926, Andersson founded the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities in Stockholm , Sweden ( Swedish : Östasiatiska museet ), a national museum established to house the Swedish part of the collections from these first-ever scientific archaeological excavations in China. Andersson served as

987-545: The Foundation, which he used to establish a research laboratory. The Cenozoic Research Laboratory of the Geological Survey of China was established at the Peking Union Medical College in 1928 with the assistance of Chinese geologists Ding Wenjiang and Weng Wenhao , for the research and appraisal of the fossils unearthed. Black stayed on at the Laboratory as honorary director, while excavations continued at

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1034-468: The bones to be made. When this task had been completed secretary Hu Chengzi packed up the fossils so they could be shipped to the U.S. for safekeeping until the end of the war. They were never seen again. Now only Weidenreich's timely copies and the research notes of the staff remain to demonstrate the pioneering work of this laboratory that is considered to be the precursor of the modern Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology (IVPP) of

1081-580: The book Preliminary Report on Archaeological Research in Kansu published in 1925. Andersson's archaeological activities and the view of Chinese culture which originated in the west caused a great uproar in China. The excavations by Chinese archaeologists, such as Li Ji , Fu Sinian , and Liang Siyong , based on their excavations in Yinxu and Chengziya , indicated an independent root for Chinese civilization. Despite this fact, it can be said that Andersson paved

1128-775: The concept of periglaciation in 1909. In 1914, Andersson was invited to China as a mining adviser to the Chinese government. His affiliation was with China's National Geological Survey (Dizhi diaochasuo) which was organized and led by the Chinese scholar Ding Wenjiang (V.K. Ting) and his colleague Wong Wen-hao ( Pinyin : Weng Wenhao ). During this time, Andersson assisted in the training of China's first generation of geologists, and he also made numerous discoveries of iron ore and other natural resources, as well as geological and paleontological discoveries. Andersson paid his first visit to Zhoukoudian in 1918 drawn to an area called "Chicken Bone Hill" by locals who had misidentified

1175-569: The director of the MFEA until he was succeeded in 1939 by the famous Swedish Sinologist Bernhard Karlgren . Selections of the Swedish portion of the materials is on display at the MFEA in a new permanent exhibit launched 2004. The Chinese part of the Andersson collections, according to a bilateral Sino-Swedish agreement, was returned by him to the Chinese government in seven shipments, 1927–1936. The first shipments were sent by Andersson to Peking, and

1222-563: The exhibits. The objects were long thought to be irretrievably lost in the civil war that followed, until 2002. After major renovations at the Geological Museum of China , the successor to the Geological Survey's museum, staff found three crates of ceramic vessels and fragments while re-organising items in storage. Following contact with the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities ( Östasiatiska Museet ) in Stockholm , it

1269-593: The first scientific archaeological excavations in China. It is possible they remain in Nanjing, but despite investigations by several competent parties (Andersson's sending lists have been copied by the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities to major institutions for cultural heritage and archaeology in China), they have not been relocated, and their whereabouts remains unknown. Cenozoic Research Laboratory The Cenozoic Research Laboratory ( Chinese : 新生代地质与环境研究室 ) of

1316-476: The last ones to Nanjing, which had become the new capital of China. An exhibit with these objects was mounted at the new National Geological Survey complex in Nanjing , where Andersson saw them in 1937, the last time they were reported seen by anyone. The last documentary evidence of these objects was a 1948 Visitors Guide to the Geological Survey museum in Nanjing, which listed Andersson's Yangshao artefacts among

1363-505: The most fruitful sources of material from the Middle Pleistocene era. A total of 13 layers have been excavated at the site to a depth of nearly 40 m. Layers below this have been shown by test-pit excavation not to contain fossils or lithics and have never been excavated. Part of the Peking Man Site, this slope was excavated 1930 – 58 and again in 1978 – 79 in a multi-disciplinary research mission. Excavations have dug to

1410-488: The objects returned to China by Andersson remain lost. This includes a spectacular and unique human-faced ceramic shaman head (see illustration in Fiskesjö and Chen 2004, repeated in Fiskesjö 2010), and numerous spectacular painted ceramic vessels. Even though similar such ceramics have been excavated since Andersson's time by Chinese archaeologists, these lost collections hold a special interest and value since they derive from

1457-563: The presence of stone tools. That same year, evidence of the use of fire at the cave was accepted. The ever-industrious Black died one night at his office in 1934 , with one of the skullcaps unearthed at the site on his desk. German Jewish anthropologist Franz Weidenreich replaced him as honorary director of the Laboratory, and excavations continued, uncovering a further three skullcaps in 1936 . Altogether, excavations uncovered 200 human fossils from more than 40 individuals, including 5 nearly complete skullcaps , before they were brought to

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1504-402: The region in 1918 at an area called Chicken-bone Hill by locals who had misidentified the rodent fossils that were found in abundance there, but it was not until 1921 that he and American palaeontologist Walter W. Granger were led to the site known as Dragon Bone Hill by local quarry men. Noticing some white quartz that was foreign to the area, he immediately realised that this would be

1551-535: The remains on the lower level indicated the inhabitants practiced burial rites. More than 20 fossil-bearing localities have been excavated in Zhoukoudian to date. This north–south running fissure is filled with red binder soil, and dates to the Middle Pleistocene era. Excavations in 1921 concurrent with those at the Peking Man Site unearthed mammalian fossils including hamster, rhino, and Chinese hyena. Discovered in 1927 , this east–west running fissure

1598-428: The rodent fossils found in abundance there. He returned in 1921 and local quarrymen took him to Dragon Bone Hill , where he identified a quartz sample that was not native to the area. Realising that the presence of non-native quartz may indicate the presence of prehistoric man, he sent his assistant, Otto Zdansky to the area and ordered him to excavate it. Zdansky returned and conducted further excavations in 1923 and

1645-418: The site under Chinese paleontologist Yang Zhongjian , anthropologists Pei Wenzhong , and Jia Lanpo . Conditions at the site were primitive, with scientists having to ride out to the excavation on mules and staying at caravansaries along the way. When the first skullcap was unearthed at the site in 1929 , it was done by Pei, working in a 40-meter crevasse in frigid weather, with a hammer in one hand and

1692-476: The site was occupied between 230,000 and 500,000 years ago. Locality 1, also known as Peking Man Site, was the first to be discovered, in 1921 , under the direction of local quarry men. The site was originally a natural limestone cave, although the roof had long since collapsed, spreading a layer of breccia and rubble across the top of the deposits. Early excavations in 1921 and 1923 revealed evidence of human habitation from 200,000 to 500,000 years ago. The cave

1739-479: The supervision of Chinese archaeologist Li Jie . That fall, a tooth was unearthed by Swedish paleontologist Anders Birger Bohlin , which Black proposed belonged to a new species dubbed Sinanthropus pekinensis . The following year , Black's excavations uncovered more fossils of his new species, including teeth, a substantial part of a juvenile's jaw, and an adult jaw complete with three teeth. These finds allowed Black to secure an additional $ 80,000 grant from

1786-485: The teeth as ?Homo sp. Sometimes called the Zhoukidian wolf, Canis variabilis fossils were found at the Zhoukoudian cave system and archaeological site in 1934, and named by their discoverer, Pei Wenzhong : Although no sharp line can be traced between the above described Canis and a true C. lupus , the marked differences found in size, and in cranial characters, seem to be sufficient for creating, at least,

1833-448: The thin-bedded fine sandstone about 70m above the river bed have unearthed more than 600 nearly complete fish fossils of four different species, two of which are now extinct. Discovered in 1932 , this relatively young site dates to around 100,000 to 200,000 years ago. Excavations from 1934 – 35 revealed three layers; an upper layer of loess and limestone debris; a middle layer containing ash, lithics, burned bones and hackberry seeds; and

1880-466: The thin-bedded sandy clay about 50m above the river bed have unearthed stone artefacts, ash and charred bones, and 36 species of deeply fossilised mammalian bones including thick-jawed giant deer, and sabre-toothed tiger. This narrow limestone cave 1.5 km (0.93 mi) south of the Peking Man Site dates to the early Pliocene era, and has yielded some of Zhoukoudian's oldest fossils, dating back 5 million years. Excavations in 1933, 1951 , and 1953 of

1927-591: The way for the foundation of modern Chinese archaeology. Andersson's most well-known book about his time in China is Den gula jordens barn , 1932, translated into several languages, including English (as Children of the Yellow Earth , 1934, reprinted in 1973), Japanese, and Korean. For an extensive bibliography of Andersson's works, and a comprehensive discussion of his and his colleagues' archaeological research in China, see M. Fiskesjö and Chen Xingcan, China before China: Johan Gunnar Andersson, Ding Wenjiang, and

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1974-444: Was being excavated, this column-shaped corrosion pit is filled with red grit, and dates to the late Early Pleistocene era. Excavations unearthed fossils of 22 mammalian species, including sabre-toothed tiger and an extinct primate. This fissure in a limestone mound 1 km south of the Peking Man Site dates to the early Middle Pleistocene era and is the earliest site of cultural remains excavated so far at Zhoukoudian. Excavations of

2021-481: Was confirmed that these were indeed left from Andersson's excavations. In 2006, these objects featured in an exhibition at the Geological Museum on the occasion of its 90th anniversary, celebrating the lives and work of Andersson and its other founders. In 2007, the Geological Museum of China published a documentary film (see review and discussion in Fiskesjö 2010). Still, as of 2010, the vast majority of

2068-465: Was excavated from 1927 - 37 , yielding 200 human fossils (from 40 individuals) identified as Homo erectus , more than 10,000 lithic pieces, several cinder layers indicating fire use in early man, as well as animal fossils from 200 separate species. The bulk of this material was lost in 1941 during the Japanese occupation and has never been recovered. Excavations recommenced in 1949 and continued to yield fossils and artefacts, making this site one of

2115-626: Was recommenced in 1949 , unearthing new Peking Man fossils, including 5 teeth and fragments of thigh and shin bone. The following year , a third premolar was discovered in the material sent back to Uppsala by Zdansky in 1921 and 1923. The Peking Man Site was designated "Type section of cave deposits of Middle Pleistocene in North China" by the Annual Congress of the National Committee of Stratigraphy of China in 1959 , and

2162-466: Was replaced by German Jewish anthropologist Franz Weidenreich . Excavations at Zhoukoudian ceased in 1937 with the Japanese occupation and the fossils from the site were locked in the laboratory safe under the assumption that they would be secure at the American-run hospital. However, in the summer of 1941 , fearing imminent war between America and Japan, Weidenreich ordered copies of

2209-549: Was similar to the decoration of Anau and Tripolje pottery in Central Asia and Europe, and both of them have similar spiral patterns. Therefore, Andersson hypothesized that Chinese painted pottery could have spread from the west. He believed that the Ancient China and Central Asia could have passed through Xinjiang and Gansu regions. In order to prove the hypothesis of a "West Origin", Andersson, in his capacity as

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