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83-469: Superstitions surrounding these bronze cash coins claim that they have amuletic properties because they were cast from Buddhist statues, and are particularly said to be effective in midwifery , hence many later-made imitations and amulets based on them exist and they have remained a popular motif for Chinese and Vietnamese amulets . During the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period , Guo Wei ,

166-531: A complete blood count (CBC), blood typing (including Rh screen), syphilis , hepatitis , HIV , and rubella testing. Additionally, women may have chlamydia testing via a urine sample, and women considered at high risk are screened for sickle cell disease and thalassemia . Women must consent to all tests before they are carried out. The woman's blood pressure , height and weight are measured. Her past pregnancies and family, social, and medical history are discussed. Women may have an ultrasound scan during

249-505: A metaphysics based on cosmic analogy. Wuxing originally referred to the five major planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Mercury, Mars, Venus), which were with the combination of the Sun and the Moon, conceived as creating five forces of earthly life. This is why the word is composed of Chinese characters meaning "five" ( 五 ; wǔ ) and "moving" ( 行 ; xíng ). "Moving" is shorthand for "planets", since

332-437: A DVT. The baby is also checked for jaundice, signs of adequate feeding, or other concerns. The baby has a nursery exam between six and seventy two hours of birth to check for conditions such as heart defects, hip problems, or eye problems. In the community, the community midwife sees the woman at least until day ten. This does not mean she sees the woman and baby daily, but she cannot discharge them from her care until day ten at

415-535: A campaign to procure enough copper for the production of cash coins. As copper was scarce during the Later Zhou period, the government tried confiscate enough bronze to cash coins to be able to pay for government expenditures and a number of policies were enacted, initially Emperor Shizong prohibited households from holding bronze utensils and later the Later Zhou would confiscate the assets of Buddhist temples to produce bronze cash coins. The imperial government of

498-416: A concentration in midwifery. Agnodice or Agnodike (Gr. Ἀγνοδίκη) was the earliest historical, and likely apocryphal, midwife mentioned among the ancient Greeks. Midwives were known by many different titles in antiquity, ranging from iatrinē (Gr. nurse ), maia (Gr., midwife), obstetrix (Lat., obstetrician ), and medica (Lat., doctor ). It appears as though midwifery was treated differently in

581-489: A different design. These charms include reverse sides featuring "suns" and "moons" represented by dots and crescents , the dragon and fenghuang symbolising matrimonial harmony , a meditating Lohan , and other symbols. Besides metal, Zhouyuan Tongbao charms can also be made of other materials such as jade . In Vietnam , a number of coin amulets with the inscription Châu Nguyên Thông Bảo (the Vietnamese reading of

664-461: A discussion and assistance with breastfeeding or a discussion about lactation suppression), abdominal palpation (if she has not had a caesarean section) to check for involution of the uterus, or a check of her caesarean wound (the dressing does not need to be removed for this), a check of her perineum, particularly if she tore or had stitches, reviewing her lochia, ensuring she has passed urine and had her bowels open and checking for signs and symptoms of

747-486: A feng shui practitioner attempts to rearrange energy to benefit the client. According to the Warring States period political philosopher Zou Yan ( c.  305–240 BCE), each of the five elements possesses a personified virtue ( 德 ; dé ), which indicates the foreordained destiny ( 運 ; yùn ) of a dynasty; hence the cyclic succession of the elements also indicates dynastic transitions. Zou Yan claims that

830-409: A good memory, loving work, respectable and generally not unduly handicapped as regards her senses [i.e., sight, smell, hearing], sound of limb, robust, and, according to some people, endowed with long slim fingers and short nails at her fingertips." Soranus also recommends that the midwife be of sympathetic disposition (although she need not have borne a child herself) and that she keep her hands soft for

913-403: A high quality care of the newborn, with medical or surgical conditions. Midwifery-led continuity of care is where one or more midwives have the primary responsibility for the continuity of care for childbearing women, with a multidisciplinary network of consultation and referral with other health care providers. This is different from "medical-led care" where an obstetrician or family physician

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996-411: A large number of cash coins to be produced in batches. In the sand casting method the preparation of moulds was done with fine sand which was reinforced using an organic binder, and placed inside of a wooden box. Consistency of the designs was maintained through the creation of " mother coins " (母錢). Around 50 to 100 "mother coins" were pressed lightly into the surface of the mould box and was followed by

1079-403: A low stool in front of the woman, modestly looking away while also assisting the delivery by dilating and massaging the vagina, as encouraged by Soranus. The services of a midwife were not inexpensive; this fact that suggests poorer women who could not afford the services of a professional midwife often had to make do with female relatives. Many wealthier families had their own midwives. However,

1162-598: A native of Yaoshan, Xingzhou , founded the Later Zhou state in Dongjing (東京, present-day Kaifeng , Henan Province) in 951. In 954, Guo Wei's adopted son Chai Rong succeeded to the throne, in Chinese historiography he is referred to Emperor Zhou Shizong, and adopted reign era to Xiande (顯德). During this period, there was a shortage of bronze cash coins in circulation in Later Zhou making private transactions were very difficult. The Zhouyuan Tongbao commenced production in

1245-472: A newborn with any severe deformities be exposed. A 2nd-century terracotta relief from the Ostian tomb of Scribonia Attice , wife of physician-surgeon M. Ulpius Amerimnus, details a childbirth scene. Scribonia was a midwife and the relief shows her in the midst of a delivery. A patient sits in the birth chair, gripping the handles and the midwife's assistant stands behind her providing support. Scribonia sits on

1328-652: A normal and healthy process. While midwives play a much larger role in the care of pregnant mothers in Europe than in America, the medicalized model of birth still has influence in those countries, even though the World Health Organization recommends a natural, normal and humanized birth. The midwifery model of pregnancy and childbirth as a normal and healthy process plays a much larger role in Sweden and

1411-408: A piece of wool soaked in olive oil over the umbilical cord. After the delivery, the midwife made the initial call on whether or not an infant was healthy and fit to rear. She inspected the newborn for congenital deformities and testing its cry to hear whether or not it was robust and hearty. Ultimately, midwives made a determination about the chances for an infant's survival and likely recommended that

1494-415: A previous general training). A professional in midwifery is known as a midwife . A 2013 Cochrane review concluded that "most women should be offered midwifery-led continuity models of care and women should be encouraged to ask for this option although caution should be exercised in applying this advice to women with substantial medical or obstetric complications." The review found that midwifery-led care

1577-422: A stool to the home where the delivery was to take place. In the seat of the birthstool was a crescent-shaped hole through which the baby would be delivered. The birthstool or chair often had armrests for the mother to grasp during the delivery. Most birthstools or chairs had backs which the patient could press against, but Soranus suggests that in some cases the chairs were backless and an assistant would stand behind

1660-629: A target of persecution and repression by public authorities because midwives possessed highly specialized knowledge and skills regarding not only assisting birth, but also contraception and abortion. At late 20th century, midwives were already recognized as highly trained and specialized professionals in obstetrics. However, at the beginning of the 21st century, the medical perception of pregnancy and childbirth as potentially pathological and dangerous still dominates Western culture. Midwives who work in hospital settings also have been influenced by this view, although by and large they are trained to view birth as

1743-480: A typical bronze Xiaoping Qian (小平錢) in size and weight, and its inscription is written using clerical script . The second stroke of the "Yuan" (元) character is written "picked from the left" ("元"字第二筆左挑). The reverse side of the Zhouyuan Tongbao cash coins sometimes have moon (crescent), star (dot), or star-moon (crescent and dot) patterns. The star (dot) patterns are either left, right, up or down, and

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1826-636: A wide array of phenomena, including cosmic cycles, the interactions between internal organs , the succession of political regimes, and the properties of herbal medicines . The agents are Fire , Water , Wood , Metal , and Earth . The wuxing system has been in use since it was formulated in the second or first century BCE during the Han dynasty . It appears in many seemingly disparate fields of early Chinese thought, including music , feng shui , alchemy , astrology , martial arts , military strategy , I Ching divination, and traditional medicine , serving as

1909-573: A wide range of women, including old women who continued folk medical traditions in the villages of the Roman Empire , trained midwives who garnered their knowledge from a variety of sources, and highly trained women who were considered physicians. However, there were certain characteristics desired in a "good" midwife , as described by the physician Soranus of Ephesus in the 2nd century. He states in his work, Gynecology , that "a suitable person will be literate, with her wits about her, possessed of

1992-479: Is gogyo ( Japanese : 五行 , romanized :  gogyō ). During the 5th and 6th centuries ( Kofun period ), Japan adopted various philosophical disciplines such as Taoism , Chinese Buddhism and Confucianism through monks and physicians from China. As opposed to theory of Godai that is form based and was introduced to Japan through India and Tibetan Buddhism evolving the Onmyōdō system. In particular, wuxing

2075-474: Is a life art with roots in Confucian, Taoists and Buddhist theory. It centers around applied peace and health studies rather than defence or physical action. It emphasizes the unification of mind, body and environment using the physiological theory of yin, yang and five-element Traditional Chinese medicine . Its movements, exercises, and teachings cultivate, direct, and harmonise the qi . The Japanese term

2158-434: Is based on wuxing , with the structure of the cosmos mirroring the five phases, as well as the eight trigrams . Each phase has a complex network of associations with different aspects of nature (see table): colors, seasons and shapes all interact according to the cycles. An interaction or energy flow can be expansive, destructive, or exhaustive, depending on the cycle to which it belongs. By understanding these energy flows,

2241-428: Is divided into four stages. Following the birth, if the mother had an episiotomy or a tearing of the perineum , it is sutured. The midwife does regular assessments for uterine contraction, fundal height , and vaginal bleeding. Throughout labor and delivery the mother's vital signs (temperature, blood pressure, and pulse) are closely monitored and her fluid intake and output are measured. The midwife also monitors

2324-454: Is extensively used in traditional five phase acupuncture today, as opposed to the modern Confucian styled eight principles based Traditional Chinese medicine. Furthermore, in combination the two systems are a formative and functional study of postnatal and prenatal influencing on genetics, psychology, sociology and ecology. The Huainanzi and the Yueling chapter ( 月令 ; Yuèlìng ) of

2407-532: Is primarily responsible. In "shared-care" models, responsibility may be shared between a midwife , an obstetrician and/or a family physician. The midwife is part of very intimate situations with the mother. For this reason, many say that the most important thing to look for in a midwife is comfort with them, as one will go to them with every question or problem. According to a Cochrane review of public health systems in Australia, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand and

2490-427: Is the health science and health profession that deals with pregnancy , childbirth , and the postpartum period (including care of the newborn ), in addition to the sexual and reproductive health of women throughout their lives. In many countries, midwifery is a medical profession (special for its independent and direct specialized education; should not be confused with the medical specialty, which depends on

2573-512: The Book of Rites make the following correlations: Tai chi uses the five elements to designate different directions, positions or footwork patterns: forward, backward, left, right and centre, or three steps forward (attack) and two steps back (retreat). The Five Steps ( 五步 ; wǔ bù ): The martial art of xingyiquan uses the five elements metaphorically to represent five different states of combat. Wuxing heqidao , Gogyo Aikido (五行合气道)

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2656-581: The Mandate of Heaven sanctions the legitimacy of a dynasty by sending self-manifesting auspicious signs in the ritual color (yellow, blue, white, red, and black) that matches the element of the new dynasty (Earth, Wood, Metal, Fire, and Water). From the Qin dynasty onward, most Chinese dynasties invoked the theory of the Five Elements to legitimize their reign. The interdependence of zangfu networks in

2739-537: The bā fēn (八分) style of Chinese calligraphy (alternatively known as "diverting style"), which was developed during the Han dynasty period. Thierry further states that the Châu Nguyên Thông Bảo amulet was especially desired by Chinese and Vietnamese women who wished to have a male child , as it was believed that being in possession of this amulet would increase the chances of having a son. List of variants of Chinese charms, amulets, and talismans based on

2822-414: The umbilical cord , and cleansed the baby. The child was sprinkled with "fine and powdery salt, or natron or aphronitre" to soak up the birth residue, rinsed, and then powdered and rinsed again. Next, the midwives cleared away any and all mucus present from the nose, mouth, ears, or anus. Midwives were encouraged by Soranus to put olive oil in the baby's eyes to cleanse away any birth residue, and to place

2905-434: The wuxing element " Wood " is more accurately thought of as the " vital essence " of trees rather than the physical substance wood. This led sinologist Nathan Sivin to propose the alternative translation "five phases" in 1987. But "phase" also fails to capture the full meaning of wuxing . In some contexts, the wuxing are indeed associated with physical substances. Historian of Chinese medicine Manfred Porkert proposed

2988-444: The (somewhat unwieldy) term "Evolutive Phase". Perhaps the most widely accepted translation among modern scholars is "the five agents", proposed by Marc Kalinowski. In traditional doctrine, the five phases are connected in two cycles of interactions: a generating or creation ( 生 shēng ) cycle, also known as "mother-son"; and an overcoming or destructive ( 克 kè ) cycle, also known as "grandfather-grandson" (see diagram). Each of

3071-571: The Buddhist statues, these coins were subsequently much-copied throughout Chinese history , these copies are popularly known as " folk coins " (民俗錢) and are believed to have the same spiritual powers as the original coins. The design and calligraphy of the Zhouyuan Tongbao very closely resembles those of the Kaiyuan Tongbao series of cash coins produced during the Tang dynasty period. It is

3154-562: The Cochrane review included licensed midwives, and none included lay or traditional midwives. Also, no trial included out of hospital birth. Compared to women in other care models, women in continuity models of midwifery care are more satisfied with their care. The updated version of the Cochrane review also shows a cost-saving effect in continuity models, compared to other midwifery models of care. In continuity models of midwifery care,

3237-475: The East was a respectable profession in which respectable women could earn their livelihoods and enough esteem to publish works read and cited by male physicians. In fact, a number of Roman legal provisions strongly suggest that midwives enjoyed status and remuneration comparable to that of male doctors. One example of such a midwife is Salpe of Lemnos , who wrote on women's diseases and was mentioned several times in

3320-678: The Eastern end of the Mediterranean basin as opposed to the West. In the East, some women advanced beyond the profession of midwife ( maia ) to that of gynaecologist ( iatros gynaikeios , translated as women's doctor ), for which formal training was required. Also, there were some gynecological tracts circulating in the medical and educated circles of the East that were written by women with Greek names, although these women were few in number. Based on these facts, it would appear that midwifery in

3403-455: The Five Elements into 60 ming ( 命 ), or life orders, based on the ganzhi . Similar to the astrology zodiac, the ming is used by fortune-tellers to analyse individual personality and destiny. The wuxing schema is applied to explain phenomena in various fields. The five phases are around 73 days each and are usually used to describe the transformations of nature rather than their formative states. The art of feng shui (Chinese geomancy )

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3486-532: The Later Zhou dynasty re-melted Buddhist bronze statues from 3356 temples to produce bronze coins. This decision was not just opposed by the Buddhists but also by his advisors, including both civil and military mandarins . When reproached for this, the emperor claimed that Gautama Buddha himself would not mind this sacrifice. Generally speaking, cash coins produced from the Warring States period until

3569-463: The Netherlands than the rest of Europe, however. Swedish midwives stand out, since they administer 80 percent of prenatal care and more than 80 percent of family planning services in Sweden. Midwives in Sweden attend all normal births in public hospitals and Swedish women tend to have fewer interventions in hospitals than American women. The Dutch infant mortality rate is one of the lowest rate in

3652-468: The United Kingdom, "most women should be offered midwifery-led continuity models of care and women should be encouraged to ask for this option although caution should be exercised in applying this advice to women with substantial medical or obstetric complications." Midwifery-led care has effects including the following: There was no difference in the number of Caesarean sections . All trials in

3735-719: The United States and Canada. In Northern Europe and Russia, the situation for midwives was a little easier - in the Duchy of Estonia in Imperial Russia , Professor Christian Friedrich Deutsch established a midwifery school for women at the University of Dorpat in 1811, which existed until World War I. It was the predecessor for the Tartu Health Care College . Training lasted for 7 months and in

3818-570: The World Health Organization, women should be able to have their children where ever they feel the most safe, so if having a midwife and proceeding with an at-home birth is what makes some women feel safe, then midwifery-led continuity of care might be the best option for them. In ancient Egypt , midwifery was a recognized female occupation, as attested by the Ebers Papyrus which dates from 1900 to 1550 BCE. Five columns of this papyrus deal with obstetrics and gynecology , especially concerning

3901-482: The Zhouyuan Tongbao cash coins with the same or derivative inscriptions: Abbreviations: t = top; b = bottom; r = right; l = left; char/ = Character amulet (inscription-only), and Char/pic = Character+pictorial amulet. During the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period the method employed to produce cash coins was known as the " sand casting method" (翻砂法), which was a technique where cash coins were cast using vertically arranged two-piece moulds. This technique allowed

3984-423: The Zhouyuan Tongbao was created from Buddhist statues the inscription very quickly became a popular inscription used on Chinese numismatic charms (see " Chinese charms with coin inscriptions "). As ancient Chinese people believed that Zhouyuan Tongbao cash coins were "auspicious" because of there origins, this belief Was carried over to the coin charms and amulets produced during the following centuries which display

4067-520: The acceleration of parturition (the action or process of giving birth to offspring) and the birth prognosis of the newborn. The Westcar papyrus , dated to 1700 BCE, includes instructions for calculating the expected date of confinement and describes different styles of birth chairs. Bas reliefs in the royal birth rooms at Luxor and other temples also attest to the heavy presence of midwifery in this culture. Midwifery in Greco-Roman antiquity covered

4150-464: The advent of forceps in the seventeenth century and since then childbirth has progressively moved from a woman supported experience in the home to a medical intervention within the hospital. There are significant advantages to assuming an upright position in labor and birth, such as stronger and more efficient uterine contractions aiding cervical dilatation, increased pelvic inlet and outlet diameters and improved uterine contractility. Upright positions in

4233-469: The baby on five different areas—each worth between 0 and 2 points. These areas are: colour, respiratory effort, tone, heart rate, and response to stimuli. The midwife checks the baby for any obvious problems, weighs the baby, and measure head circumference. The midwife ensures the cord has been clamped securely and the baby has the appropriate name tags on (if in hospital). Babies lengths are not routinely measured. The midwife performs these checks as close to

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4316-403: The baby's pulse rate, palpates the mother's abdomen to monitor the baby's position, and does vaginal examinations as indicated. If the birth deviates from the norm at any stage, the midwife requests assistance from the multi-disciplinary team. Until the last century most women have used both the upright position and alternative positions to give birth. The lithotomy position was not used until

4399-463: The beginning of the day (further reading: " Han dynasty coinage § "Yin Yang" and the "Five Elements" as the basis for Star, Moon, Cloud, and Dragon symbols on ancient Chinese coins and charms "). Zhouyuan Tongbao cash coins generally have a diameter of about 24 mm to 25 mm, with the largest recorded one being 25.8 mm, and the smallest one being only 22.6 mm. They typically weigh between 3 and 4 grams, with

4482-467: The birthing process, although they may also have helped with other medical problems relating to women when needed. Often, the midwife would call for the assistance of a physician when a more difficult birth was anticipated. In many cases the midwife brought along two or three assistants. In antiquity, it was believed by both midwives and physicians that a normal delivery was made easier when a woman sat upright. Therefore, during parturition, midwives brought

4565-456: The body was said to be a circle of five things, and so mapped by the Chinese doctors onto the five phases. In order to explain the integrity and complexity of the human body, Chinese medical scientists and physicians use the Five Elements theory to classify the human body's endogenous influences on organs, physiological activities, pathological reactions, and environmental or exogenous (external, environmental) influences. This diagnostic capacity

4648-416: The comfort of both mother and child. Pliny , another physician from this time, valued nobility and a quiet and inconspicuous disposition in a midwife. There appears to have been three "grades" of midwives present: The first was technically proficient; the second may have read some of the texts on obstetrics and gynecology; but the third was highly trained and reasonably considered a medical specialist with

4731-406: The earliest. Postnatal checks include neonatal screening test (NST, or heel prick test) around day five. The baby is weighed and the midwife plans visits according to the health and needs of mother and baby. They are discharged to the care of the health visitor. At birth, the baby receives an Apgar score at, at the least, one minute and five minutes of age. This is a score out of 10 that assesses

4814-695: The end a certificate for practice was issued to the female students. Despite accusations that midwives were "incompetent and ignorant", some argued that poorly trained surgeons were far more of a danger to pregnant women. In 1846, the physician Ignaz Semmelweiss observed that more women died in maternity wards staffed by male surgeons than by female midwives, and traced these outbreaks of puerperal fever back to (then all-male) medical students not washing their hands properly after dissecting cadavers , but his sanitary recommendations were ignored until acceptance of germ theory became widespread. The argument that surgeons were more dangerous than midwives lasted until

4897-578: The first trimester which may be used to help find the estimated due date . Some women may have genetic testing , such as screening for Down syndrome . Diet, exercise, and common disorders of pregnancy such as morning sickness are discussed. The mother visits the midwife monthly or more often during the second trimester. The mother's partner and/or the birth companion may accompany her. The midwife will discuss pregnancy issues such as fatigue, heartburn, varicose veins, and other common problems such as back pain. Blood pressure and weight are monitored and

4980-415: The heaviest recorded one being 4.6 grams, and the lightest one being only 2.9 grams. In traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) the Zhouyuan Tongbao is believed to have preventative powers against malaria and both miscarriages and various childbirth complications , such as dystocia . Pregnant women are advised to carry a Zhouyuan Tongbao cash coin around for both a smoother pregnancy and childbirth. As

5063-490: The midwife measures the mother's abdomen to see if the baby is growing as expected. Lab tests such as a UA, CBC, and glucose tolerance test are done if clinically indicated. In the third trimester the midwife will see the mother every two weeks until week 36 and every week after that. Weight, blood pressure, and abdominal measurements will continue to be done. Lab tests such as a CBC and UA may be done with additional testing done for at-risk pregnancies. The midwife palpates

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5146-606: The midwife-woman relationship is developing over time. The deepened relationship has shown to be of great importance and is in a systematic review described as "the viechle through which personalised care, trust and empowerment are achieved in the continuity of care midwifery model". In some cultures, midwifery is the most traditional way of carrying out a pregnancy and childbirth, and it has been conducted for multiple generations. Child birthing women in these cultures, take Zimbabwe for example, feel that health facilities are not as comforting as cultural roots of care. Also, according to

5229-547: The mint workers obtained a series of two-piece moulds. Afterwards, the casting channels between the cash coin imprints and a central tunnel were cleared out, allowing the boxes to be fixed together in pairs of two. The final step involved the pouring in of molten metal. When the process was done and the metal was allowed to cool down a " coin tree " was formed, from this "coin tree" the cash coins could be separated and cleaned up. [REDACTED] Media related to Zhouyuan Tongbao at Wikimedia Commons Midwifery Midwifery

5312-435: The moon patterns are not always in the same place, they are either up or down, left or right, or near a corner. According to Chinese economic historian Zhao Dexin (赵德馨), the moon (crescent) on the back of every coin seems to represent one of the eight trigrams . Therefore, it is said that the moon (crescent) patterns found on Zhouyuan Tongbao cash coins are closely related to the five elements , yin and yang , new life, and

5395-437: The mother as possible and returns the baby to the mother quickly. Skin-to-skin is encouraged, as this regulates the baby's heart rate, breathing, oxygen saturation, and temperature—and promotes bonding and breastfeeding. In some countries, such as Chile , the midwife is the professional who can direct neonatal intensive care units. This is an advantage for these professionals, who can use the knowledge of perinatology to bring

5478-437: The mother to support her. The midwife sat facing the mother, encouraging and supporting her through the birth, perhaps offering instruction on breathing and pushing, sometimes massaging her vaginal opening, and supporting her perineum during the delivery of the baby. The assistants may have helped by pushing downwards on the top of the mother's abdomen. Finally, the midwife received the infant, placed it in pieces of cloth, cut

5561-462: The placing down of a second mould box on top of the first one. This allowed for an impression to be taken of both sides of the pattern of the mother coin. After the impression was taken the mould boxes would be turned over and separated, which would allow the mother coin to stay placed on the surface or the lower mould. A new fresh mould box would subsequently be laid on top and this allowed the pair to be turned and separated again. Using this methodology,

5644-555: The reign of the Jiajing Emperor of the Ming dynasty were made of bronze, but because the Zhouyuan Tongbao cash coins were cast from melted Buddhist statues, which are typically brass, they contain higher levels of zinc that other coinages from this period. Though zinc was present in these coins, the quantity remains quite low overall with values of zinc up to 2–4%. Because they were believed to have spiritual powers inherited from

5727-405: The same inscription. The general idea behind the "charm powers" of the Zhouyuan Tongbao inscription is based on the fact that the original cash coins were created from Buddhist statues meaning that their religious significance was transferred to the cash coins. Variant Zhouyuan Tongbao charms typically have the same obverse side as the original cash coin, but the reverse side of the coin charm shows

5810-456: The second stage include sitting, squatting, kneeling, and being on hands and knees. For women who have a hospital birth, the minimum hospital stay is six hours. Women who leave before this do so against medical advice. Women may choose when to leave the hospital. Full postnatal assessments are conducted daily whilst inpatient, or more frequently if needed. A postnatal assessment includes the woman's observations, general well-being, breasts (either

5893-420: The socioeconomic status of the patient. From the 18th century, a conflict between surgeons and midwives arose, as medical men began to assert that their modern scientific techniques were better for mothers and infants than the folk medicine practiced by midwives. As doctors and medical associations pushed for a legal monopoly on obstetrical care, midwifery became outlawed or heavily regulated throughout

5976-526: The study of bacteriology became popular in the early 1900s and hospital hygiene was improved. Women began to feel safer in the setting of the hospitals with the amount of aid and the ease of birth that they experienced with doctors. "Physicians trained in the new century found a great contrast between their hospital and obstetrics practice in women's homes where they could not maintain sterile conditions or have trained help." German social scientists Gunnar Heinsohn and Otto Steiger theorize that midwifery became

6059-522: The traditional Chinese characters "周元通寳") were also produced, some of the amulets with this inscription were uniquely produced and used as lucky and protective charms in Vietnam. According to French numismatist François Thierry some of these Vietnamese Châu Nguyên Thông Bảo amulets had distinctive features that differentiated them from their Chinese counterparts, for example some Vietnamese amulets with this inscription are written using an elegant form of

6142-515: The two cycles can be analyzed going forward or reversed. There is also an "overacting" or excessive version of the destructive cycle. The generating cycle ( 相 生 xiāngshēng ) is: The reverse generating cycle ( 相 洩 / 相 泄 xiāngxiè ) is: The destructive cycle ( 相 克 xiāngkè ) is: The excessive destructive cycle ( 相 乘 xiāngchéng ) is: A reverse or deficient destructive cycle ( 相 侮 xiāngwǔ or 相 耗 xiānghào ) is: In Ziwei divination, neiyin ( 納音 ) further classifies

6225-540: The vast majority of women in the Greco-Roman world very likely received their maternity care from hired midwives. They may have been highly trained or possessed only a rudimentary knowledge of obstetrics. Also, many families had a choice of whether or not they wanted to employ a midwife who practiced the traditional folk medicine or the newer methods of professional parturition. Like a lot of other factors in antiquity, quality gynecological care often depended heavily on

6308-440: The woman's abdomen to establish the lie, presentation and position of the fetus and later, the engagement. A pelvic exam may be done to see if the mother's cervix is dilating. The midwife and the mother discuss birthing options and write a birth care plan. Midwives are qualified to assist with a normal vaginal delivery while more complicated deliveries are handled by a health care provider who has had further training. Childbirth

6391-426: The women as freed, it can be proposed that midwives were generally valued enough, and earned enough income, to be able to gain their freedom. It is not known from these epitaphs how certain slave women were selected for training as midwives. Slave girls may have been apprenticed, and it is most likely that mothers taught their daughters. The actual duties of the midwife in antiquity consisted mainly of assisting in

6474-534: The word for planets in Chinese literally translates as "moving stars" ( 行星 ; xíngxīng ). Some of the Mawangdui Silk Texts (before 168 BC) also connect the wuxing to the wude ( 五德 ; wǔdé ), the Five Virtues and Five Emotions. Scholars believe that various predecessors to the concept of wuxing were merged into one system with many interpretations during the Han dynasty . Wuxing

6557-529: The works of Pliny. However, in the Roman West, information about practicing midwives comes mainly from funerary epitaphs. Two hypotheses are suggested by looking at a small sample of these epitaphs. The first is the midwifery was not a profession to which freeborn women of families that had enjoyed free status of several generations were attracted; therefore it seems that most midwives were of servile origin. Second, since most of these funeral epitaphs describe

6640-482: The world, at 4.0 deaths per thousand births, while the United States ranked twenty-second. Midwives in the Netherlands and Sweden owe a great deal of their success to supportive government policies. Notes Bibliography Wuxing (Chinese philosophy) Wuxing ( Chinese : 五行 ; pinyin : wǔxíng ), usually translated as Five Phases or Five Agents , is a fivefold conceptual scheme used in many traditional Chinese fields of study to explain

6723-543: The year Xiande 2 (顯德二年), February 955 AD (using the Gregorian calendar ), during the reign of Emperor Shizong and was the first cash coin produced by the Later Zhou dynasty . It is said that Emperor Shizong himself would supervise their casting at the many large furnaces at the back of the palace. The Later Zhou dynasty was heavily in debt and in order to try to pay off the government's debts, Emperor Shizong started

6806-505: Was associated with a reduction in the use of epidurals , with fewer episiotomies or instrumental births, and a decreased risk of losing the baby before 24 weeks' gestation. However, midwifery-led care was also associated with a longer mean length of labor as measured in hours. Trimester means "three months". A normal pregnancy lasts about nine months and has three trimesters. First trimester screening varies by country. Women are typically offered urinalysis (UA) and blood tests including

6889-532: Was first translated into English as "the Five Elements", drawing deliberate parallels with the Greek arrangement of the four elements . This translation is still in common use among practitioners of Traditional Chinese medicine , such as in the name of Five Element acupuncture. However, this analogy is misleading. The four elements are concerned with form, substance and quantity, whereas wuxing are "primarily concerned with process, change, and quality". For example,

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