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115-503: Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam ( Arabic : عَبْدُ اللَّهِ ٱبْن الزُّبَيْرِ ٱبْن الْعَوَّامِ , romanized :  ʿAbd Allāh ibn al-Zubayr ibn al-ʿAwwām ; May 624 – October/November 692) was the leader of a caliphate based in Mecca that rivaled the Umayyads from 683 until his death. The son of al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam and Asma bint Abi Bakr , and grandson of

230-575: A collection of related dialects that constitute the precursor of Arabic, first emerged during the Iron Age . Previously, the earliest attestation of Old Arabic was thought to be a single 1st century CE inscription in Sabaic script at Qaryat al-Faw , in southern present-day Saudi Arabia. However, this inscription does not participate in several of the key innovations of the Arabic language group, such as

345-435: A corpus of poetic texts, in addition to Qur'an usage and Bedouin informants whom he considered to be reliable speakers of the ʿarabiyya . Arabic spread with the spread of Islam . Following the early Muslim conquests , Arabic gained vocabulary from Middle Persian and Turkish . In the early Abbasid period , many Classical Greek terms entered Arabic through translations carried out at Baghdad's House of Wisdom . By

460-469: A daughter of Hasan , son of the fourth caliph Ali ( r.  656–661 ) and grandson of Muhammad, bore his daughter Ruqayya. Tumadir's sister Zajla was at one point married to Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr. He was also married to A'isha, a daughter of the third caliph Uthman ( r.  644–656 ). A'isha or Nafisa mothered Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr's son Bakr, of whom little is reported in the traditional sources. Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr divorced A'isha following

575-1081: A dialect of Arabic and written in the Latin alphabet . The Balkan languages, including Albanian, Greek , Serbo-Croatian, and Bulgarian , have also acquired many words of Arabic origin, mainly through direct contact with Ottoman Turkish . Arabic has influenced languages across the globe throughout its history, especially languages where Islam is the predominant religion and in countries that were conquered by Muslims. The most markedly influenced languages are Persian , Turkish , Hindustani ( Hindi and Urdu ), Kashmiri , Kurdish , Bosnian , Kazakh , Bengali , Malay ( Indonesian and Malaysian ), Maldivian , Pashto , Punjabi , Albanian , Armenian , Azerbaijani , Sicilian, Spanish, Greek, Bulgarian, Tagalog , Sindhi , Odia , Hebrew and African languages such as Hausa , Amharic , Tigrinya , Somali , Tamazight , and Swahili . Conversely, Arabic has borrowed some words (mostly nouns) from other languages, including its sister-language Aramaic, Persian, Greek, and Latin and to

690-608: A force under Abd Allah ibn Umayr al-Laythi to drive out the Najdiyya Kharijites from Bahrayn after they overran the province, but the Zubayrids were repulsed. Hamza proved incompetent in his administration of Iraq and, following his failure to deliver the provincial revenues to the state treasury in Mecca, he was dismissed and allegedly imprisoned by his father. Mus'ab was reinstated shortly after, in 687/688. By that time,

805-487: A lesser extent and more recently from Turkish, English, French, and Italian. Arabic is spoken by as many as 380 million speakers, both native and non-native, in the Arab world, making it the fifth most spoken language in the world, and the fourth most used language on the internet in terms of users. It also serves as the liturgical language of more than 2 billion Muslims . In 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked Arabic

920-497: A lift home on his camel, but fearing her husband's jealousy , she modestly refused. Al-Zubayr told her, however, that it hurt him more that she had been carrying such a heavy load than if she accepted Muhammad's offer. When Abu Bakr eventually gave them a slave, Asma said that "it was as if he had set me free". Her mother Qutaylah came to visit her in Medina, bringing gifts of dates, ghee, and mimosa leaves. Asma would not admit her to

1035-690: A millennium before the modern period . Early lexicographers ( لُغَوِيُّون lughawiyyūn ) sought to explain words in the Quran that were unfamiliar or had a particular contextual meaning, and to identify words of non-Arabic origin that appear in the Quran. They gathered shawāhid ( شَوَاهِد 'instances of attested usage') from poetry and the speech of the Arabs—particularly the Bedouin ʾaʿrāb  [ ar ] ( أَعْراب ) who were perceived to speak

1150-594: A result, many European languages have borrowed words from it. Arabic influence, mainly in vocabulary, is seen in European languages (mainly Spanish and to a lesser extent Portuguese , Catalan , and Sicilian ) owing to the proximity of Europe and the long-lasting Arabic cultural and linguistic presence, mainly in Southern Iberia, during the Al-Andalus era. Maltese is a Semitic language developed from

1265-516: A righteous husband and he dies and she does not remarry after him, they will be reunited in the Garden [Paradise]". Another of al-Zubayr's wives, Umm Kulthum bint Uqba , also complained of his "harshness" and pestered him into divorcing her after only a few months. Al-Zubayr eventually divorced Asma "and took Urwa, who was young at that time". The Battle of the Yarmuk in 636 is regarded as one of

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1380-462: A script derived from ASA attest to a language known as Hasaitic . On the northwestern frontier of Arabia, various languages known to scholars as Thamudic B , Thamudic D, Safaitic , and Hismaic are attested. The last two share important isoglosses with later forms of Arabic, leading scholars to theorize that Safaitic and Hismaic are early forms of Arabic and that they should be considered Old Arabic . Linguists generally believe that "Old Arabic",

1495-477: A silver chain made and sent to Mecca with the intention of having al-Walid ibn Utbah arrest Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr with it. In Mecca and Medina Hussein's family had a strong support base, and the people were willing to stand up for them. Hussein's remaining family moved back to Madina. Eventually Abdullah consolidated his power by sending a governor to Kufa. Soon Abdullah established his power in Iraq, southern Arabia,

1610-470: A single language, despite mutual incomprehensibility among differing spoken versions. From a linguistic standpoint, it is often said that the various spoken varieties of Arabic differ among each other collectively about as much as the Romance languages . This is an apt comparison in a number of ways. The period of divergence from a single spoken form is similar—perhaps 1500 years for Arabic, 2000 years for

1725-408: A tradition that Asma was ten years older than Aisha; but according to Al-Dhahabi , the age difference was thirteen to fifteen years. Asma's parents were divorced before Muhammad started preaching the message of Islam . Because of this she remained at her father's house. Asma was one of the first to accept Islam , being listed fifteenth on Ibn Ishaq's list of those who accepted Islam at

1840-507: A type of Arabic. Cypriot Arabic is recognized as a minority language in Cyprus. The sociolinguistic situation of Arabic in modern times provides a prime example of the linguistic phenomenon of diglossia , which is the normal use of two separate varieties of the same language, usually in different social situations. Tawleed is the process of giving a new shade of meaning to an old classical word. For example, al-hatif lexicographically means

1955-507: A variety of regional vernacular Arabic dialects , which are not necessarily mutually intelligible. Classical Arabic is the language found in the Quran , used from the period of Pre-Islamic Arabia to that of the Abbasid Caliphate . Classical Arabic is prescriptive, according to the syntactic and grammatical norms laid down by classical grammarians (such as Sibawayh ) and the vocabulary defined in classical dictionaries (such as

2070-476: A wider audience." In the wake of the industrial revolution and European hegemony and colonialism , pioneering Arabic presses, such as the Amiri Press established by Muhammad Ali (1819), dramatically changed the diffusion and consumption of Arabic literature and publications. Rifa'a al-Tahtawi proposed the establishment of Madrasat al-Alsun in 1836 and led a translation campaign that highlighted

2185-737: Is a Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world . The ISO assigns language codes to 32 varieties of Arabic , including its standard form of Literary Arabic, known as Modern Standard Arabic , which is derived from Classical Arabic . This distinction exists primarily among Western linguists; Arabic speakers themselves generally do not distinguish between Modern Standard Arabic and Classical Arabic, but rather refer to both as al-ʿarabiyyatu l-fuṣḥā ( اَلعَرَبِيَّةُ ٱلْفُصْحَىٰ "the eloquent Arabic") or simply al-fuṣḥā ( اَلْفُصْحَىٰ ). Arabic

2300-590: Is a minimum level of comprehension between all Arabic dialects, this level can increase or decrease based on geographic proximity: for example, Levantine and Gulf speakers understand each other much better than they do speakers from the Maghreb. The issue of diglossia between spoken and written language is a complicating factor: A single written form, differing sharply from any of the spoken varieties learned natively, unites several sometimes divergent spoken forms. For political reasons, Arabs mostly assert that they all speak

2415-559: Is a sister language rather than their direct ancestor. Arabia had a wide variety of Semitic languages in antiquity. The term "Arab" was initially used to describe those living in the Arabian Peninsula , as perceived by geographers from ancient Greece . In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside the Ancient South Arabian family (e.g. Southern Thamudic) were spoken. It

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2530-478: Is believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages (non-Central Semitic languages) were spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hejaz , Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages. In Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested. In eastern Arabia, inscriptions in

2645-408: Is credited with establishing the rules of Arabic prosody . Al-Jahiz (776–868) proposed to Al-Akhfash al-Akbar an overhaul of the grammar of Arabic, but it would not come to pass for two centuries. The standardization of Arabic reached completion around the end of the 8th century. The first comprehensive description of the ʿarabiyya "Arabic", Sībawayhi's al - Kitāb , is based first of all upon

2760-472: Is credited with standardizing Arabic grammar , or an-naḥw ( النَّحو "the way" ), and pioneering a system of diacritics to differentiate consonants ( نقط الإعجام nuqaṭu‿l-i'jām "pointing for non-Arabs") and indicate vocalization ( التشكيل at-tashkīl ). Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi (718–786) compiled the first Arabic dictionary, Kitāb al-'Ayn ( كتاب العين "The Book of the Letter ع "), and

2875-574: Is not present in the spoken varieties, but deletes Classical words that sound obsolete in MSA. In addition, MSA has borrowed or coined many terms for concepts that did not exist in Quranic times, and MSA continues to evolve. Some words have been borrowed from other languages—notice that transliteration mainly indicates spelling and not real pronunciation (e.g., فِلْم film 'film' or ديمقراطية dīmuqrāṭiyyah 'democracy'). The current preference

2990-855: Is official in Mali and recognized as a minority language in Morocco, while the Senegalese government adopted the Latin script to write it. Maltese is official in (predominantly Catholic ) Malta and written with the Latin script . Linguists agree that it is a variety of spoken Arabic, descended from Siculo-Arabic , though it has experienced extensive changes as a result of sustained and intensive contact with Italo-Romance varieties, and more recently also with English. Due to "a mix of social, cultural, historical, political, and indeed linguistic factors", many Maltese people today consider their language Semitic but not

3105-572: Is the third most widespread official language after English and French, one of six official languages of the United Nations , and the liturgical language of Islam . Arabic is widely taught in schools and universities around the world and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, governments and the media. During the Middle Ages , Arabic was a major vehicle of culture and learning, especially in science, mathematics and philosophy. As

3220-590: Is the variety used in most current, printed Arabic publications, spoken by some of the Arabic media across North Africa and the Middle East, and understood by most educated Arabic speakers. "Literary Arabic" and "Standard Arabic" ( فُصْحَى fuṣḥá ) are less strictly defined terms that may refer to Modern Standard Arabic or Classical Arabic. Some of the differences between Classical Arabic (CA) and Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) are as follows: MSA uses much Classical vocabulary (e.g., dhahaba 'to go') that

3335-413: Is to avoid direct borrowings, preferring to either use loan translations (e.g., فرع farʻ 'branch', also used for the branch of a company or organization; جناح janāḥ 'wing', is also used for the wing of an airplane, building, air force, etc.), or to coin new words using forms within existing roots ( استماتة istimātah ' apoptosis ', using the root موت m/w/t 'death' put into

3450-524: Is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the industrial and post-industrial era , especially in modern times. Due to its grounding in Classical Arabic, Modern Standard Arabic is removed over a millennium from everyday speech, which is construed as a multitude of dialects of this language. These dialects and Modern Standard Arabic are described by some scholars as not mutually comprehensible. The former are usually acquired in families, while

3565-445: The Lisān al-ʻArab ). Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) largely follows the grammatical standards of Classical Arabic and uses much of the same vocabulary. However, it has discarded some grammatical constructions and vocabulary that no longer have any counterpart in the spoken varieties and has adopted certain new constructions and vocabulary from the spoken varieties. Much of the new vocabulary

Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr - Misplaced Pages Continue

3680-568: The Alids belonged and whose support Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr deemed important for his own legitimacy as caliph. The leading representatives of the clan in the Hejaz, Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya , the half-brother of Husayn ibn Ali, and their cousin Abd Allah ibn Abbas , withheld their oaths citing the need for a stronger consensus in the wider Muslim community. Irritated, Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr besieged

3795-626: The Battle of Marj Rahit in July 684. The surviving Qaysi tribesmen fled to the Jazira (Upper Mesopotamia) under the leadership of Zufar ibn al-Harith al-Kilabi , who maintained his recognition of Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr's suzerainty. However, in March 685, Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr lost the economically important province of Egypt to Marwan. Meanwhile, negotiations collapsed between Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr and

3910-574: The First Fitna , he fought on the side of his aunt A'isha against Caliph Ali ( r.  656–661 ). Though little is heard of Ibn al-Zubayr during the subsequent reign of the first Umayyad caliph Mu'awiya I ( r.  661–680 ), it was known that he opposed the latter's designation of his son, Yazid I , as his successor. Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, along with many of the Quraysh and the Ansar ,

4025-461: The Kharijite rebellions in Iraq, reduced his domain to only the Hejaz. Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr was finally defeated by Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan , who sent Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf . Abdallah asked his mother what he should do, then left to take on Hajjaj. Hajjaj's army was defeated and Abdallah died on the battlefield in 692 CE. The defeat of Abdallah ibn al-Zubayr re-established Umayyad control over

4140-602: The Qaysi tribes of northern Syria . Likewise, in Khurasan , the de facto governor Abd Allah ibn Khazim al-Sulami offered his recognition. Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr appointed his brother Mus'ab as governor of Basra and its dependencies. In a testament to the extent of Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr's sovereignty, coins were minted in his name as far as the districts of Kerman and Fars in modern-day Iran; both were dependencies of Basra at that time. Nonetheless, his authority outside of

4255-568: The Xth form , or جامعة jāmiʻah 'university', based on جمع jamaʻa 'to gather, unite'; جمهورية jumhūriyyah 'republic', based on جمهور jumhūr 'multitude'). An earlier tendency was to redefine an older word although this has fallen into disuse (e.g., هاتف hātif 'telephone' < 'invisible caller (in Sufism)'; جريدة jarīdah 'newspaper' < 'palm-leaf stalk'). Colloquial or dialectal Arabic refers to

4370-494: The northern Hejaz . These features are evidence of common descent from a hypothetical ancestor , Proto-Arabic . The following features of Proto-Arabic can be reconstructed with confidence: On the other hand, several Arabic varieties are closer to other Semitic languages and maintain features not found in Classical Arabic, indicating that these varieties cannot have developed from Classical Arabic. Thus, Arabic vernaculars do not descend from Classical Arabic: Classical Arabic

4485-419: The "learned" tradition (Classical Arabic). This variety and both its classicizing and "lay" iterations have been termed Middle Arabic in the past, but they are thought to continue an Old Higazi register. It is clear that the orthography of the Quran was not developed for the standardized form of Classical Arabic; rather, it shows the attempt on the part of writers to record an archaic form of Old Higazi. In

4600-714: The "purest," most eloquent form of Arabic—initiating a process of jamʿu‿l-luɣah ( جمع اللغة 'compiling the language') which took place over the 8th and early 9th centuries. Kitāb al-'Ayn ( c.  8th century ), attributed to Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi , is considered the first lexicon to include all Arabic roots ; it sought to exhaust all possible root permutations —later called taqālīb ( تقاليب ) — calling those that are actually used mustaʿmal ( مستعمَل ) and those that are not used muhmal ( مُهمَل ). Lisān al-ʿArab (1290) by Ibn Manzur gives 9,273 roots, while Tāj al-ʿArūs (1774) by Murtada az-Zabidi gives 11,978 roots. Asma bint Abi Bakr She

4715-454: The 11th and 12th centuries in al-Andalus , the zajal and muwashah poetry forms developed in the dialectical Arabic of Cordoba and the Maghreb. The Nahda was a cultural and especially literary renaissance of the 19th century in which writers sought "to fuse Arabic and European forms of expression." According to James L. Gelvin , " Nahda writers attempted to simplify the Arabic language and script so that it might be accessible to

Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr - Misplaced Pages Continue

4830-571: The 4th to the 6th centuries, the Nabataean script evolved into the Arabic script recognizable from the early Islamic era. There are inscriptions in an undotted, 17-letter Arabic script dating to the 6th century CE, found at four locations in Syria ( Zabad , Jebel Usays , Harran , Umm el-Jimal ). The oldest surviving papyrus in Arabic dates to 643 CE, and it uses dots to produce the modern 28-letter Arabic alphabet. The language of that papyrus and of

4945-498: The 657 arbitration. In response to growing opposition throughout Arabia, Yazid dispatched a Syrian Arab expeditionary force led by Muslim ibn Uqba to suppress Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr and the Ansar. The Ansar were routed at the Battle of al-Harra in the summer of 683, and Ibn Hanzala was slain. The army continued toward Mecca, but Ibn Uqba died en route and command passed to his deputy Husayn ibn Numayr al-Sakuni . The latter besieged

5060-834: The 8th century, knowledge of Classical Arabic had become an essential prerequisite for rising into the higher classes throughout the Islamic world, both for Muslims and non-Muslims. For example, Maimonides , the Andalusi Jewish philosopher, authored works in Judeo-Arabic —Arabic written in Hebrew script . Ibn Jinni of Mosul , a pioneer in phonology , wrote prolifically in the 10th century on Arabic morphology and phonology in works such as Kitāb Al-Munṣif , Kitāb Al-Muḥtasab , and Kitāb Al-Khaṣāʾiṣ    [ ar ] . Ibn Mada' of Cordoba (1116–1196) realized

5175-510: The Empire. A few years later in 740 CE the people of Kufa called Zayd ibn Ali , the grandson of Hussein, over to Kufa. Zaydis believe that in Zayd's last hour, he was also betrayed by the people of Kufa,." Asma died a few days after her son who was killed on Tuesday 17 Jumada al-Ula in 73 AH". Asma died when she was 100 years (lunar) old. Asma was 17th person who became Muslim and she

5290-564: The Hejaz was largely nominal. Most of the Arab tribes in central and southern Syria remained loyal to the Umayyads and selected the non-Sufyanid Marwan ibn al-Hakam from Medina to succeed Mu'awiya II. The proclamation of Marwan as caliph in Damascus marked a turning point for Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr. Marwan's partisans, led by Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad , decisively defeated the pro-Zubayrid Qaysi tribes, led by al-Dahhak ibn Qays al-Fihri , at

5405-500: The Hejaz with the Kharijite leader Najda holding more influence in the greater part of the peninsula. Thus, Ibn al-Zubayr had virtually rendered himself a background figure in the movement that was launched in his name; in the words of historian Julius Wellhausen , "the struggle turned round him nominally, but he took no part in it and it was decided without him". During his rule, Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr made significant alterations to

5520-1030: The Hejaz, cutting him off from loyalists in other parts of the caliphate. In 691, Abd al-Malik secured the support of Zufar and the Qays of Jazira, removing the principal obstacle between his Syrian army and Zubayrid Iraq. Later that year, his forces conquered Iraq and killed Mus'ab in the Battle of Maskin . Al-Muhallab, who was leading the fight against the Kharijites in Fars and Ahwaz , subsequently switched his allegiance to Abd al-Malik. After asserting Umayyad authority in Iraq, Abd al-Malik dispatched one of his commanders, al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf , to subdue Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr. Al-Hajjaj besieged and bombarded Mecca for six months, by which point, most of Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr's partisans and his sons Khubayb and Hamza surrendered upon offers of pardons. Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr remained defiant and, acting on his mother's counsel, entered

5635-464: The Ka'aba's structure, claiming that the changes were in line with the authority of Muhammad. He called himself the "fugitive at the sanctuary [Ka'aba]" while his Umayyad detractors referred to him as "the evil-doer at Mecca". Three Umayyad caliphs reigned during the twelve years of Ibn al-Zubayr's caliphate between 680 and 692. The short terms indicated in the upper plot in light blue and yellow correspond to

5750-743: The Kufan strongman al-Mukhtar al-Thaqafi , who afterward took up the cause of the Alid family. He declared Ibn al-Hanafiyya caliph and, unprecedented in Islamic history, the Mahdi . Al-Mukhtar's partisans drove out the Zubayrid authorities from Kufa in October 685. Al-Mukhtar later dispatched a Kufan force to the Hejaz and freed Ibn al-Hanafiyya. Mus'ab's authority in Basra and Khurasan was also beginning to waver, but

5865-412: The Middle East and North Africa have become a badge of sophistication and modernity and ... feigning, or asserting, weakness or lack of facility in Arabic is sometimes paraded as a sign of status, class, and perversely, even education through a mélange of code-switching practises." Arabic has been taught worldwide in many elementary and secondary schools, especially Muslim schools. Universities around

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5980-517: The Muslim conquest of Ifriqiya (North Africa) under the commander Abd Allah ibn Sa'd . During that campaign, Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr discovered a vulnerable point in the battle lines of the Byzantine defenders and slew their patrician , Gregory . He was lauded by Caliph Uthman and issued a victory speech, well known for its eloquence, upon his return to Medina. Later, he joined Sa'id ibn al-As in

6095-473: The Najdiyya Kharijites conquered Yemen and Hadhramaut , while in 689, they occupied Ta'if , Mecca's southern neighbour. The defeat of al-Mukhtar, who had opposed the Zubayrids and the Umayyads, left Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr and Marwan's son and successor Abd al-Malik ( r.  685–705 ) as the two main contenders for the caliphate. However, Kharijite gains in Arabia had isolated Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr in

6210-690: The Qur'an is referred to by linguists as "Quranic Arabic", as distinct from its codification soon thereafter into " Classical Arabic ". In late pre-Islamic times, a transdialectal and transcommunal variety of Arabic emerged in the Hejaz , which continued living its parallel life after literary Arabic had been institutionally standardized in the 2nd and 3rd century of the Hijra , most strongly in Judeo-Christian texts, keeping alive ancient features eliminated from

6325-582: The Quraysh women fought harder than the men. Every time the men ran away, the women fought, fearing that if they lost, the Byzantines would enslave them. Asma's son, Abdallah, and his cousin, Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr , were both grandsons of Abu Bakr and nephews of Aisha. When Husayn ibn Ali was martyred in Karbala, Abdallah, who had been Husayn's friend, collected the people of Mecca and rose up against Yazid . When he heard about this, Yazid had

6440-576: The Romance languages. Also, while it is comprehensible to people from the Maghreb , a linguistically innovative variety such as Moroccan Arabic is essentially incomprehensible to Arabs from the Mashriq , much as French is incomprehensible to Spanish or Italian speakers but relatively easily learned by them. This suggests that the spoken varieties may linguistically be considered separate languages. With

6555-527: The Umayyads in Karbala in 680, but were killed and Husayn was slain. Following Husayn's death, Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr began clandestinely recruiting supporters. By September 683, he had taken control of Mecca. He referred to himself as al-ʿaʾidh biʾl bayt (the fugitive at the sanctuary, viz. , the Kaaba), adopted the slogan la hukma illa li-llah (judgement belongs to God alone), but made no claim to

6670-463: The backing of the Arab tribesmen of Syria who formed the core of the Umayyad military. In response, Yazid charged al-Walid ibn Utba ibn Abi Sufyan , the governor of Medina, with gaining Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr's submission, but he evaded the authorities and escaped to Mecca. He was joined there by Ali's son Husayn , who too had refused submission to Yazid. Husayn and his supporters made a stand against

6785-425: The battlefield where he was ultimately slain on 3 October or 4 November 692. In an anecdote recorded by 9th-century historian al-Tabari , when al-Hajjaj and his lieutenant commander, Tariq ibn Amr , stood over Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr's body, Tariq said of the latter: "Women have borne none manlier than he ... He had no defensive trench, no fortress, no stronghold; yet he held his own against us an equal, and even got

6900-495: The better of us whenever we met with him". Al-Hajjaj posted Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr's body on a gibbet where it remained until Abd al-Malik allowed Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr's mother to retrieve it. His body was subsequently buried in the house of his paternal grandmother Safiyya in Medina. The Umayyad victory and Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr's death marked the end of the Second Fitna. Following his victory, Abd al-Malik confiscated

7015-660: The birth of their son. From another wife, Hantama bint Abd al-Rahman ibn al-Harith ibn Hisham, Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr had his son Amir. As a child, during the reign of Caliph Umar ( r.  634–644 ) in 636, Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr may have been present with his father at the Battle of the Yarmuk against the Byzantines in Syria . He was also present with his father in Amr ibn al-As 's campaign against Byzantine Egypt in 640. In 647, Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr distinguished himself in

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7130-540: The caliphate becoming an Umayyad inheritance. Instead, he advocated that the caliph should be chosen by shura (consultation) among the Quraysh as a whole. The Quraysh opposed the monopolization of power by the Banu Umayya and insisted power be distributed among all the Qurayshi clans. However, other than this conviction, Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr did not sponsor any religious doctrine or political program, unlike

7245-497: The caliphate's Syria-based army partly because it would have obliged him to relocate to Damascus. Other cities were available to him, but Ibn al-Zubayr opted to remain in Mecca, from which he issued directives to his supporters elsewhere in the Caliphate. This restricted him from exercising direct influence in the larger, more populated provinces, particularly Iraq, where his more worldly brother ruled with practical independence. In Arabia, Ibn al-Zubayr's power had been largely confined to

7360-400: The caliphate. Yazid ordered the governor of Medina, Amr ibn Sa'id ibn al-As , to arrest Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr. The governor, in turn, instructed Abd Allah's estranged brother, the head of Medina's shurta (security forces), Amr, to lead the expedition. However, the Umayyad force was ambushed and Amr was captured and subsequently killed while in captivity. Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr declared

7475-450: The city on 24 September after Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr refused to surrender. The Kaaba was severely damaged during al-Sakuni's bombardment. During the siege, two potential Qurashi candidates for the caliphate, Mus'ab ibn Abd al-Rahman and al-Miswar ibn Makhrama , were killed or died of natural causes. In November, news of Yazid's death prompted al-Sakuni to negotiate with Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr. Al-Sakuni proposed to recognize him as caliph on

7590-401: The clan's neighborhood in Mecca and imprisoned Ibn al-Hanafiyya to pressure the Banu Hashim. Meanwhile, the Kharijites under Najda ibn Amir al-Hanafi in the Yamama (central Arabia) abandoned Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr once he forwarded his claim to the caliphate, an institution they rejected, and Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr refused to embrace their doctrine. In the Umayyad capital Damascus , Yazid

7705-523: The collapse of Umayyad authority across the Caliphate, most of whose provinces subsequently accepted the suzerainty of Ibn al-Zubayr. Though widely recognized as caliph, his authority was largely nominal outside of the Hejaz. By 685, the Umayyad Caliphate had been reconstituted under Marwan I in Syria and Egypt, while Abd Allah's authority was being challenged in Iraq and Arabia by pro- Alid and Kharijite forces. Ibn al-Zubayr's brother Mus'ab reasserted Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr's suzerainty in Iraq by 687, but

7820-448: The condition that he would rule from Syria, the center of the Umayyad military and administration. Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr rejected this and the army withdrew to Syria, leaving him in control of Mecca. Yazid's death and the subsequent withdrawal of the Umayyad army from the Hejaz afforded Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr the opportunity to realize his aspirations for the caliphate. He immediately declared himself amir al-mu'minin (commander of

7935-420: The contemporary Alid and Kharijite movements. By the time he made his claim to the caliphate, he had emerged as the leader of the disaffected Quraysh. According to historian H. A. R. Gibb , Qurayshi resentment towards the Banu Umayya is evident as an underlying theme in the Islamic traditions about Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr's conflict with the Umayyads and Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr was the "principal representative" of

8050-509: The conversion of Semitic mimation to nunation in the singular. It is best reassessed as a separate language on the Central Semitic dialect continuum. It was also thought that Old Arabic coexisted alongside—and then gradually displaced— epigraphic Ancient North Arabian (ANA), which was theorized to have been the regional tongue for many centuries. ANA, despite its name, was considered a very distinct language, and mutually unintelligible, from "Arabic". Scholars named its variant dialects after

8165-412: The emergence of Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include: There are several features which Classical Arabic, the modern Arabic varieties, as well as the Safaitic and Hismaic inscriptions share which are unattested in any other Central Semitic language variety, including the Dadanitic and Taymanitic languages of

8280-468: The estates of Ibn al-Zubayr in Medina and elsewhere in the Hejaz. The caliph later restored some of the properties to Ibn al-Zubayr's sons after a request by Thabit. His eldest son, Khubayb, was flogged to death in Medina by its governor Umar II during the reign of Caliph al-Walid I ( r.  705–715 ). Thabit, meanwhile, had gained particular favor from al-Walid's successor, Caliph Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik ( r.  715–717 ), who agreed to return

8395-728: The eve of the conquests: Northern and Central (Al-Jallad 2009). The modern dialects emerged from a new contact situation produced following the conquests. Instead of the emergence of a single or multiple koines, the dialects contain several sedimentary layers of borrowed and areal features, which they absorbed at different points in their linguistic histories. According to Veersteegh and Bickerton, colloquial Arabic dialects arose from pidginized Arabic formed from contact between Arabs and conquered peoples. Pidginization and subsequent creolization among Arabs and arabized peoples could explain relative morphological and phonological simplicity of vernacular Arabic compared to Classical and MSA. In around

8510-607: The fact that they participate in the innovations common to all forms of Arabic. The earliest attestation of continuous Arabic text in an ancestor of the modern Arabic script are three lines of poetry by a man named Garm(')allāhe found in En Avdat, Israel , and dated to around 125 CE. This is followed by the Namara inscription , an epitaph of the Lakhmid king Imru' al-Qays bar 'Amro, dating to 328 CE, found at Namaraa, Syria. From

8625-477: The faithful), a title traditionally reserved for the caliph, and called for all Muslims to give him their oaths of allegiance. With the other potential Hejazi candidates dead, Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr remained the last contender for the caliphate among the anti-Umayyad factions in Mecca and Medina and most of these groups recognized him as their leader. An exception were the Banu Hashim clan to which Muhammad and

8740-410: The fatal abuse of his brother Amr and his imprisonment of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya. Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr rallied opposition to the Umayyads in the Hejaz through his base in Mecca, Islam's holiest city, and his prestige as a first-generation Muslim with family ties to Muhammad. He aimed to restore the Hejaz to its former political prominence; after the assassination of Uthman, the region's position as

8855-505: The first Muslims all boosted Ibn al-Zubayr's reputation in adulthood. Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr had a number of wives and children. His first wife was Tumadir bint Manzur ibn Zabban ibn Sayyar ibn Amr of the Banu Fazara . She gave birth to his eldest son Khubayb, hence Abd Allah's kunya (epithet) "Abu Khubayb", and other sons Hamza, Abbad , al-Zubayr and Thabit. She or another of Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr's wives, Umm al-Hasan Nafisa,

8970-534: The first caliph Abu Bakr , Ibn al-Zubayr belonged to the Quraysh , the leading tribe of the nascent Muslim community, and was the first child born to the Muhajirun , Islam 's earliest converts. As a youth, he participated in the early Muslim conquests alongside his father in Syria and Egypt , and later played a role in the Muslim conquests of North Africa and northern Iran in 647 and 650, respectively. During

9085-510: The fourth most useful language for business, after English, Mandarin Chinese , and French. Arabic is written with the Arabic alphabet , an abjad script that is written from right to left . Arabic is usually classified as a Central Semitic language . Linguists still differ as to the best classification of Semitic language sub-groups. The Semitic languages changed between Proto-Semitic and

9200-429: The greater part of Syria and parts of Egypt. Yazid tried to end Abdallah's rebellion by invading the Hejaz , and he took Medina after the Battle of al-Harrah followed by the siege of Mecca. His sudden death ended the campaign and threw the Umayyads into disarray, with civil war eventually breaking out. After the Umayyad civil war ended, Abdullah lost Egypt and whatever he had of Syria to Marwan I . This, coupled with

9315-409: The house or accept the gifts until she had sent her sister Aisha to consult with Muhammad. Muhammad advised that it was correct for Asma to show hospitality to her mother” Asma and Al-Zubayr had eight children. Asma at one point had marital issues with Zubayr, as he was rigid and "the most jealous of people". She complained to her father, who advised her: "My daughter, be patient. When a woman has

9430-421: The illegitimacy of Yazid's caliphate and allied himself with the Ansar of Medina, led by Abd Allah ibn Hanzala , who had withdrawn support for Yazid due to his supposed improprieties. Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr also gained the support of the Kharijite movement in Basra and Bahrayn (eastern Arabia); the Kharijites were early opponents of the Umayyads who had defected from Caliph Ali because of his participation in

9545-597: The inclusion of new words into their published standard dictionaries. They also publish old and historical Arabic manuscripts. In 1997, a bureau of Arabization standardization was added to the Educational, Cultural, and Scientific Organization of the Arab League . These academies and organizations have worked toward the Arabization of the sciences, creating terms in Arabic to describe new concepts, toward

9660-507: The influential, disaffected Muslim factions opposed to Umayyad rule. He sought to re-establish the Hejaz as the political center of the Caliphate. However, his refusal to leave Mecca precluded him from exercising power in the more populous provinces where he depended on his brother Mus'ab and other loyalists, who ruled with virtual independence. He thus played a minor active role in the struggle carried out in his name. Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr

9775-563: The invitation of Abu Bakr. She was married to Zubayr ibn al-Awwam shortly before the Hijra . She joined him in Medina a few months later. When Muhammad and Abu Bakr sought refuge in Jabal Thawr outside Mecca on their migration to Medina in 622, Asma used to carry food to them under cover of dark. When the two men left the cave, Asma tied the goods with the two belts of her cover, and for this ingenuity she received from Muhammad

9890-613: The language. Software and books with tapes are an important part of Arabic learning, as many of Arabic learners may live in places where there are no academic or Arabic language school classes available. Radio series of Arabic language classes are also provided from some radio stations. A number of websites on the Internet provide online classes for all levels as a means of distance education; most teach Modern Standard Arabic, but some teach regional varieties from numerous countries. The tradition of Arabic lexicography extended for about

10005-604: The late 6th century AD, a relatively uniform intertribal "poetic koine" distinct from the spoken vernaculars developed based on the Bedouin dialects of Najd , probably in connection with the court of al-Ḥīra . During the first Islamic century, the majority of Arabic poets and Arabic-writing persons spoke Arabic as their mother tongue. Their texts, although mainly preserved in far later manuscripts, contain traces of non-standardized Classical Arabic elements in morphology and syntax. Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali ( c.  603 –689)

10120-420: The latter is taught in formal education settings. However, there have been studies reporting some degree of comprehension of stories told in the standard variety among preschool-aged children. The relation between Modern Standard Arabic and these dialects is sometimes compared to that of Classical Latin and Vulgar Latin vernaculars (which became Romance languages ) in medieval and early modern Europe. MSA

10235-528: The latter's offensive in northern Iran in 650. Uthman appointed Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr to the commission charged with the recension of the Qur'an . During the rebel siege of Uthman's house in June 656, the caliph put Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr in charge of his defense and he was reportedly wounded in the fighting. In the aftermath of Uthman's assassination , Abd Allah fought alongside his father and his aunt A'isha against

10350-520: The leading Muslim groups of the Hejaz (western Arabia), opposed the caliphate becoming an inheritable institution of the Umayyads . Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr established himself in Mecca where he rallied opposition to Yazid ( r.  680–683 ), before proclaiming himself caliph in the wake of Yazid's death in 683, marking the beginning of the Second Fitna . Meanwhile, Yazid's son and successor Mu'awiya II died weeks into his reign, precipitating

10465-883: The many national or regional varieties which constitute the everyday spoken language. Colloquial Arabic has many regional variants; geographically distant varieties usually differ enough to be mutually unintelligible , and some linguists consider them distinct languages. However, research indicates a high degree of mutual intelligibility between closely related Arabic variants for native speakers listening to words, sentences, and texts; and between more distantly related dialects in interactional situations. The varieties are typically unwritten. They are often used in informal spoken media, such as soap operas and talk shows , as well as occasionally in certain forms of written media such as poetry and printed advertising. Hassaniya Arabic , Maltese , and Cypriot Arabic are only varieties of modern Arabic to have acquired official recognition. Hassaniya

10580-522: The most decisive battles in military history. The Muslims were hugely outnumbered by the Byzantines but, with the help of the women and the young boys amongst them, they drove the Byzantine Empire out of Syria. Women like Hind bint Utbah and Asma bint Abi Bakr were instrumental in the Battle of the Yarmuk. The earliest histories pay great tribute to Asmā's bravery there. Al-Waqidi wrote that

10695-782: The need for a lexical injection in Arabic, to suit concepts of the industrial and post-industrial age (such as sayyārah سَيَّارَة 'automobile' or bākhirah باخِرة 'steamship'). In response, a number of Arabic academies modeled after the Académie française were established with the aim of developing standardized additions to the Arabic lexicon to suit these transformations, first in Damascus (1919), then in Cairo (1932), Baghdad (1948), Rabat (1960), Amman (1977), Khartum  [ ar ] (1993), and Tunis (1993). They review language development, monitor new words and approve

10810-424: The one whose sound is heard but whose person remains unseen. Now the term al-hatif is used for a telephone. Therefore, the process of tawleed can express the needs of modern civilization in a manner that would appear to be originally Arabic. In the case of Arabic, educated Arabs of any nationality can be assumed to speak both their school-taught Standard Arabic as well as their native dialects, which depending on

10925-549: The overhaul of Arabic grammar first proposed by Al-Jahiz 200 years prior. The Maghrebi lexicographer Ibn Manzur compiled Lisān al-ʿArab ( لسان العرب , "Tongue of Arabs"), a major reference dictionary of Arabic, in 1290. Charles Ferguson 's koine theory claims that the modern Arabic dialects collectively descend from a single military koine that sprang up during the Islamic conquests; this view has been challenged in recent times. Ahmad al-Jallad proposes that there were at least two considerably distinct types of Arabic on

11040-649: The partisans of Uthman's successor, Caliph Ali, at the Battle of the Camel in Basra in December. Zubayr ibn al-Awwam was killed, while Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr was wounded sparring with one of Ali's commanders, Malik ibn al-Harith . Ali was victorious and Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr returned with A'isha to Medina, later taking part in the arbitration to end the First Fitna (Muslim civil war) in Adhruh or Dumat al-Jandal . During

11155-466: The paternal aunt of Muhammad, and his mother was Asma bint Abi Bakr , a daughter of the first caliph , Abu Bakr ( r.  632–634 ), and sister of A'isha , a wife of Muhammad. According to the ninth-century historians Ibn Habib and Ibn Qutayba , Ibn al-Zubayr was the first child born to the Muhajirun , the earliest converts to Islam who had been exiled from Mecca to Medina. These early social, kinship and religious links to Muhammad, his family and

11270-399: The political center of the Caliphate had been lost first to Kufa under Ali and then to Damascus under Mu'awiya I. To that end, Ibn al-Zubayr developed a strong association with Mecca and its Ka'aba, which, combined with his control of Islam's second holiest city of Medina, furthered his prestige and gave his caliphate a holy character. Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr rejected the offer of support from

11385-410: The region may be mutually unintelligible. Some of these dialects can be considered to constitute separate languages which may have "sub-dialects" of their own. When educated Arabs of different dialects engage in conversation (for example, a Moroccan speaking with a Lebanese), many speakers code-switch back and forth between the dialectal and standard varieties of the language, sometimes even within

11500-495: The remainder of the confiscated estates to Ibn al-Zubayr's sons. Under the Abbasid caliphs al-Mahdi ( r.  775–785 ) and Harun al-Rashid ( r.  786–809 ), several descendants of Ibn al-Zubayr attained senior administrative posts, including his great-grandson Abd Allah ibn Mus'ab and the latter's son Bakkar ibn Abd Allah , who successively served as governors of Medina . Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr adamantly opposed

11615-458: The same sentence. The issue of whether Arabic is one language or many languages is politically charged, in the same way it is for the varieties of Chinese , Hindi and Urdu , Serbian and Croatian , Scots and English, etc. In contrast to speakers of Hindi and Urdu who claim they cannot understand each other even when they can, speakers of the varieties of Arabic will claim they can all understand each other even when they cannot. While there

11730-466: The second generation of the Hejaz's elite Muslim families who chafed at the "gulf of power" between them and the ruling Umayyad house. Though Gibb describes Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr as "brave, but fundamentally self-seeking and self-indulgent", the hostility to the Umayyads in traditional Muslim sources led to a general description of him as a "model of piety". Nonetheless, a number of Muslim sources condemned him as jealous and harsh and particularly criticized

11845-458: The sole example of Medieval linguist Abu Hayyan al-Gharnati – who, while a scholar of the Arabic language, was not ethnically Arab – Medieval scholars of the Arabic language made no efforts at studying comparative linguistics, considering all other languages inferior. In modern times, the educated upper classes in the Arab world have taken a nearly opposite view. Yasir Suleiman wrote in 2011 that "studying and knowing English or French in most of

11960-563: The standardization of these new terms throughout the Arabic-speaking world, and toward the development of Arabic as a world language . This gave rise to what Western scholars call Modern Standard Arabic. From the 1950s, Arabization became a postcolonial nationalist policy in countries such as Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, and Sudan. Arabic usually refers to Standard Arabic, which Western linguists divide into Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic. It could also refer to any of

12075-542: The talks, he counseled Abd Allah ibn Umar to pay for the support of Amr ibn al-As.Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr inherited a significant fortune from his father. Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr did not oppose Mu'awiya I 's accession to the caliphate in 661 and remained largely inactive during the course of his reign. However, he refused to recognize Mu'awiya's nomination of his son Yazid I as his successor in 676. When Yazid acceded following his father's death in 680, Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr again rejected his legitimacy, despite Yazid having

12190-421: The tenures of Mu'awiya II and Marwan I, respectively. (Note that a caliph's succession does not necessarily occur on the first day of the new year.) Arabic language Arabic (endonym: اَلْعَرَبِيَّةُ , romanized :  al-ʿarabiyyah , pronounced [al ʕaraˈbijːa] , or عَرَبِيّ , ʿarabīy , pronounced [ˈʕarabiː] or [ʕaraˈbij] )

12305-647: The title Dhat an-Nitaqayn , meaning "She of the Two Belts". After it was discovered that Muhammad and Abu Bakr had escaped, Abu Jahl , one of the biggest enemies of Islam, marched to Asma's house, demanding her to reveal the location of her father and the Prophet. Asma, then heavily pregnant, refused to respond. Out of rage, Abu Jahl violently slapped her so hard that the earring she was wearing fell off. Despite this, she did not stagger and Abu Jahl left in anger. Asma found her new neighbours to be "sincere women". She

12420-501: The towns where the inscriptions were discovered (Dadanitic, Taymanitic, Hismaic, Safaitic). However, most arguments for a single ANA language or language family were based on the shape of the definite article, a prefixed h-. It has been argued that the h- is an archaism and not a shared innovation, and thus unsuitable for language classification, rendering the hypothesis of an ANA language family untenable. Safaitic and Hismaic, previously considered ANA, should be considered Old Arabic due to

12535-451: The world have classes that teach Arabic as part of their foreign languages , Middle Eastern studies , and religious studies courses. Arabic language schools exist to assist students to learn Arabic outside the academic world. There are many Arabic language schools in the Arab world and other Muslim countries. Because the Quran is written in Arabic and all Islamic terms are in Arabic, millions of Muslims (both Arab and non-Arab) study

12650-503: Was Abu Bakr 's daughter. Her mother was Qutaylah bint Abd al-Uzza , and she was the full sister of Abd Allah ibn Abi Bakr . Her half-sisters were Aisha and Umm Kulthum bint Abi Bakr , and her half-brothers were Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr and Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr . She also had a stepmother from the Kinana tribe, Umm Ruman bint Amir, and a stepbrother, al-Tufayl ibn al-Harith al-Azdi. The historians Ibn Kathir and Ibn Asakir cite

12765-468: Was a poor baker, and they used to make bread for her. She and Al-Zubayr arrived in Medina with "neither property nor slave nor any possession in the earth other than his horse." Asma used to feed the horse, taking it out to graze and grinding date-stones for it. Muhammad gave Al-Zubayr some date-palms in Medina, and Asma used to carry date-stones on her head from the garden to their home, a journey of about two miles. One day she passed Muhammad, who offered her

12880-625: Was born in Medina in the Hejaz (western Arabia) in May 624. He was the eldest son of al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam , a companion of Muhammad and a leading Muslim figure. He belonged to the Banu Asad clan of the Quraysh , the dominant tribe of Mecca , a trade center in the Hejaz and location of the Kaaba , the holiest sanctuary in Islam. Ibn al-Zubayr's paternal grandmother was Safiyya bint Abd al-Muttalib ,

12995-405: Was defeated and killed by Marwan's successor Abd al-Malik in 691. The Umayyad commander al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf proceeded to besiege Ibn al-Zubayr in his Meccan stronghold, where he was ultimately slain in 692. Through the prestige of his family ties and social links with the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his strong association with the holy city of Mecca, Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr was able to lead

13110-475: Was succeeded by his young son Mu'awiya II , but Mu'awiya II wielded virtually no authority and died from illness only months after his accession. This left a leadership void in Syria as there were no suitable successors among Mu'awiya I's Sufyanid house. In the ensuing chaos, Umayyad authority collapsed across the caliphate and Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr gained wide recognition. Most of the Islamic provinces offered their allegiance, including Egypt , Kufa , Yemen and

13225-478: Was ultimately secured after he gained the backing of the powerful Azdi chieftain and military leader of Khurasan, al-Muhallab ibn Abi Sufra . Mus'ab also gained the defections of thousands of Kufan tribesmen and together they defeated and killed al-Mukhtar in April 687. Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr subsequently dismissed Mus'ab from office in 686/87 and appointed his own son Hamza as governor of Basra. The latter dispatched

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