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142-456: Bolesław III Wrymouth ( Polish : Bolesław III Krzywousty ; 20 August 1086 – 28 October 1138), also known as Boleslaus the Wry-mouthed , was the duke of Lesser Poland , Silesia and Sandomierz between 1102 and 1107 and over the whole of Poland between 1107 and 1138. He was the only child of Duke Władysław I Herman and his first wife, Judith of Bohemia . Bolesław began to rule in

284-424: A panegyric in honor of Bolesław, because the chronicler did not mention his physical infirmities. It is also speculated that the bone damage occurred as a result of childbirth complications, which led to the death of his mother a few months later. The nickname of Boleslaw was also explained in other ways. According to a legend, Boleslaw slammed his face against a wall after watching his father's subservience towards

426-499: A / (spelled a ), / ɔ / (spelled o ) and / u / (spelled u and ó as separate letters). The nasal vowels are / ɛ w̃ / (spelled ę ) and / ɔ w̃ / (spelled ą ). Unlike Czech or Slovak, Polish does not retain phonemic vowel length — the letter ó , which formerly represented lengthened /ɔː/ in older forms of the language, is now vestigial and instead corresponds to /u/. The Polish consonant system shows more complexity: its characteristic features include

568-589: A campaign against the Pomeranians. Bolesław's forces attacked Mazovia and quickly forced Zbigniew to surrender. Following this, Zbigniew was banished from the country and, with his followers, took refuge in Prague, where he gained the support of Svatopluk. From then Bolesław was the sole lord of the Polish lands, though in fact his over-lordship began in 1107 when Zbigniew paid him homage as his feudal lord. In 1108

710-461: A consequence he remained the only legitimate son and heir. It is believed that the new Duchess was actively aiding Sieciech in his schemes to take over the country and that she became his mistress. In 1090 Polish forces under Sieciech's command managed to gain control of Gdańsk Pomerania , albeit for a short time. Major towns were garrisoned by Polish troops, and the rest were burned in order to thwart future resistance. Several months later, however,

852-429: A death in childbirth and Cosmas of Prague followed this fact, though he didn't receive the information firsthand. Hence, his mistake would result in this point. In contrast, the correct date of birth of Bolesław would be 20 August, as indicated by Gallus. In the medieval tradition the year began on 25 December. In that case, the reports of Cosmas allow us to conclude that Bolesław was born in 1085. This information, however,

994-771: A dialect of Polish. Many Silesians consider themselves a separate ethnicity and have been advocating for the recognition of Silesian as a regional language in Poland . The law recognizing it as such was passed by the Sejm and Senate in April 2024, but has been vetoed by President Andrzej Duda in late May of 2024. According to the last official census in Poland in 2011, over half a million people declared Silesian as their native language. Many sociolinguists (e.g. Tomasz Kamusella , Agnieszka Pianka, Alfred F. Majewicz, Tomasz Wicherkiewicz ) assume that extralinguistic criteria decide whether

1136-782: A difficult political situation. At first, he supported the pretender Álmos , and marched to Hungary to help him. However, during the siege of Abaújvár in 1104, Álmos changed his mind and made peace overtures to his brother and rival King Coloman , at that point Zbigniew's ally. Bolesław then retired his troops from Hungary and in 1105 made a treaty with Coloman. In addition, the Hungarian King broke his agreements with Bohemia. The dynastic dispute in Prague between Bořivoj II and his cousin Svatopluk prompted Bolesław and his new ally King Coloman to intervene in support of Svatopluk. However,

1278-467: A faction of the nobility to replace him. At the Battle of Flarchheim , only through the aid of Vratislaus' contingent was the imperial army capable of overcoming the rebels of the papally-approved claimant Rudolf of Rheinfelden , Duke of Swabia . Vratislaus even succeeded in seizing Rudolf's golden lance. The golden lance was then carried in front of Vratislaus on state occasions. Vratislaus would defeat

1420-669: A few culturally and linguistically related tribes from the basins of the Vistula and Oder before eventually accepting baptism in 966. With Western Christianity , Poland also adopted the Latin alphabet , which made it possible to write down Polish, which until then had existed only as a spoken language . The closest relatives of Polish are the Elbe and Baltic Sea Lechitic dialects ( Polabian and Pomeranian varieties). All of them, except Kashubian , are extinct. The precursor to modern Polish

1562-421: A few decades later, probably benefited from oral tradition and could make a mistake when he placed the year. His reports who placed the birth of Bolesław three days before the death of his mother denoted a quite short time. Today is widely recognized the view of both Jasiński and Balzer, that Bolesław most likely was born in the day of King Stephen of Hungary, 20 August 1086. According to Cosmas of Prague, Bolesław

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1704-607: A great migration of Jews from Western Europe to Poland began circa 1096, around the time of the First Crusade . The tolerant rule of Władysław I Herman attracted the Jews who were permitted to settle throughout the entire kingdom without restrictions. The Polish duke took great care of the Hebrew Diaspora, as he understood its positive influence on the growth of the country's economy. The new Jewish citizens soon gained

1846-467: A large number of branches in all of these areas) offers services available in Polish at all of their cash machines in addition to English and Spanish . According to the 2011 census there are now over 500,000 people in England and Wales who consider Polish to be their "main" language. In Canada , there is a significant Polish Canadian population : There are 242,885 speakers of Polish according to

1988-543: A large number of loanwords and similar grammatical structures. Extensive usage of nonstandard dialects has also shaped the standard language ; considerable colloquialisms and expressions were directly borrowed from German or Yiddish and subsequently adopted into the vernacular of Polish which is in everyday use. Historically, Polish was a lingua franca , important both diplomatically and academically in Central and part of Eastern Europe . In addition to being

2130-543: A lect is an independent language or a dialect: speakers of the speech variety or/and political decisions, and this is dynamic (i.e. it changes over time). Also, research organizations such as SIL International and resources for the academic field of linguistics such as Ethnologue , Linguist List and others, for example the Ministry of Administration and Digitization recognized the Silesian language. In July 2007,

2272-421: A monk, and therefore depriving him of any chance of succession. This eliminated two pretenders to the Polish throne, secured young Bolesław's inheritance as well as diminished the growing opposition to Wladyslaw I Herman among the nobility. Shortly after his ascension, however, Władysław I Herman was forced by the barons to give up the de facto reins of government to Count Palatine Sieciech . This turn of events

2414-454: A nasal consonant, rather than a nasal vowel. For example, ą in dąb ("oak") is pronounced [ɔm] , and ę in tęcza ("rainbow") is pronounced [ɛn] (the nasal assimilates to the following consonant). When followed by l or ł (for example przyjęli , przyjęły ), ę is pronounced as just e . When ę is at the end of the word it is often pronounced as just [ɛ] . Depending on

2556-480: A new Saxon revolt drew him back in 1075. Vratislaus joined him, and they defeated the rebels on 9 June at the First Battle of Langensalza . The Bohemian troops showed conspicuous bravery. Henry then took Jaromír to Germany to be his chancellor under the name of Gebhard and Vratislaus was greatly relieved. Vratislaus also took part in the wars against the anti-kings who opposed Henry's rule and were elected by

2698-796: A new rebellion by Álmos forced Coloman and his army to return to Hungary. Bolesław also decided to retreat. Svatopluk tried to capture the city alone, but suffered a complete defeat and so his attempt to seize power in Bohemia was unsuccessful. Also in 1105, Bolesław entered into an agreement with his half-brother, similar to that entered just a few years before with their stepmother Judith-Sophia, which, in exchange for abundant dower lands, secured her neutrality in Bolesław's political contest with Zbigniew. The treaty, signed in Tyniec , dealt with foreign policy, albeit with no agreement about Pomerania. One year later,

2840-591: A peace treaty was signed at Łęczyca , in which Zbigniew officially recognized Bolesław as the Supreme Duke of all Poland. However, he was allowed to retain Masovia as a fief. In 1107 Bolesław III along with his ally King Coloman of Hungary invaded Bohemia in order to aid Svatopluk in gaining the Czech throne and to secure Polish interests to the south. The expedition was a complete success: on 14 May 1107 Svatopluk

2982-426: A political role again. He may have been blinded. Władysław I Herman died on 4 June 1102. The country was divided into two provinces, each administered by one of the late duke's sons. The extent of each province closely resembled the provinces that the dukes were granted by their father three years earlier, the only difference being that Zbigniew also controlled Mazovia with its capital at Płock , effectively ruling

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3124-445: A pope ruled on the matter. Sadly for Vratislaus, his last years were occupied by dynastic quarrelling. When his brother Otto died in 1086, he gave Olomouc to his son Boleslaus, which was seen to be an act against the interests of Conrad. Vratislaus raised an army against Conrad and sent it out under his other son Bretislaus . This son turned on him. Vratislaus, in keeping with Bohemian custom, designated an heir: Conrad. Thus reconciled,

3266-570: A popular assembly or Wiec organized in Wrocław by a magnate named Skarbimir of the Awdaniec family. There it was decided to remove the current guardian of Bolesław, a noble named Wojslaw who was a relative of Sieciech , and arrange for an expedition against the Palatine. Subsequently, in 1099, the armies of Sieciech and duke Herman encountered the forces of Zbigniew and Bolesław near Żarnowiec by

3408-473: A rebellion of native elites led to the restoration of the region's independence from Poland. The following year a punitive expedition was organized, in order to recover Gdańsk Pomerania. The campaign was decided at the battle of the Wda River , where the Polish knights suffered a defeat despite the assistance of Bohemian troops. Duke Bolesław's childhood happened at a time when a massive emigration from Poland

3550-491: A single word. This applies in particular to many combinations of preposition plus a personal pronoun, such as do niej ('to her'), na nas ('on us'), prze ze mnie ('because of me'), all stressed on the bolded syllable. The Polish alphabet derives from the Latin script but includes certain additional letters formed using diacritics . The Polish alphabet was one of three major forms of Latin-based orthography developed for Western and some South Slavic languages,

3692-406: A sword carried before him, an exclusive prerogative of the ruler. As he had recognized Bolesław as his overlord in Łęczyca in 1107, Boleslaw considered this an act of treason, causing a definitive breach in their relationship. Probably for these reasons, Zbigniew was blinded on Bolesław's orders in 1112. The blinding of Zbigniew caused a strong negative reaction among Bolesław's subjects. Unlike in

3834-437: A temporary failure in the 1130s. Although he achieved undoubted successes, he committed serious political errors, most notably against Zbigniew of Poland, his half-brother. The crime against Zbigniew and his penance for it show Bolesław's great ambition as well as his ability to find political compromise. In 1086 the coronation of Vratislav II as King of Bohemia , and his alignment with László I , King of Hungary , threatened

3976-405: A verse by Jan Brzechwa ) is W Szczebrzeszynie chrząszcz brzmi w trzcinie [fʂt͡ʂɛbʐɛˈʂɨɲɛ ˈxʂɔw̃ʂt͡ʂ ˈbʐmi fˈtʂt͡ɕiɲɛ] ('In Szczebrzeszyn a beetle buzzes in the reed'). Unlike languages such as Czech, Polish does not have syllabic consonants – the nucleus of a syllable is always a vowel. The consonant /j/ is restricted to positions adjacent to a vowel. It also cannot precede

4118-478: A vowel when it precedes another vowel (it represents /j/ , palatalization of the preceding consonant, or both depending on analysis). Also the letters u and i sometimes represent only semivowels when they follow another vowel, as in autor /ˈawtɔr/ ('author'), mostly in loanwords (so not in native nauka /naˈu.ka/ 'science, the act of learning', for example, nor in nativized Mateusz /maˈte.uʂ/ 'Matthew'). Some loanwords , particularly from

4260-552: A war party into Pomerania during which his forces sacked Białogard . The Pomeranians sent retaliatory war parties into Polish territory, but as Pomerania bordered Zbigniew's territory these raids ravaged the lands of the duke who was not at fault. Therefore, in order to put pressure on Bolesław, Zbigniew allied himself with Bořivoj II of Bohemia, to whom he promised to pay tribute in return for his help. By aligning himself with Bolesław's southern neighbor Zbigniew wished to compel Bolesław to cease his raids into Pomerania. Bolesław, on

4402-447: Is possible to say ko goście zoba czy li? – here kogo retains its usual stress (first syllable) in spite of the attachment of the clitic. Reanalysis of the endings as inflections when attached to verbs causes the different colloquial stress patterns. These stress patterns are considered part of a "usable" norm of standard Polish - in contrast to the "model" ("high") norm. Some common word combinations are stressed as if they were

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4544-524: Is the Old Polish language . Ultimately, Polish descends from the unattested Proto-Slavic language. The Book of Henryków (Polish: Księga henrykowska , Latin : Liber fundationis claustri Sanctae Mariae Virginis in Heinrichau ), contains the earliest known sentence written in the Polish language: Day, ut ia pobrusa, a ti poziwai (in modern orthography: Daj, uć ja pobrusza, a ti pocziwaj ;

4686-529: Is the most widely-used minority language in Lithuania's Vilnius County , by 26% of the population, according to the 2001 census results, as Vilnius was part of Poland from 1922 until 1939. Polish is found elsewhere in southeastern Lithuania. In Ukraine, it is most common in the western parts of Lviv and Volyn Oblasts , while in West Belarus it is used by the significant Polish minority, especially in

4828-430: The kropka (superior dot) over the letter ż , and the ogonek ("little tail") under the letters ą, ę . The letters q, v, x are used only in foreign words and names. Polish orthography is largely phonemic —there is a consistent correspondence between letters (or digraphs and trigraphs ) and phonemes (for exceptions see below). The letters of the alphabet and their normal phonemic values are listed in

4970-401: The ś in święty ("holy") all represent the sound / ɕ / . The exceptions to the above rule are certain loanwords from Latin, Italian, French, Russian or English—where s before i is pronounced as s , e.g. sinus , sinologia , do re mi fa sol la si do , Saint-Simon i saint-simoniści , Sierioża , Siergiej , Singapur , singiel . In other loanwords

5112-632: The Archbishopric of Mainz , to counter Otto's authority within his province. Both pope and emperor took a hand in mediating the conflict, which was partially fixed with Henry's appointment of Jaromír as chancellor in 1077. In April 1085, a reichstag convened in Mainz suppressed the Moravian see, but Vratislaus later re-founded see. Jaromír protested in Rome to Pope Urban II , but died in 1090 before

5254-523: The Arpad dynasty . Following his return to Poland, Bolesław even traveled to Gniezno to pay further penance at the tomb of Saint Adalbert of Prague , where poor people and clergy received numerous costly gifts from the duke . Only after this was the excommunication finally lifted. Following his repentance the Polish duke made a vague commitment to the Church. No information survives about Zbigniew's death. In

5396-541: The Awdaniec family . They conducted separate policies internally as well as externally. They each sought alliances, and sometimes they were enemies of one another. Such was the case with Pomerania , towards which Bolesław aimed his ambitions. Zbigniew, whose country bordered Pomerania , wished to maintain good relations with his northern neighbor. Bolesław, eager to expand his dominion, organized several raids into Pomerania and Prussia . In Autumn of 1102 Bolesław organized

5538-413: The Battle of Hundsfeld on 24 August 1109, although the existence of this battle is doubted by historians because it was first recorded about a century later. In 1110 Bolesław undertook an unsuccessful military expedition against Bohemia . His intention was to install yet another pretender on the Czech throne, Soběslav I , who sought refuge in Poland. During the campaign he won a decisive victory against

5680-596: The Brest and Grodno regions and in areas along the Lithuanian border. There are significant numbers of Polish speakers among Polish emigrants and their descendants in many other countries. In the United States , Polish Americans number more than 11 million but most of them cannot speak Polish fluently. According to the 2000 United States Census , 667,414 Americans of age five years and over reported Polish as

5822-903: The Indo-European language family written in the Latin script . It is primarily spoken in Poland and serves as the official language of the country, as well as the language of the Polish diaspora around the world. In 2024, there were over 39.7 million Polish native speakers. It ranks as the sixth most-spoken among languages of the European Union . Polish is subdivided into regional dialects and maintains strict T–V distinction pronouns, honorifics , and various forms of formalities when addressing individuals. The traditional 32-letter Polish alphabet has nine additions ( ą , ć , ę , ł , ń , ó , ś , ź , ż ) to

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5964-612: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 's influence gave Polish the status of lingua franca in Central and Eastern Europe . The process of standardization began in the 14th century and solidified in the 16th century during the Middle Polish era. Standard Polish was based on various dialectal features, with the Greater Poland dialect group serving as the base. After World War II , Standard Polish became

6106-585: The Pomeranian alliance. During the return of the army, one part, commanded by Żelisław, was defeated by the Bohemians. Bolesław, who commanded the other part, couldn't defeat them. Skarbimir bribed Bořivoj II, who returned to his homeland and concluded a short-lived peace with Bolesław. Then Bořivoj II ended his alliance with Zbigniew. The intervention of Bolesław in a dynastic dispute in Hungary put him in

6248-522: The United Kingdom and the United States . Polish began to emerge as a distinct language around the 10th century, the process largely triggered by the establishment and development of the Polish state. At the time, it was a collection of dialect groups with some mutual features, but much regional variation was present. Mieszko I , ruler of the Polans tribe from the Greater Poland region, united

6390-474: The classical languages , have the stress on the antepenultimate (third-from-last) syllable. For example, fizyka ( /ˈfizɨka/ ) ('physics') is stressed on the first syllable. This may lead to a rare phenomenon of minimal pairs differing only in stress placement, for example muzyka /ˈmuzɨka/ 'music' vs. muzyka /muˈzɨka/ – genitive singular of muzyk 'musician'. When additional syllables are added to such words through inflection or suffixation ,

6532-578: The flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–50) , as well as the expulsion of Ukrainians and Operation Vistula , the 1947 migration of Ukrainian minorities in the Recovered Territories in the west of the country, contributed to the country's linguistic homogeneity. The inhabitants of different regions of Poland still speak Polish somewhat differently, although the differences between modern-day vernacular varieties and standard Polish ( język ogólnopolski ) appear relatively slight. Most of

6674-510: The 14th-century Kronika o Piotrze Włostowicu the duke was hunchbacked (Latin: gibbosus ) or had a crooked mouth. The 15th-century chronicler Jan Długosz wrote: In March 1972, in the Masovian Blessed Virgin Mary Cathedral of Płock , where according to tradition Bolesław was buried, an archaeological research project was conducted. A coffin was discovered containing the bones of 16 men and women. One of

6816-416: The 16th century, which is also regarded as the " Golden Age of Polish literature". The orthography was modified in the 19th century and in 1936. Tomasz Kamusella notes that "Polish is the oldest, non-ecclesiastical, written Slavic language with a continuous tradition of literacy and official use, which has lasted unbroken from the 16th century to this day." Polish evolved into the main sociolect of

6958-457: The 1700s as the successor to the medieval Old Polish (10th–16th centuries) and Middle Polish (16th–18th centuries). Among the major languages, it is most closely related to Slovak and Czech but differs in terms of pronunciation and general grammar. Additionally, Polish was profoundly influenced by Latin and other Romance languages like Italian and French as well as Germanic languages (most notably German ), which contributed to

7100-486: The 2006 census, with a particular concentration in Toronto (91,810 speakers) and Montreal . The geographical distribution of the Polish language was greatly affected by the territorial changes of Poland immediately after World War II and Polish population transfers (1944–46) . Poles settled in the " Recovered Territories " in the west and north, which had previously been mostly German -speaking. Some Poles remained in

7242-588: The Bohemian throne, but was unable to do so owing to the need to divert his forces north to thwart a Pomeranian invasion. In response to Bolesław's aggressive foreign policy, the Holy Roman Emperor , Henry V , undertook a punitive expedition against Poland in 1109, assisted by Czech warriors provided by Svatopluk of Bohemia. The alleged casus belli was to restore Zbigniew to his former position. The Emperor gave Bolesław an ultimatum: he would abandon

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7384-594: The Christianization of Pomerania from 1123 onward. In the 1130s Bolesław participated in the dynastic dispute in Hungary. After an unexpected defeat, he was forced to make an agreement with Germany. The Congress of Merseburg of 1135 addressed the issues of Pomerania, Silesian (probably also Polish) sovereignty and the supremacy of the Archbishopric of Magdeburg over the Polish Church. Bolesław

7526-660: The Czechs at the Battle of Trutina on 8 October 1110; however, following this battle he ordered his forces to withdraw. The reason for this is speculated to be the unpopularity of Soběslav I among Czechs as well as Bolesław's unwillingness to further harm his relations with the Holy Roman Empire. In 1111 a truce between Poland and the Empire was signed, stipulating that Soběslav I would be able to return to Bohemia while Zbigniew would be able to return Poland. Bolesław's assent

7668-592: The Generous , based his foreign policy on maintaining good relations with neighboring Hungary and Kievan Rus , with whom he forged strong links through marriage and military cooperation in order to break Poland's political dependence on Germany and Henry's vassal, the King of Bohemia, who in moments of weakness of Polish policy was forced to pay tribute in Silesia. These alliances had allowed Bolesław to effectively defend

7810-478: The Germans and Czechs. According to Jan Długosz, the duke in his youth had an ulcer, which caused the deformity of his face. According to older historiography, he received the nickname Wrymouth for his perjury. Following Bolesław's birth the political climate in the country changed. The position of Bolesław as an heir to the throne was threatened by the presence of Mieszko Bolesławowic , who was already seventeen at

7952-583: The Henryków monastery, noted that "Hoc est in polonico" ("This is in Polish"). The earliest treatise on Polish orthography was written by Jakub Parkosz  [ pl ] around 1470. The first printed book in Polish appeared in either 1508 or 1513, while the oldest Polish newspaper was established in 1661. Starting in the 1520s, large numbers of books in the Polish language were published, contributing to increased homogeneity of grammar and orthography. The writing system achieved its overall form in

8094-587: The Nativity of the Lord", he wrote incorrectly "in the Sunday of the Nativity". Secondly, he mistook the day of Saint Stephen (26 December) for the festivities of King Stephen of Hungary (20 August). Both corrections lead to the birth date of Bolesław on 26 December. This theory was supported by the fact that, in 1085, 28 December fell on a Sunday. Oswald Balzer refuted Bielowski's theory, arguing that Judith's death

8236-534: The Polish border on the Noteć river line, and subjugate Pomerania. He intended to exercise Polish political overlordship but not actually incorporate Pomerania with the exception of Gdańsk Pomerania and a southern belt north of the River Noteć . By 1113 the northern border had been strengthened, including the fortification of Santok , Wieleń , Nakło , Czarnków , Ujście and Wyszogród . Some sources report that

8378-671: The Silesian language was recognized by ISO , and was attributed an ISO code of szl. Some additional characteristic but less widespread regional dialects include: Polish linguistics has been characterized by a strong strive towards promoting prescriptive ideas of language intervention and usage uniformity, along with normatively-oriented notions of language "correctness" (unusual by Western standards). Polish has six oral vowels (seven oral vowels in written form), which are all monophthongs , and two nasal vowels . The oral vowels are / i / (spelled i ), / ɨ / (spelled y and also transcribed as /ɘ/ or /ɪ/), / ɛ / (spelled e ), /

8520-493: The absence of Sieciech and Bolesław, who were captured by Hungarians, duke Władysław I then undertook a penal expedition to Silesia, which was unsuccessful and subsequently obliged him to recognize Zbigniew as a legitimate heir. In 1093 Władysław I signed an Act of Legitimization which granted Zbigniew the rights of descent from his line. Zbigniew was also granted the right to succeed to the throne. Following Sieciech and Bolesław's escape from Hungary , an expedition against Zbigniew

8662-455: The balance of power in Europe changed. Svatopluk decided to pay homage to Emperor Henry V and in exchange received from him the formal investiture of Bohemia. At the same time King Coloman of Hungary was under attack from the combined forces of the Holy Roman Empire and Bohemia. Svatopluk, joined by Zbigniew and his followers, also attacked Poland. Bolesław avoided a direct confrontation because he

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8804-508: The border began at the mouth of the rivers Warta and Oder in the west, running along the Noteć all the way to the Vistula . Polish language Polish ( endonym : język polski , [ˈjɛ̃zɘk ˈpɔlskʲi] , polszczyzna [pɔlˈʂt͡ʂɘzna] or simply polski , [ˈpɔlskʲi] ) is a West Slavic language of the Lechitic group within

8946-493: The brothers, and forced Zbigniew to flee the country and seek military help from King Henry V of Germany . Bolesław punished Zbigniew by blinding him. This action caused outrage among supporters of Zbigniew, resulting in a political crisis in Poland. Bolesław once again gained the favor of his subjects with public penance, and made a pilgrimage to the monastery of his patron, Saint Giles , in Hungary . Bolesław, like Bolesław II

9088-485: The cases mentioned above, the letter i if followed by another vowel in the same word usually represents / j / , yet a palatalization of the previous consonant is always assumed. The reverse case, where the consonant remains unpalatalized but is followed by a palatalized consonant, is written by using j instead of i : for example, zjeść , "to eat up". The letters ą and ę , when followed by plosives and affricates, represent an oral vowel followed by

9230-434: The conquest of Pomerania. The resolution of the conflict with the Holy Roman Empire allowed Bolesław to subordinate Western Pomerania and incorporate Gdańsk Pomerania . The expeditions, carried out in three stages, ended in the 1120s with military and political successes. Integration of the newly annexed lands enabled Bolesław to build churches and begin the process of converting Pomerania . Bishop Otto of Bamberg confirmed

9372-439: The contest against Zbigniew and shortly after formally allied himself with Coloman of Hungary. With the help of his Kievan and Hungarian allies Bolesław attacked Zbigniew's territory, beginning a civil war. The allied forces of Bolesław easily took control of most important cities, including Kalisz , Gniezno , Spycimierz and Łęczyca , in effect taking half of Zbigniew's lands. Through the mediation of Baldwin, Bishop of Kraków ,

9514-488: The coronation took place on 15 June 1085, so Judith could have been called Queen a year earlier. Karol Maleczyński determined that the death of Judith took place on the night between 24 and 25 December 1085, and Bolesław was born four months before, on 20 August. Researchers found that the date given by the Rocznik kapituły krakowskiej (24 December 1086) was the same established by Cosmas (25 December 1085). The difference in

9656-713: The corresponding sentence in modern Polish: Daj, niech ja pomielę, a ty odpoczywaj or Pozwól, że ja będę mełł, a ty odpocznij ; and in English: Come, let me grind, and you take a rest ), written around 1280. The book is exhibited in the Archdiocesal Museum in Wrocław, and as of 2015 has been added to UNESCO 's " Memory of the World " list. The medieval recorder of this phrase, the Cistercian monk Peter of

9798-405: The country from invasion in 1109. Several years later, Bolesław skillfully took advantage of the dynastic disputes in Bohemia to ensure peace on the south-west border. Bolesław devoted the second half of his rule to the conquest of Pomerania . In 1113 he conquered the northern cities along Noteć , which strengthened the border with the Pomeranians. In subsequent years, he took further steps toward

9940-515: The country under Bolesław and Zbigniew's co-rule greatly alarmed Sieciech , who then began preparing to dispose of the brothers altogether. Sieciech understood that the division of the country would undermine his position. He initiated a military settlement of the issue and he gained the duke's support for it. The position of Władysław I is seen as ambiguous as he chose to support Sieciech's cause instead of his sons'. In response to Sieciech's preparations Bolesław and Zbigniew entered into an alliance at

10082-560: The creation of a new Moravian diocese in Olomouc by Vratislaus in 1063. Jaromir even went so far as to retake, by arms, the relics removed from Prague and taken to Moravia. Despite the pope's support for Vratislaus' new see, the Bohemian duke was unswayed in his loyalty to the emperor. The Saxons revolted under Duke Magnus of Saxony and Otto of Nordheim , Duke of Bavaria , in 1070 and Boleslaus of Poland attacked Bohemia in 1071. In August 1073, Henry responded with an invasion of Poland, but

10224-417: The customary penance that would reconcile him with the high priesthood. According to Gallus Anonymus , Bolesław first fasted for forty days and made gifts to the poor: It is possible that Bolesław decided to do this to rebuild his weakened authority and gain the favor of Zbigniew's supporters. Blinding his half-brother might have been perceived by Polish society as a breach of the principle of solidarity among

10366-481: The date of 1085 given by Bielowski is correct according to him. However, Jasiński pointed the weaknesses of the argument of Szafrański because Gallus has written about the Octave, but specifically about Christmas night, but the investigator didn't consider all other sources, as well as the achievements of research in genealogy. Marian Plezia argued that Bolesław was born on 2 September 1085 or 1086. According to Gallus,

10508-466: The day of King Stephen of Hungary was also celebrated on 2 September. Jasiński considered this theory unfounded. In Poland the feast of King Stephen of Hungary is pointed by the Kalendarz krakowski and the kalendarz Kodeksu Gertrudy on 20 August. Besides, if Bolesław was born on 2 September, Gallus probably would be noted that this was the day after the celebration of Saint Giles (1 September), which

10650-479: The disappearance of yers . Polish can have word-initial and word-medial clusters of up to four consonants, whereas word-final clusters can have up to five consonants. Examples of such clusters can be found in words such as bezwzględny [bɛzˈvzɡlɛndnɨ] ('absolute' or 'heartless', 'ruthless'), źdźbło [ˈʑd͡ʑbwɔ] ('blade of grass'), wstrząs [ˈfstʂɔw̃s] ('shock'), and krnąbrność [ˈkrnɔmbrnɔɕt͡ɕ] ('disobedience'). A popular Polish tongue-twister (from

10792-430: The distinction between regular penultimate and exceptional antepenultimate stress. Another class of exceptions is verbs with the conditional endings -by, -bym, -byśmy , etc. These endings are not counted in determining the position of the stress; for example, zro biłbym ('I would do') is stressed on the first syllable, and zro bi libyśmy ('we would do') on the second. According to prescriptive authorities ,

10934-403: The district of Kraków . The situation was further complicated for Władysław I Herman by a lack of a legitimate male heir, as his first-born son Zbigniew came from a union not recognized by the church. With the return of Mieszko Bolesławowic to Poland, Władysław I normalized his relations with the kingdom of Hungary as well as Kievan Rus (the marriage of Mieszko Bolesławowic to a Kievan princess

11076-401: The east, blinding in medieval Poland was accomplished not by burning the eyes out with a red hot iron rod or knife, but employed a much more brutal technique in which the condemned's eyes were pried out using special pliers. The condemned was then made to open his eyes and if he did not do so, his eyelids were also removed. Contemporary sources don't provide clear information on whether Bolesław

11218-531: The eastern parts of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth wrote Polish in the Arabic alphabet. The Cyrillic script is used to a certain extent today by Polish speakers in Western Belarus , especially for religious texts. The diacritics used in the Polish alphabet are the kreska (graphically similar to the acute accent ) over the letters ć, ń, ó, ś, ź and through the letter in ł ;

11360-408: The emperor martial aid. It was a Přemyslid tradition that Moravia would be entrusted to the younger brothers of the ruling prince. In Vratislaus' case, his two younger brothers Conrad and Otto inherited Brno and Olomouc and the youngest, Jaromír, entered the church. However, enmity grew between the brothers. It was then that Vratislaus founded the diocese of Olmütz ( diocese of Olomouc ), under

11502-420: The end of words (where devoicing occurs) and in certain consonant clusters (where assimilation occurs). For details, see Voicing and devoicing in the article on Polish phonology. Most Polish words are paroxytones (that is, the stress falls on the second-to-last syllable of a polysyllabic word), although there are exceptions. Polish permits complex consonant clusters, which historically often arose from

11644-476: The entire country. Polish has traditionally been described as consisting of three to five main regional dialects: Silesian and Kashubian , spoken in Upper Silesia and Pomerania respectively, are thought of as either Polish dialects or distinct languages , depending on the criteria used. Kashubian contains a number of features not found elsewhere in Poland, e.g. nine distinct oral vowels (vs.

11786-482: The expedition only if Bolesław gave Zbigniew half of Poland to rule, formally recognized Henry as overlord and paid 300 pieces of fine silver as a regular tribute. Bolesław rejected Henry's demands. During the negotiations between the Empire and Poland, the Polish ruler was in the middle of a war against Pomerania. On the west side of the Oder river, Henry V hurriedly gathered knights for his expedition against Poland. Before

11928-648: The fight ended in Pomerania, the German troops were able to approach Głogów . The military operations mainly took place in Silesia in southwestern Poland, where Henry V's army laid siege to the major cities of Głogów, Wrocław and Bytom Odrzański . In addition to defending the towns, Bolesław conducted a guerrilla war against the Holy Roman Emperor and his allies. He reportedly defeated the expedition at

12070-467: The following table. The following digraphs and trigraphs are used: Voiced consonant letters frequently come to represent voiceless sounds (as shown in the tables); this occurs at the end of words and in certain clusters, due to the neutralization mentioned in the Phonology section above. Occasionally also voiceless consonant letters can represent voiced sounds in clusters. The spelling rule for

12212-548: The language spoken at home, which is about 1.4% of people who speak languages other than English , 0.25% of the US population, and 6% of the Polish-American population. The largest concentrations of Polish speakers reported in the census (over 50%) were found in three states: Illinois (185,749), New York (111,740), and New Jersey (74,663). Enough people in these areas speak Polish that PNC Financial Services (which has

12354-449: The largely Slavic marches of Meissen and Lusatia , but, in spite of Henry's promises and Bohemian successes against the rebellious margraves, he never received them. He held Lower Lusatia between 1075 and 1086, but in 1088, with the insurrection of Egbert II of Meissen , Henry granted the region to Henry of Ostmark . Vratislaus was thereafter cool to Henry's military adventures. He never wavered in his loyalty, but he abstained from giving

12496-691: The last decade of the 11th century, when the central government in Poland was significantly weakened. Władysław I Herman fell under the political dependence of the Count palatine Sieciech , who became the de facto ruler of the country. Backed by their father, Boleslaw and his half-brother Zbigniew finally expelled Sieciech from the country in 1101, after several years of fighting. After the death of Władysław I Herman in 1102, two independent states were created, ruled by Bolesław and Zbigniew. Bolesław sought to gain Pomerania which caused an armed conflict between

12638-439: The letter y . The predominant stress pattern in Polish is penultimate stress – in a word of more than one syllable, the next-to-last syllable is stressed. Alternating preceding syllables carry secondary stress, e.g. in a four-syllable word, where the primary stress is on the third syllable, there will be secondary stress on the first. Each vowel represents one syllable, although the letter i normally does not represent

12780-537: The letters of the basic 26-letter Latin alphabet , while removing three (x, q, v). Those three letters are at times included in an extended 35-letter alphabet. The traditional set comprises 23 consonants and 9 written vowels , including two nasal vowels ( ę , ą ) defined by a reversed diacritic hook called an ogonek . Polish is a synthetic and fusional language which has seven grammatical cases . It has fixed penultimate stress and an abundance of palatal consonants . Contemporary Polish developed in

12922-432: The marriage of Bolesław and Zbyslava. He saw this union and the alliance with Kiev as a serious threat. He bribed his ally, Bořivoj II of Bohemia, to invade Bolesław's province, ostensibly to claim the Polish crown. Bolesław retaliated with expeditions into Pomerania in 1103 (including the battle of Kołobrzeg , where he was defeated) and Moravia in 1104–05, which brought the young duke not only loot, but also effectively ended

13064-679: The members of the ruling dynasty, a key foundation of public order. According to Gallus, Bolesław also sought and received forgiveness from his half-brother. In the next part of his penance, the duke made a pilgrimage to Hungary to the Abbeys of Saint Giles in Somogyvár and Saint Stephen I in Székesfehérvár . The pilgrimage to the Abbey of Saint Giles also had a political goal; Bolesław strengthened his ties of friendship and alliance with

13206-431: The middle aged and young speak vernaculars close to standard Polish, while the traditional dialects are preserved among older people in rural areas. First-language speakers of Polish have no trouble understanding each other, and non-native speakers may have difficulty recognizing the regional and social differences. The modern standard dialect , often termed as "correct Polish", is spoken or at least understood throughout

13348-460: The most widely spoken variant of Polish across the country, and most dialects stopped being the form of Polish spoken in villages. Poland is one of the most linguistically homogeneous European countries; nearly 97% of Poland's citizens declare Polish as their first language . Elsewhere, Poles constitute large minorities in areas which were once administered or occupied by Poland, notably in neighboring Lithuania , Belarus , and Ukraine . Polish

13490-505: The name Tarzan . Vratislaus II of Bohemia On his father's death in 1055, Vratislaus became duke of Olomouc , whereas his older brother became Duke of Bohemia as Spytihněv II. He fell out with his brother and was exiled to Hungary . Vratislaus regained the ducal throne of Olomouc with Hungarian assistance and eventually reconciled with his brother, then succeeded him as duke of Bohemia when he died in 1061. Both Pope Alexander II and Pope Gregory VII confirmed Vratislaus in

13632-649: The nobles in Poland–Lithuania in the 15th century. The history of Polish as a language of state governance begins in the 16th century in the Kingdom of Poland . Over the later centuries, Polish served as the official language in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , Congress Poland , the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria , and as the administrative language in the Russian Empire 's Western Krai . The growth of

13774-479: The northern part of the kingdom, while his younger half-brother Bolesław ruled its southern portion. In this way two virtually separate states were created. According to some historians, Zbigniew tried to play the role of princeps or overlord, because at that time Bolesław was only 16 years old. Because he was still too inexperienced to independently direct his domains, the local nobility had great influence over political affairs, including his teacher, Skarbimir , from

13916-620: The obituary of the Benedictine monastery in Lubiń dated 8 July 1113 was reported the death of a monk in Tyniec called brother Zbigniew . Historians believed that he could be Bolesław's half-brother. The information marked that his burial place was in the Benedictine monastery of Tyniec . The loss of Pomerania during the reign of Casimir I the Restorer weakened the Polish state, and, during

14058-459: The official language of Poland, Polish is also spoken as a second language in eastern Germany , northern Czech Republic and Slovakia , western parts of Belarus and Ukraine as well as in southeast Lithuania and Latvia . Because of the emigration from Poland during different time periods, most notably after World War II , millions of Polish speakers can also be found in countries such as Canada , Argentina , Brazil , Israel , Australia ,

14200-562: The origin of this nickname dates back on the 12th century and is related with some physical characteristics of the Polish ruler, who were noticed at the time of his reign. Probably he began to be named in this way after 1114, because Gallus Anonymus in his Chronicle never mentioned it. In the Kronika książąt polskich and Kronika polsko-śląska Bolesław was qualified by the Latin adjective curvus , whose significance remains unclear. According to

14342-572: The other hand, allied himself with Kievan Rus and Hungary . His marriage to Zbyslava , the daughter of Sviatopolk II Iziaslavich in 1103, was to seal the alliance between himself and the prince of Kiev . However, Bolesław's first diplomatic move was to recognize Pope Paschal II , which put him in strong opposition to the Holy Roman Empire . A later visit of papal legate Gwalo, Bishop of Beauvais, put church matters into order and increased Bolesław's influence. Zbigniew declined to attend

14484-621: The others being Czech orthography and Croatian orthography , the last of these being a 19th-century invention trying to make a compromise between the first two. Kashubian uses a Polish-based system, Slovak uses a Czech-based system, and Slovene follows the Croatian one; the Sorbian languages blend the Polish and the Czech ones. Historically, Poland's once diverse and multi-ethnic population utilized many forms of scripture to write Polish. For instance, Lipka Tatars and Muslims inhabiting

14626-401: The palatal sounds / ɕ / , / ʑ / , / tɕ / , / dʑ / and / ɲ / is as follows: before the vowel i the plain letters s, z, c, dz, n are used; before other vowels the combinations si, zi, ci, dzi, ni are used; when not followed by a vowel the diacritic forms ś, ź, ć, dź, ń are used. For example, the s in siwy ("grey-haired"), the si in siarka ("sulfur") and

14768-411: The personal chaplain of Duchess Judith, Piotr. The date of birth of Bolesław is closely linked with the death of his mother Judith. This fact is evidenced by contemporary sources: Historian August Bielowski established Bolesław's birth on 26 December 1085 and the death of his mother two days later, on 28 December. According to him Gallus Anonymus committed two errors. First, instead of "the Sunday after

14910-536: The position of the Polish ruler, duke Władysław I Herman . Therefore, that same year Władysław I was forced to recall from Hungarian banishment the only son of Bolesław II the Bold and a rightful heir to the Polish throne, Mieszko Bolesławowic . Upon his return young Bolesławowic accepted the over-lordship of his uncle and gave up his hereditary claim to the crown of Poland in exchange for becoming first in line to succeed him. In return, Władysław I Herman granted his nephew

15052-520: The previously Polish-ruled territories in the east that were annexed by the USSR , resulting in the present-day Polish-speaking communities in Lithuania, Belarus, and Ukraine, although many Poles were expelled from those areas to areas within Poland's new borders. To the east of Poland, the most significant Polish minority lives in a long strip along either side of the Lithuania - Belarus border. Meanwhile,

15194-579: The privilege of wearing the mitre and tunic which his predecessors had. Despite this, Vratislaus supported Henry in both the Investiture Controversy against the Popes and the rebellions in Saxony that dominated his long reign. These actions would negate the significance of the mitre. Vratislaus was often at odds with his brother Jaromír, Bishop of Prague . Jaromír, for his part, ignored

15336-623: The re-establishment of the Bishopric of Olomouc in 1063 and the creation of the Vyšehrad Chapter in 1070. The latter was richly endowed independently of the Prague bishop, subject instead to the Holy See directly. His success in curbing the power of the Prague bishop helped to strengthen the Bohemian crown and enable later rulers to govern a more unified state. His policy towards the Holy Roman Empire set an example that would be followed in

15478-768: The rebels again at Mailberg in 1082, and it would be in thanks for this victory that Henry granted Vratislaus the title of king in 1085. Vratislaus requested permission to utilize Slavonic liturgy to the Roman Curia in 1080; the request was denied. This petition may have been made in an effort to save a "Slavonic" Benedictine monastery still in operation that was founded in Sazava, close to Prague, in 1032. Vratislaus raised an army to serve in Henry's Italian campaign of 1081. In 1083, Vratislaus and his Bohemians were with Henry when they entered Rome itself. Vratislaus coveted

15620-426: The river Pilica . There the forces of Bolesław and Zbigniew defeated Sieciech's army, and Władysław I Herman was obliged to permanently remove Sieciech from the position of Count Palatine . In the same year, at Christmas, Bolesław concluded a short-lived peace with Bohemia in Žatec . According to Cosmas, Bolesław was appointed Miecznik (en: Sword-bearer ) of his uncle Bretislaus II, Duke of Bohemia . In addition,

15762-540: The same applies to the first and second person plural past tense endings -śmy, -ście , although this rule is often ignored in colloquial speech (so zro bi liśmy 'we did' should be prescriptively stressed on the second syllable, although in practice it is commonly stressed on the third as zrobi li śmy ). These irregular stress patterns are explained by the fact that these endings are detachable clitics rather than true verbal inflections: for example, instead of ko go zoba czy liście? ('whom did you see?') it

15904-514: The second half of the 11th century, subsequent rulers were not able to recover all the lands that once belonged to Mieszko I and Bolesław I the Brave . Only after defeating Zbigniew and successfully opposing Bohemian claims against Silesia in 1109 was Bolesław III able to expand to the West. The conquest of Pomerania had been a lifelong pursuit for Bolesław. His political goals were twofold: strengthen

16046-410: The series of affricate and palatal consonants that resulted from four Proto-Slavic palatalizations and two further palatalizations that took place in Polish. The full set of consonants, together with their most common spellings, can be presented as follows (although other phonological analyses exist): Neutralization occurs between voiced – voiceless consonant pairs in certain environments, at

16188-506: The six of standard Polish) and (in the northern dialects) phonemic word stress, an archaic feature preserved from Common Slavic times and not found anywhere else among the West Slavic languages . However, it was described by some linguists as lacking most of the linguistic and social determinants of language-hood. Many linguistic sources categorize Silesian as a regional language separate from Polish, while some consider Silesian to be

16330-407: The skulls, of a man who died aged 50, had a deformed mandible. There is a hypothesis that these remains belonged to Bolesław. Opponents of this theory suggest that the duke was named in this way many years after his death, and his contemporary Gallus did not mention any physical defect in the hero of his Chronicles. The defenders of the hypothesis argue that the work of Gallus has the characteristics of

16472-494: The stress normally becomes regular. For example, uniwersytet ( /uɲiˈvɛrsɨtɛt/ , 'university') has irregular stress on the third (or antepenultimate) syllable, but the genitive uniwersytetu ( /uɲivɛrsɨˈtɛtu/ ) and derived adjective uniwersytecki ( /uɲivɛrsɨˈtɛt͡skʲi/ ) have regular stress on the penultimate syllables. Loanwords generally become nativized to have penultimate stress. In psycholinguistic experiments, speakers of Polish have been demonstrated to be sensitive to

16614-463: The time and was furthermore, by agreement with Władysław I Herman himself, the first in line to succeed. In all likelihood it was this situation that precipitated the young duke Mieszko's demise in 1089. In that same year Wladyslaw I Herman's first-born son Zbigniew was sent to a monastery in Quedlinburg , Saxony . This suggests that Wladyslaw I Herman intended to be rid of Zbigniew by making him

16756-551: The treaty ended when Zbigniew refused to help his half-brother in his fight against Pomerania. While hunting, Bolesław was unexpectedly attacked by them. In the battle, the young duke almost died. Bohemia, using the involvement of Bolesław in Pomeranian affairs as an excuse, attacked Silesia. The duke tried to re-establish the alliance with his half-brother, but without success, and so reached a rapprochement with Bohemia in 1106. Bolesław managed to bribe Bořivoj II to join his side in

16898-429: The trust of the gentiles during the rule of Bolesław III. In view of his father's disapproval, and after discovering the plans of Sieciech and Duchess Judith-Sophia to take over the country Zbigniew gained an ally in the young duke Bolesław. Both brothers demanded that the reins of government be handed over to them. It is difficult to believe, however, that Bolesław was making independent decisions at this point as he

17040-640: The twelfth century and would ultimately lead to the permanent elevation of Bohemia to the status of a kingdom at the beginning of the thirteenth century. The marriage alliances he was able to conclude with notable foreign princesses reflected the rising position of the Přemyslids among European dynasties. In contrast, Vratislaus's father Bretislaus in 1019 had to abduct his wife, the minor noblewoman Judith of Schweinfurt , to secure any suitable consort at all. His successor continued to cultivate dynastic bonds with notable courts in central and eastern Europe. Vratislaus

17182-508: The two attacked Bretislaus, who fled to Hungary. Vratislaus died of a hunting wound on 14 January 1092 after a reign of thirty years. He was buried in St. Peter and Paul's Church, Vyšehrad . Vratislaus frequently found himself in conflict with Bishop Jaromír of Prague and sought means to diminish the importance of the Bishop of Prague in domestic Bohemian politics. Among the actions he took were

17324-563: The vowel i is changed to y , e.g. Syria , Sybir , synchronizacja , Syrakuzy . The following table shows the correspondence between the sounds and spelling: Digraphs and trigraphs are used: Similar principles apply to / kʲ / , / ɡʲ / , / xʲ / and /lʲ/ , except that these can only occur before vowels, so the spellings are k, g, (c)h, l before i , and ki, gi, (c)hi, li otherwise. Most Polish speakers, however, do not consider palatalization of k, g, (c)h or l as creating new sounds. Except in

17466-443: The word, the phoneme / x / can be spelt h or ch , the phoneme / ʐ / can be spelt ż or rz , and / u / can be spelt u or ó . In several cases it determines the meaning, for example: może ("maybe") and morze ("sea"). In occasional words, letters that normally form a digraph are pronounced separately. For example, rz represents /rz/ , not / ʐ / , in words like zamarzać ("freeze") and in

17608-578: The year could be explained in the different style of dating followed by Cosmas, who began the year according to the Julian calendar on 1 January and Christmas ( Nativitate in Latin) on 25 December. According to Maleczyński, Kazimierz Jasiński failed to consider this calendar difference, which occurs only during the period of 25–31 December. Archaeologist Wojciech Szafrański reassumed the theory of Bielowski: Judith of Bohemia died on 28 December 1085, and Bolesław

17750-506: The young duke would be paid the amount of 100 pieces of fine silver and 10 talents of gold annually as a tribute to Bohemia (it was about the land of Silesia, for which he paid tribute to Władysław I). The rebel forces then headed to Sieciechów , where the Palatine took refuge. Unexpectedly, duke Władysław came to the aid of his besieged favorite with a small force. At this point, the dukes decided to depose their father. The opposition sent Zbigniew with an armed contingent to Masovia , where he

17892-601: Was arranged in 1088). These actions allowed Herman to strengthen his authority and alleviate further tensions in international affairs. The lack of a legitimate heir, however, remained a concern for Władysław I and in 1085 he and his wife Judith of Bohemia sent rich gifts, among which was a life size statue of a child made of gold, to the Benedictine Sanctuary of Saint Giles in Saint-Gilles , Provence begging for offspring. The Polish envoys were led by

18034-471: Was attributed to be the intercessor of his birth. Kazimierz Jasiński placed the death of Judith in the night between 24 and 25 December 1086 and the birth of Bolesław four months before, on 20 August. In this point he agrees with the findings of Balzer. He supported his views with additional arguments: All sources are based in the missing Rocznika kapituły krakowskiej , and the next known text of this source refers to events in 1086. Cosmas, writing his chronicle

18176-473: Was born two days before, on 26 December. According to Szafrański Cosmas used the term VIII Calends of January , with no specific date. However, in the Chronicle of Gallus should read that Judith died on Christmas Day , but on Sunday in the Octave of Christmas . Using such a broadened range of days, the investigator determined the birth of Boleslaw in the feast of Saint Stephen (26 December). For this reasons,

18318-597: Was busy fighting Pomerania. The Polish-Hungarian coalition gave aid and shelter to Bořivoj II. Later that year, Bolesław and Coloman sent a new expedition to Bohemia, prompted by the invasion of Hungary by the German-Bohemian coalition (during which Pozsony Castle was put under siege) and the fact that Svatopluk, who owed Bolesław his throne, didn't honor his promise to return Silesian cities seized from Poland ( Racibórz , Kamieniec, Koźle among others) by his predecessors. Bolesław then decided to restore Bořivoj II to

18460-451: Was contradicted by the Kalendarz krakowski , which gave the year as 1086. Judith was styled by the authors of the Kalendarz as "regina Polonia" ( Queen of Poland in Latin), and this title could be associated with her father's coronation as King of Bohemia and Poland on 15 June 1086 (according to Cosmas). Karol Maleczyński refuted Balzer's date for the coronation of Vratislav II, the one given by Cosmas. However, most researchers indicate that

18602-445: Was excluded from the community of the Church. It is generally believed that Archbishop Martin I of Gniezno (who was a strong supporter of Zbigniew) excommunicated Bolesław for blinding his half-brother. The excommunication exempted all Bolesław's subjects from their oaths of obedience. The duke was faced with a real possibility of an uprising of the sort that deposed Bolesław the Bold. Recognizing his precarious situation, Bolesław sought

18744-471: Was his will and testament known as "The Succession Statute" in which he divided the country among his sons, leading to almost 200 years of feudal fragmentation of the Polish Kingdom. Bolesław III Wrymouth has been recognized by historiography as a symbol of Polish political aspirations until well into the 19th century. He also upheld the independence of the Polish archbishopric of Gniezno , despite

18886-461: Was likely due to the fact that Herman owed the throne to the barons, the most powerful of whom was Sieciech . Around this time Władysław I Herman married again. The chosen bride was Judith-Maria , daughter of Emperor Henry III and widow of King Solomon of Hungary , who after her wedding took the name Sophia in order to distinguish herself from Władysław I Herman's first wife. Through this marriage Bolesław gained three or four half-sisters, and as

19028-454: Was likely under pressure from the many supporters of the exiled duke in 1108, who, according to the reports of Gallus Anonymus, was surrounded by bad advisers (probably including Martin I, Archbishop of Gniezno ). Once in Poland, his advisers persuaded Zbigniew to claim sovereignty over his previous domains. The first step was his presence at the Advent ceremonial, surrounded by attendants, with

19170-450: Was made Duke of Bohemia in Prague . In the winter of 1107–08, with the help of Kievan and Hungarian allies, Bolesław undertook a punitive expedition against his brother Zbigniew. One reason for this was that Zbigniew had not followed his orders and had refused to burn down one of the fortresses of Kurów near Puławy . Another reason was that Zbigniew had not performed his duties as a vassal by failing to provide military aid to Bolesław for

19312-494: Was married twice. His first marriage, to the Kievan princess Zbyslava , gave him an excuse to intervene militarily in the internal affairs of Rus'. After her death, Bolesław married a German noblewoman, Salomea of Berg , which in some way was the cause of changes in Polish foreign policy: in the second half of his rule, the duke sought to restore diplomatic relations with his western neighbor. His last, and perhaps most momentous act,

19454-597: Was mounted by the Count Palatine. Its aim was to nullify the Act of Legitimization. The contestants met at the battle of Gopło in 1096, where Sieciech's forces annihilated the supporters of Zbigniew. Zbigniew himself was taken prisoner, but regained his freedom a year later, in May 1097, due to the intervention of the bishops. At the same time his rights, guaranteed by the Act of Legitimization, were reinstated. Simultaneously

19596-430: Was named after his uncle, Bolesław II the Generous . Władysław I Herman had no reason to named his first-born legitimate son after his brother, but probably in this way tried to placate the former allies of his predecessor. Bolesław's nickname "Wrymouth" (pl: Krzywousty ) appeared in Polish and Latin sources of the 13th century: Genealogia płocka (Criwousti) and the Rocznik świętokrzyski młodszy (Crzyvousti) . Probably

19738-406: Was on the night of 24/25 December 1086, and the birth of Bolesław was four months before, on 20 August. According to him, this timing of Judith's death gives rise to possible discrepancies in determining the exact date of Bolesław's birth, but corroborates all known sources who placed the death of Judith. Gallus wrote that Judith died shortly after giving birth to a son. Later sources interpret this as

19880-703: Was only 12 years of age. It is postulated that at this stage he was merely a pawn in service of the Baron's power struggle. Władysław I Herman , however, agreed to divide the realm between the brothers, each to be granted his own province while the duke – Władysław I himself – kept control of Mazovia and its capital at Płock . Władysław also retained control of the most important cities, i.e. , Wrocław , Kraków and Sandomierz . Zbigniew's province encompassed Greater Poland including Gniezno , Kuyavia , Łęczyca Land and Sieradz Land. Bolesław's territory included Lesser Poland , Silesia and Lubusz Land . The division of

20022-413: Was taking place due to Sieciech's political repression. Most of the elites who became political refugees found safe haven in Bohemia. Another consequence of Sieciech's political persecution was the kidnapping of Zbigniew by Sieciech's enemies and his return from abroad in 1093. Zbigniew took refuge in Silesia , a stronghold of negative sentiment for both Sieciech and his nominal patron Władysław I Herman. In

20164-525: Was to take control of Płock , while Bolesław was directed to the South to encircle Władysław's forces. Władysław, however, predicted this maneuver and sent his forces back to Masovia. In the environs of Płock the battle was finally joined and the forces of Władysław I were defeated. The duke was thereafter forced to send Sieciech into exile. The Palatine left Poland around 1100/1101 and spent time in German territory. He eventually returned to Poland but never played

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