Misplaced Pages

#515484

116-522: The opening sentence of Hōjōki is famous in Japanese literature as an expression of mujō , the transience of things: The flow of the river never ceases, And the water never stays the same. Bubbles float on the surface of pools, Bursting, re-forming, never lingering. They’re like the people in this world and their dwellings. (Stavros) This invites comparison with the aphorism panta rhei (everything flows) ascribed to Heraclitus , which uses

232-703: A sutra is the Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra , translated into Chinese by Lokakṣema in 179 CE, with the discovery of a Gandhari language fragment of that sutra announced in 2018. Jeff Wilson writes that over a fifth of the sutras in the Taishō Tripiṭaka reference Amitābha, but three sutras in particular have become seen as canonical in East Asian Buddhism: Amitābha is understood as the Buddha of comprehensive love. Amitābha's pure land

348-505: A Buddha and to create a buddhakṣetra (literally "buddha-field", often called a "Pureland" or "Buddha Land": a realm existing in the primordial universe outside of ordinary reality, produced by a buddha's merit) possessed of many perfections. These resolutions were expressed in his forty-eight vows , which set out the type of Pureland Dharmākara aspired to create, the conditions under which beings might be born into that world, and what kind of beings they would be when reborn there. In

464-570: A Cat (1905) with humor and satire, then depicted fresh and pure youth in Botchan (1906) and Sanshirō (1908). He eventually pursued transcendence of human emotions and egoism in his later works including Kokoro (1914) and his last and unfinished novel Light and darkness (1916). Shimazaki shifted from Romanticism to Naturalism which was established with his The Broken Commandment (1906) and Katai Tayama 's Futon (1907). Naturalism hatched "I Novel" ( Watakushi-shōsetu ) that describes

580-507: A Chinese-Japanese creole language. Indian literature also had an influence through the spread of Buddhism in Japan . During the Heian period , Japan's original kokufū culture ( lit.   ' national culture ' ) developed and literature also established its own style, with the significant usage and development of kana ( 仮名 ) to write Japanese literature. Following the end of

696-691: A base located on the Sakurajima volcanic island, close to Kagoshima , on the southern tip of Kyushu . Osamu Dazai 's novel The Setting Sun tells of a soldier returning from Manchukuo . Shōhei Ōoka won the Yomiuri Prize for his novel Fires on the Plain about a Japanese deserter going mad in the Philippine jungle. Yukio Mishima , well known for both his nihilistic writing and his controversial suicide by seppuku , began writing in

812-444: A best-selling contemporary author whose "manga-esque" style of writing sparked much controversy when she debuted in the late 1980s, has come to be recognized as a unique and talented author over the intervening years. Her writing style stresses dialogue over description, resembling the script of a manga , and her works focus on love, friendship, and loss. Her breakout work was 1988's Kitchen . Although modern Japanese writers covered

928-452: A better understanding of life, away from the material drives of the world, and even more so after the rise of Buddhism. Others found that seclusion would garner them more attention, status, and material gain, a direct contrast to the idea of personal and/or Buddhist piety. Some men made the transition into the wilderness because their structured life had been so terribly destroyed by natural disasters that they had no other choice but to do so. In

1044-447: A cat as the narrator, and he also wrote the famous novels Botchan (1906) and Kokoro (1914). Natsume, Mori Ōgai , and Shiga Naoya , who was called "god of the novel" as the most prominent " I novel " writer, were instrumental in adopting and adapting Western literary conventions and techniques. Ryūnosuke Akutagawa is known especially for his historical short stories. Ozaki Kōyō , Kyōka Izumi , and Ichiyo Higuchi represent

1160-468: A celestial war, and is found and raised by a bamboo cutter. She is later taken back to her extraterrestrial family in an illustrated depiction of a disc-shaped flying object similar to a flying saucer . During the Kamakura period (1185–1333), Japan experienced many civil wars which led to the development of a warrior class, and subsequent war tales, histories, and related stories. Work from this period

1276-599: A compound of amita ("infinite") and āyus ("life"), and so means "he whose life is boundless". In Chinese, 阿彌陀佛 , pronounced "Ēmítuófó", is the Chinese pronunciation for the Sanskrit name of the Amitābha Buddha (Amida Buddha). The "e mi tuo" is the transliteration of the Sanskrit word "amita" which means "boundless" ( 無量 , "wuliang"). "Fo" is the Chinese word for "Buddha". In Vietnamese , Korean , and Japanese,

SECTION 10

#1732773018516

1392-653: A decline in the importance of the imperial court, aristocratic literature remained the center of Japanese culture at the beginning of the Kamakura period. Many literary works were marked by a nostalgia for the Heian period. The Kamakura period also saw a renewed vitality of poetry, with a number of anthologies compiled, such as the Shin Kokin Wakashū compiled in the early 1200s. However, there were fewer notable works by female authors during this period, reflecting

1508-399: A high degree of individualism. Children's works re-emerged in the 1950s, and the newer entrants into this field, many of the younger women, brought new vitality to it in the 1980s. Manga — Japanese comics — have penetrated almost every sector of the popular market. They include virtually every field of human interest, such as multivolume high-school histories of Japan and, additionally for

1624-547: A major work in the form of a travel diary , considered "one of the major texts of classical Japanese literature." Fukuda Chiyo-ni (1703–1775) is widely regarded as one of the greatest haiku poets. Before her time, haiku by women were often dismissed and ignored. Her dedication toward her career not only paved a way for her career but it also opened a path for other women to follow. Her early poems were influenced by Matsuo Bashō, although she did later develop her own unique style as an independent figure in her own right. While still

1740-464: A moment.” Bo Juyi (772-846) was a renowned Chinese poet and a government official of the Tang dynasty. Bo Juyi was known for writing poetry that focused on his career or observations about his everyday life. Bo Juyi can be seen as an influence for Hōjōki, since many his works were done in the observational, Zuihitsu style, in which Hōjōki is written. Chōmei immediately begins the work with analogies of

1856-647: A pure land called Sukhāvatī ( Sanskrit : "possessing happiness"). Sukhāvatī is situated in the uttermost west, beyond the bounds of our own world. By the power of his vows, Amitābha has made it possible for all who call upon him to be reborn into this land, there to undergo instruction by him in the dharma and ultimately become bodhisattvas and buddhas in their turn (the ultimate goal of Mahāyāna Buddhism). From there, these same bodhisattvas and buddhas return to our world to help yet more people while still residing in his land of Sukhāvatī , whose many virtues and joys are described. The earliest known reference to Amitābha in

1972-400: A rare female writer in this era, wrote short stories on powerless women of this age in a simple style in between literary and colloquial. Kyōka Izumi , a favored disciple of Ozaki, pursued a flowing and elegant style and wrote early novels such as The Operating Room (1895) in literary style and later ones including The Holy Man of Mount Koya (1900) in colloquial language. Romanticism

2088-460: A respected lineage of Shinto priests, strove to obtain a post at the Kamo Shrine, where his family had an established legacy. However, he failed in this endeavor. Chōmei decided to depart to the mountains even after Emperor Go-Toba established an alternate post for him at Kamo. This significant event prompted his bleak outlook on life and his decision to become a recluse . Zuihitsu style

2204-600: A river and a home to show mujō . He explains, “The current of a flowing river does not cease, and yet the water is not the same water as before. The foam floats on stagnant pools, now vanishing, now forming, never stays the same for long. So, too, it is with the people and dwellings of the world.” Throughout the essay, he draws comparisons to highlight the impermanence of life and events. Buddhist influences are inclusive in Chōmei's work. Chōmei understands Buddha's ideology of not becoming attached to material things, but Chōmei believes

2320-477: A simpler and more devoted existence. As the overpowering rule continues, there is also a transition from optimistic Buddhism to pessimistic Buddhism. This can be seen in Chōmei's work as follows: “All human endeavors are foolish, but among them, spending one’s fortune and troubling one’s mind to build a house in such a dangerous capital is particularly vain.” Here Chōmei expresses his feelings not only on human motives, but one can see how Chōmei immediately assumes

2436-765: A story capturing the complex psychology of modern women. Other award-winning stories at the end of the decade dealt with current issues of the elderly in hospitals, the recent past (Pure-Hearted Shopping District in Kōenji , Tokyo), and the life of a Meiji period ukiyo-e artist. Haruki Murakami is one of the most popular and controversial of today's Japanese authors. His genre-defying, humorous and surreal works have sparked fierce debates in Japan over whether they are true "literature" or simple pop-fiction: Kenzaburō Ōe has been one of his harshest critics. Some of Murakami's best-known works include Norwegian Wood (1987) and The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle (1994–1995). Banana Yoshimoto ,

SECTION 20

#1732773018516

2552-528: A strain of writers whose style hearkens back to early-Modern Japanese literature. In the early Meiji period (1868–1880s), Fukuzawa Yukichi authored Enlightenment literature, while pre-modern popular books depicted the quickly changing country. Realism was brought in by Tsubouchi Shōyō and Futabatei Shimei in the mid-Meiji period (late 1880s–early 1890s) while the Classicism of Ozaki Kōyō, Yamada Bimyo and Kōda Rohan gained popularity. Ichiyō Higuchi ,

2668-474: A teenager, she had already become very popular all over Japan for her poetry. Her poems, although mostly dealing with nature, work for unity of nature with humanity. Her own life was that of the haikai poets who made their lives and the world they lived in one with themselves, living a simple and humble life. She was able to make connections by being observant and carefully studying the unique things around her ordinary world and writing them down. Rangaku

2784-531: A temporal dwelling in order to distance himself from any fear or regrets. Chōmei refers to The Sphere as “an environment which leads him to impiousness.” The Sphere relies on the human senses to determine it, and it can be different for each individual to define. The Sphere (kyogai) was originally a term that was used in Buddhism, but it was influenced by Japanese culture to involve the environment, circumstances, or surrounding things. Chōmei believes that The Sphere

2900-504: A water shelf to place offerings on, bamboo shelves with Japanese poetry, and hung a painting of Amida Buddha . His ten-foot square hut is near the woods in Toyama . His accessibility to the woods makes gathering kindling easier. Chōmei describes that at the base of the mountain is a brushwood hut that houses the caretaker of the mountain and a child. Despite a 50-year age difference, him and the boy are great friends. They go on journeys through

3016-432: A wide variety of subjects, one particularly Japanese approach stressed their subjects' inner lives, widening the earlier novel's preoccupation with the narrator's consciousness. In Japanese fiction, plot development and action have often been of secondary interest to emotional issues. In keeping with the general trend toward reaffirming national characteristics, many old themes re-emerged, and some authors turned consciously to

3132-506: Is a style of writing in which a person is reacting to his or her surroundings. In Hōjōki, the Zuihitsu style is seen as Chōmei is giving his account of what is happening around him and is contemplating on how others are reacting to certain situations. Zuihitsu writings tend to focus on themes that are reflective of the time period in which they're written in. Chōmei focuses on the theme of dissatisfaction that comes from people of lower rank and

3248-536: Is a work of Kushan art , made during the Kushan Empire (30–375 CE), and was dedicated to "Amitābha Buddha" by a family of merchants. Gregory Schopen translates the inscription as follows: The 26th year of the Great King Huveṣka, the 2nd month, the 26th day. On this day by Nāgarakṣita, the (father) of the trader (Sax-caka), the grandson of the merchant Balakatta, the (son of Buddhapila), an image of

3364-512: Is also called Amida Nyorai ( Japanese : 阿弥陀如来 , "the Tathāgata Amitābha") . In Tibetan, Amitābha is called འོད་དཔག་མེད་ Wylie : ' od dpag med , THL : Öpakmé and in its reflex form as Amitāyus, ཚེ་དཔག་མེད་ Wylie : tshe dpag med , THL : Tsépakmé . They are iconographically distinct. When in the descending standing position, Amitābha is often shown with left arm bare and extended downward with thumb and forefinger touching, with

3480-475: Is also known as Japan's Shakespeare . Many different genres of literature made their debut during the Edo period, helped by a rising literacy rate among the growing population of townspeople, as well as the development of lending libraries. Ihara Saikaku (1642–1693) might be said to have given birth to the modern consciousness of the novel in Japan, mixing vernacular dialogue into his humorous and cautionary tales of

3596-542: Is associated with the Womb Realm ( garbhakoṣadhātu ). According to the Larger Sūtra of Immeasurable Life , Amitābha was, in very ancient times and possibly in another system of worlds, a monk named Dharmākara. In some versions of the sūtra , Dharmākara is described as a former king who, having come into contact with Buddhist teachings through the buddha Lokeśvararāja , renounced his throne. He then resolved to become

Hōjōki - Misplaced Pages Continue

3712-502: Is believed that Chinese characters came to Japan at the very beginning of the 5th century, brought by immigrants from Korea and China. Early Japanese texts first followed the Chinese model, before gradually transitioning to a hybrid of Chinese characters used in Japanese syntactical formats, resulting in sentences written with Chinese characters but read phonetically in Japanese. Chinese characters were also further adapted, creating what

3828-594: Is considered one of the Five Dhyani Buddhas known also as the Five Tathagatas together with Akshobhya , Amoghasiddhi , Ratnasambhava , and Vairocana . Amitābha is associated with the western direction and the skandha of saṃjñā , the aggregate of perception, or distinguishing, and the deep awareness of individuality. His co-equal is the female Buddha Pāṇḍaravāsinī . His two main disciples (the same number as Gautama Buddha ) are

3944-563: Is considered the pre-eminent novel of Heian fiction. Other important writings of this period include the Kokin Wakashū (905), a waka -poetry anthology, and The Pillow Book ( Makura no Sōshi , 990s) . The Pillow Book was written by Sei Shōnagon , Murasaki Shikibu's contemporary and rival, as an essay about the life, loves, and pastimes of nobles in the Emperor's court. Another notable piece of fictional Japanese literature

4060-600: Is described as being in the West, and he works for the enlightenment of all beings (represented iconographically as a blessing Buddha). The Amitayurdhyana Sutra recommends and describes at length the practice of visualising Amitābha and the Pure Land. The other two sutras do not detail visualisation practices, and have been interpreted in different ways, such as the nianfo practice of repeatedly saying Amitābha's name. Other practices developed from these sutras include practices at

4176-546: Is focused around Amitābha Buddha. In East Asian Pure Land traditions, the main religious practice is the recitation or chanting of the phrase 南無阿彌陀佛 ( Mandarin : Nāmó Ēmítuófó, Japanese: Namu Amida Butsu) which means "Homage to Amitābha Buddha". Amitābha is also known in Tibet , Mongolia , Nepal , India and other regions where Tibetan Buddhism is practiced. In the Highest Yogatantra of Tibetan Buddhism, Amitābha

4292-460: Is infinite". The name Amitāyus (nominative form Amitāyuḥ ) is also used for the Sambhogakāya aspect of Amitābha, particularly associated with longevity. He is mostly depicted sitting and holding in his hands a vessel containing the nectar of immortality. In Tibetan Buddhism, Amitāyus is also one of the three deities of long life (Amitāyus, White Tara and Uṣṇīṣavijayā ). Amitāyus being

4408-618: Is known as man'yōgana , the earliest form of kana , or Japanese syllabic writing. The earliest literary works in Japan were created in the Nara period. These include the Kojiki (712), a historical record that also chronicles ancient Japanese mythology and folk songs; the Nihon Shoki (720), a chronicle written in Chinese that is significantly more detailed than the Kojiki ; and

4524-579: Is known as Japan's Mark Twain and wrote Tōkaidōchū Hizakurige , which is a mix of travelogue and comedy. Tsuga Teisho , Takebe Ayatari , and Okajima Kanzan were instrumental in developing the yomihon , which were historical romances almost entirely in prose, influenced by Chinese vernacular novels such as Sangoku-shi ( 三国志 , Three Kingdoms ) and Suikoden ( 水滸伝 , Water Margin ) . Two yomihon masterpieces were written by Ueda Akinari (1734–1809): Ugetsu Monogatari and Harusame Monogatari . Kyokutei Bakin (1767–1848) wrote

4640-466: Is named after, is simply a ten-foot square hut. Chōmei illustrates, “In the course of things, years have piled up and my residences have steadily shrunk… In area it is only ten feet square; in height, less than seven feet.” He goes on to say, “I lay a foundation, put up a simple makeshift roof, secure each joint with a latch. This is so I can easily move the building if anything dissatisfies me.” Chōmei practices in asceticism in which everything he owns

4756-595: Is not impious, but The Sphere itself is the cause of his impiousness. In order to understand recluse literature's influence on Asian culture, it must be determined why recluses decide to forsake society and cast off into the wilderness at all. According to Li Chi's “The Changing Concept of the Recluse in Chinese Literature”, men had various reasons to go into seclusion. Some believed that in secluding themselves they would find some sort of personal ascension and

Hōjōki - Misplaced Pages Continue

4872-619: Is notable for its more somber tone compared to the works of previous eras, with themes of life and death, simple lifestyles, and redemption through killing. A representative work is The Tale of the Heike ( Heike Monogatari , 1371) , an epic account of the struggle between the Minamoto and Taira clans for control of Japan at the end of the 12th century. Other important tales of the period include Kamo no Chōmei 's Hōjōki (1212) and Yoshida Kenkō 's Tsurezuregusa (1331). Despite

4988-419: Is of significance to him, and he values his possessions more. Later in Chōmei's life, he moves to the mountains. Living alone significantly impacts Chōmei's life by allowing him to focus on his connection to Amida Buddha . He describes, “Using what comes to hand, I cover my skin with clothing woven from the bark of wisteria vines and with a hempen quilt, and sustain my life with asters of the field and fruit of

5104-496: Is recognized as the greatest master of haiku (then called hokku ). His poems were influenced by his firsthand experience of the world around him, often encapsulating the feeling of a scene in a few simple elements. He made his life's work the transformation of haikai into a literary genre. For Bashō, haikai involved a combination of comic playfulness and spiritual depth, ascetic practice, and involvement in human society. In particular, Bashō wrote Oku no Hosomichi ,

5220-601: Is that what is important is the way in which things are dealt with. The actions that people take, or where they go are not really important in life since nothing truly ever lasts. This includes buildings, wealth, and homes. Chōmei shows dukkha by consistently focusing on the experiences of suffering in life. He says, “All in all, life in this world is difficult… We cannot reckon the many ways in which we trouble our hearts according to where we live and in obedience to our status… Wealth brings many fears; poverty brings cruel hardship.” Significantly, Chōmei's hut, in which this work

5336-465: Is the easiest way to distinguish them. Amitāyus is an emanation of Amitābha. Amitābha is the head of the Lotus family. In Vajrayana, Amitābha is the most ancient of the Five Tathagatas . He is of red color originating from the red seed syllable hrīḥ . He represents the cosmic element of "Sanjana" (name). His vehicle is the peacock. He exhibits Samadhi Mudra his two palms folded face up, one on top of

5452-479: Is the principal Buddha of Pure Land Buddhism . He is also known as Amitāyus , which is understood to be his enjoyment body ( Saṃbhogakāya ). In Vajrayana Buddhism , Amitābha is known for his longevity, discernment , pure perception , and the purification of aggregates with deep awareness of the emptiness of all phenomena. Amitābha is associated with the Diamond Realm ( vajradhātu ), whereas Amitāyus

5568-453: The Man'yōshū (759), a poetry anthology. One of the stories they describe is the tale of Urashima Tarō . The Heian period has been referred to as the golden era of art and literature in Japan. During this era, literature became centered on a cultural elite of nobility and monks. The imperial court particularly patronized the poets, most of whom were courtiers or ladies-in-waiting. Reflecting

5684-514: The sakoku policy and especially during the increasing westernization of the Meiji era , Western literature has also had an influence on the development of modern Japanese writers, while Japanese literature has in turn become more recognized internationally, leading to two Japanese Nobel laureates in literature, namely Yasunari Kawabata and Kenzaburō Ōe . Before the introduction of kanji from China to Japan, Japan had no writing system; it

5800-522: The Ajitasena Sutra , Samādhirāja Sūtra and Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra . The appearance of such literature and sculptural remains at the end of the second century suggests that the teachings on Amitābha we becoming popular in the first and second centuries CE. Furthermore, there are sculptures of Amitabha in dhyani mudras as well as bronzes of Amitābha in abhaya mudra from the Gandhara era of

5916-640: The Shamarpas are considered to be emanations of Amitābha. In Shingon Buddhism , Amitābha is seen as one of the thirteen Buddhas to whom practitioners can pay homage. Shingon, like Tibetan Buddhism, also uses special devotional mantras for Amitābha, though the mantras used differ. Amitābha is also one of the Buddhas featured in the Womb Realm Mandala used in Shingon practices , and sits to

SECTION 50

#1732773018516

6032-593: The bodhisattvas Vajrapani and Avalokiteśvara , the former to his left and the latter to his right. In Tibetan Buddhism , there exist a number of famous prayers for taking rebirth in Sukhāvatī ( Dewachen ). One of these was written by Je Tsongkhapa , on the request of Manjushri . Amitābha is primarily invoked in Tibet during the phowa practices, or invoked as Amitāyus – especially in practices relating to longevity and preventing an untimely death. The Panchen Lamas and

6148-399: The 1980s. Many popular works fell between "pure literature" and pulp novels, including all sorts of historical serials, information-packed docudramas, science fiction, mysteries, detective fiction , business stories, war journals, and animal stories. Non-fiction covered everything from crime to politics. Although factual journalism predominated, many of these works were interpretive, reflecting

6264-672: The Blessed One, the Buddha Amitābha was set up for the worship of all buddhas. Through this root of merit (may) all living things (obtain) the unexcelled knowledge of a buddha. Another early epigraphic mention of Amitabha (c. 610 CE) is found in Patan (Lalitpur) . It is a verse which states: I praise Amitabha, the best, dispeller of illusion by the light of great prajña . The light, victor who lives in Sukhavati with Lokesvara ,

6380-547: The Dunes (1960), wanted to express the Japanese experience in modern terms without using either international styles or traditional conventions, developed new inner visions. Yoshikichi Furui related the lives of alienated urban dwellers coping with the minutiae of daily life, while the psychodramas within such daily life crises have been explored by a rising number of important women novelists. The 1988 Naoki Prize went to Shizuko Todo  [ ja ] for Ripening Summer ,

6496-562: The Dutch-language anatomy book Ontleedkundige Tafelen . As a full-blown translation from a Western language, it was the first of its kind in Japan. Although there was a minor Western influence trickling into the country from the Dutch settlement at Nagasaki , it was the importation of Chinese vernacular fiction that proved the greatest outside influence on the development of Early Modern Japanese fiction. Jippensha Ikku (1765–1831)

6612-460: The Fourth Month of Jishō 4. The wind blew on for several blocks. No homes were spared; homes were reduced to posts and beams, and others were flattened. The wind blew items, boards, and shingles from the homes into the sky along with dust that obscured it. The Sixth Month of Jishō 4 brought on a change of the relocation of Japan's capital from Kyoto to Fukuhara . Although people objected,

6728-661: The Great Buddha of Kamakura ( 鎌倉大仏 ) at Kōtoku-in or the exposition mudrā, while the earth-touching mudrā (right hand pointed downward over the right leg, palm inward) is reserved for a seated Gautama Buddha alone. He can also be seen holding a lotus in his hands while displaying the meditation mudrā. There is a difference between Amitāyus and Amitābha. Amitāyus—the Buddha of Infinite Life—and Amitābha—the Buddha of Infinite Light—are essentially identical, being reflective images of one another. Sutras in which Gautama Buddha expounds

6844-481: The Japanese literary language, even at a time when the authors themselves experienced challenges due to their gender. One Meiji-period writer, Shimizu Shikin , sought to encourage positive comparisons between her contemporaries and their female forebears in the hopes that female authors would be viewed with respect by society, despite assuming a public role outside the traditional confines of a woman's role in her home (see Good Wife, Wise Mother ). Other notable authors of

6960-467: The Meiji period included Hiratsuka Raicho , Higuchi Ichiyo , Tamura Toshiko , Nogami Yaeko and Yosano Akiko . Japan has some literary contests and awards in which authors can participate and be awarded. The Akutagawa Prize is one of the most prestigious literary awards, and receives wide attention from media. Amit%C4%81bha Amitābha ( Sanskrit pronunciation: [ɐmɪˈtaːbʱɐ] )

7076-682: The Nobel Prize for Literature . Mitsuharu Inoue had long been concerned with the atomic bomb and continued in the 1980s to write on problems of the nuclear age, while Shūsaku Endō depicted the religious dilemma of the Kakure Kirishitan , Roman Catholics in feudal Japan, as a springboard to address spiritual problems. Yasushi Inoue also turned to the past in masterful historical novels of Inner Asia and ancient Japan, in order to portray present human fate. Avant-garde writers, such as Kōbō Abe , who wrote novels such as The Woman in

SECTION 60

#1732773018516

7192-521: The Tokugawa period, as in earlier periods, scholarly work continued to be published in Chinese, which was the language of the learned much as Latin was in Europe. The Meiji period marked the re-opening of Japan to the West, ending over two centuries of national seclusion , and marking the beginning of a period of rapid industrialization. The introduction of European literature brought free verse into

7308-467: The abridged editions are categorized into Chōkyō , Entoku , and Mana . The Chōkyō and Entoku editions are named after the era date in the afterword and both include extra passages. The Mana editions are written entirely in kanji replacing the kana in the kohon editions. Hōjōki is one of the earliest Japanese classical works that was brought to the attention of Western readership, mainly because of its Buddhist elements. The first mention of

7424-435: The adult market, a manga introduction to economics, and pornography ( hentai ). Manga represented between 20 and 30 percent of annual publications at the end of the 1980s, in sales of some ¥400 billion per year. Light novels , a Japanese type of young adult novel , often feature plots and illustrations similar to those seen in manga. Many manga are fan-made ( dōjinshi ). Literature utilizing new media began to appear at

7540-408: The advance on Nanjing. Writers who opposed the war include Denji Kuroshima , Mitsuharu Kaneko , Hideo Oguma and Jun Ishikawa . World War II , and Japan's defeat, deeply influenced Japanese literature. Many authors wrote stories of disaffection, loss of purpose, and the coping with defeat. Haruo Umezaki 's short story Sakurajima shows a disillusioned and skeptical Navy officer stationed in

7656-453: The aristocratic atmosphere, the poetry was elegant and sophisticated and expressed emotions in a rhetorical style. Editing the resulting anthologies of poetry soon became a national pastime. The iroha poem, now one of two standard orderings for the Japanese syllabary , was also developed during the early Heian period. The Tale of Genji ( Genji Monogatari ) , written in the early 11th century by female courtier Murasaki Shikibu ,

7772-510: The authors themselves and depicts their own mental states. Neo-romanticism came out of anti-naturalism and was led by Kafū Nagai , Jun'ichirō Tanizaki , Kōtarō Takamura , Hakushū Kitahara and others in the early 1910s. Saneatsu Mushanokōji , Naoya Shiga and others founded a magazine Shirakaba in 1910. They shared a common characteristic, Humanism. Shiga's style was autobiographical and depicted states of his mind and sometimes classified as "I Novel" in this sense. Ryūnosuke Akutagawa , who

7888-451: The capital, and eventually the fears became true. The capital was moved back to Kyoto . The houses of those who moved were never the same. In the Yōwa era, there was a two-year famine caused by the onslaught of droughts, typhoons, floods and the fact that grains never ripened for harvest. People abandoned their land; some moved to the mountains. Buddhist prayers and rites were performed to remedy

8004-500: The common people, and setsuwa such as the Nihon Ryoiki were created by Buddhist priests for preaching. The development of roads, along with a growing public interest in travel and pilgrimages, brought rise to the greater popularity of travel literature from the early 13th to 14th centuries. Notable examples of travel diaries include Fuji kikō (1432) and Tsukushi michi no ki (1480). Literature during this time

8120-477: The context of Chōmei's pilgrimage, we find Chōmei searching for asylum from the downtrodden society he once lived in, in the unstructured pursuit of Buddhist understanding. Recluses in Asian antiquity were revered for their writing because their works introduced those in society to a point of view not cluttered by the conformed ideals of societal life. Because there were various reasons behind intellectuals retiring into

8236-437: The dead to link them to Buddha . He counted their bodies lining from Ichijō of the north to Kujō of the south and Kyōgoku of the east to Suzaku of the west totaling in 42,300 Corpses, although there were more. A devastating earthquake happened, which caused the mountains to crumble, water to flow onto land, and shrines to be destroyed. The earthquake was so dangerous that people's homes could be crushed at any moment. After

8352-460: The debut of several authors best known for the beauty of their language and their tales of love and sensuality, notably Jun'ichirō Tanizaki and Japan's first winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature , Yasunari Kawabata , a master of psychological fiction. Ashihei Hino wrote lyrical bestsellers glorifying the war, while Tatsuzō Ishikawa attempted to publish a disturbingly realistic account of

8468-627: The destroyer of the fear arising in the world, bearer of the lotus, and Mahasthamaprapta , the affectionate-hearted one. Regarding textual evidence, the earliest Buddhist sutra mentioning Amitābha is the translation into Chinese of the Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra (般舟三昧經; Bozhōu Sānmèi Jīng ) by the Kushan monk Lokakṣema around 180. This text has been dated to between the 1st century BCE and 2nd century CE by modern buddhologists. Other early Mahayana texts mentioning Amitabha include

8584-656: The earthquake subsided, there came a period of aftershocks which lasted 3 months. This was during the Saiko era (around 855), when many significant events occurred: the great earthquake, and the head falling from the Buddha at Tōdai Temple . Chōmei describes the dissatisfaction that is felt by people of lower rank in relation to their status: they face cruel hardships and they are never able to find peace. Chōmei also shares his experiences in this time period. He inherited his paternal grandmother's house and lived there for some time. Then, when he lost his father, he could no longer live in

8700-583: The emperor, ministers and high officials still moved. Those who depended on the capital left with them while others were left behind. Houses went in to ruin, and plots of land became barren fields. Chōmei takes a chance to visit Fukuhara, in which he sees that the city was too crowded for proper streets and nature always beat Fukuhara with violent winds. Residents complained about the pain of rebuilding in Fukuhara. Officials who usually wear court robes also wear simple clothes now. The uneasiness of disorder set into

8816-482: The end of 2007 cell phone novels comprised four of the top five fiction best sellers. Female writers in Japan enjoyed a brief period of success during the Heian period , but were undermined following the decline in power of the Imperial Court in the 14th century. Later, in the Meiji era , earlier works written by women such as Murasaki Shikibu and Sei Shonagon were championed amongst the earliest examples of

8932-412: The end of the 20th century. Visual novels , a type of interactive fiction , were produced for personal computers beginning in the 1980s. Cell phone novels appeared in the early 21st century. Written by and for cell phone users , the novels — typically romances read by young women — have become very popular both online and in print. Some, such as Love Sky , have sold millions of print copies, and at

9048-685: The extremely popular fantasy/historical romance Nansō Satomi Hakkenden over a period of twenty-eight years to complete (1814–1842), in addition to other yomihon . Santō Kyōden wrote yomihon mostly set in the red-light districts until the Kansei edicts banned such works, and he turned to comedic kibyōshi . Genres included horror, crime stories, morality stories, comedy, and pornography — often accompanied by colorful woodcut prints. Hokusai (1760–1849), perhaps Japan's most famous woodblock print artist, also illustrated fiction as well as his famous 36 Views of Mount Fuji . Nevertheless, in

9164-432: The feats of their labor would soon be taken away by nature. In essence, Chōmei does not believe any effort is necessary to create something since there is no value in what one builds. Chōmei spent his eremitic life in hermitage. The only way in which he could avoid being trapped by materialistic reasons. He did not spend much effort in the construction of his house in order to be detached from his “dwelling.” Chōmei constructed

9280-477: The glories of Sukhavati, the Pure Lands, speak of the presiding Buddha sometimes as Amitābha and sometimes as Amitāyus. When depicted as Amitāyus he is depicted in fine clothes and jewels and as Amitābha in simple monk's clothing. They are also simply known as Amida in the Chinese and Japanese tradition. The image of the gold colored statue in the article is of Amitāyus as he is wearing a five-pointed crown, which

9396-401: The hardships they face because of this. “All in all, life in this world is difficult; the fragility and transience of our bodies and dwellings are indeed as I have said. We cannot reckon the many ways in which we trouble our hearts according to where we live and in obedience to our status.” In Japanese aesthetics, Yūgen is meant to be an exploration of a “mysterious sense of beauty” within

9512-530: The heart and not the environment in which they are in. Because the natural disasters destroy the things people are attached to, people hearts are often disturbed by the loss of their possessions. Chōmei does not believe in any form of permanent home. Often he refers to the concept of “man” and “dwelling.” He believes that a home is symbolic of impermanence. Chōmei did not build his cottage to last. The style in which he built his cottage requires small effort to rebuild. This symbolizes human nature to rebuild even though

9628-448: The house, because it reminded him of past memories. Since then, he has created a house only for himself, made of earth materials and bamboo posts. During times of snowfall and wind, his house would be in great danger of falling apart. At the age of 50, Chōmei left his house and became secluded from the world: he was not married and he did not have any children. He did not have any relatives that he felt it would be hard to leave behind. Chōmei

9744-467: The impermanence of nature, setting a pessimistic view for the rest of this work. He recalls the devastating fire of the Fourth Month of Angen 3 where homes and governmental buildings "turned to ash and dust." Winds picked up the fire and spread the flames throughout the city. Those who were caught near it choked and collapsed. Others instantly died. Chōmei goes on to recount a great whirlwind that raged on from Nakanomikado and Kyōgoku to Rokujō during

9860-424: The lowered status of women. As the importance of the imperial court continued to decline, a major feature of Muromachi literature (1333–1603) was the spread of cultural activity through all levels of society. Classical court literature, which had been the focal point of Japanese literature up until this point, gradually disappeared. New genres such as renga , or linked verse, and Noh theater developed among

9976-566: The moment of death, call upon him. This openness and acceptance of all kinds of people has made belief in pure lands one of the major influences in Mahāyāna Buddhism. Pure Land Buddhism seems to have first become popular in Gandhara , from where it spread to China infused with Taoists and Confucian philosophy before spreading to Central and East Asia . The sutra goes on to explain that Amitābha, after accumulating great merit over countless lives, finally achieved buddhahood and created

10092-526: The mountain together, visit the Ishiyama temple, and collect offerings. At night, he gets emotional when thinking of his early life and old friends. Chōmei then tells of how he thought his stay in his ten-foot square hut would be temporary. However, he has lived in it for five years and feels as though it is his home. He knows very little of life in the capital and does not relate to the people there. He lacks ambitions and only seeks tranquility. Chōmei describes

10208-480: The other, lying on his lap. The lotus is his sign. When represented on the stupa, he always faces toward west. He is worshiped thinking that one can have salvation. The first known epigraphic evidence for Amitābha is the bottom part of a statue found in Govindnagar, Pakistan and now located at Government Museum, Mathura . The statue is dated to "the 26th year of the reign of Huviṣka " i.e., 104 CE. It

10324-449: The past. Strikingly, Buddhist attitudes about the importance of knowing oneself and the poignant impermanence of things formed an undercurrent to sharp social criticism of this material age. There was a growing emphasis on women's roles, the Japanese persona in the modern world, and the malaise of common people lost in the complexities of urban culture. Popular fiction, non-fiction, and children's literature all flourished in urban Japan in

10440-432: The pleasure quarters, the so-called Ukiyozōshi (" floating world ") genre. Ihara's Life of an Amorous Man is considered the first work in this genre. Although Ihara's works were not regarded as high literature at the time because it had been aimed towards and popularized by the chōnin (merchant classes), they became popular and were key to the development and spread of ukiyozōshi . Matsuo Bashō (1644–1694)

10556-421: The poetic repertoire. It became widely used for longer works embodying new intellectual themes. Young Japanese prose writers and dramatists faced a suddenly-broadened horizon of new ideas and artistic schools, with novelists amongst some of the first to assimilate these concepts successfully into their writing. Natsume Sōseki 's (1867–1916) humorous novel Wagahai wa neko de aru ( I Am a Cat , 1905) employed

10672-564: The post-war period. Nobuo Kojima 's short story "The American School" portrays a group of Japanese teachers of English who, in the immediate aftermath of the war, deal with the American occupation in varying ways. Prominent writers of the 1970s and 1980s were identified with intellectual and moral issues in their attempts to raise social and political consciousness. One of them, Kenzaburō Ōe , who published one of his best-known works, A Personal Matter in 1964, became Japan's second winner of

10788-499: The right and Mahāsthāmaprāpta on the left. This iconography is known as an Amitabha triad , and is especially common in Chinese , Japanese , and Korean art . Amitābha is said to display 84,000 auspicious and distinguishing marks reflecting his many virtues. Amitābha can often be distinguished by his mudrā : Amitābha is often depicted, when shown seated, displaying the meditation mudrā (thumbs touching and fingers together as in

10904-425: The right hand facing outward also with thumb and forefinger touching. The meaning of this mudra is that wisdom (symbolized by the raised hand) is accessible to even the lowest beings, while the outstretched hand shows that Amitābha's compassion is directed at the lowest beings, who cannot save themselves. When not depicted alone, Amitābha is often portrayed with two assistant bodhisattvas, usually Avalokiteśvara on

11020-499: The same Chinese characters used for Amitābha are used to represent his name, though they are pronounced slightly differently: In addition to transliteration, the name Amitābha has also been translated into Chinese using characters which, taken together, convey the meaning "Infinite Light": 無量光 (Wúliàngguāng). In the same fashion, the name Amitāyus ("Infinite Life") has been translated as 無量壽 (Wúliàngshòu). These translated names are not, however, very commonly used. In Japanese, Amitābha

11136-568: The same image of a changing river, and the Latin adages Omnia mutantur and Tempora mutantur . The text was heavily influenced by Yoshishige no Yasutane 's Chiteiki (982). In addition, Chōmei based his small hut, and much of his philosophical outlook, on the accounts of the Indian sage Vimalakīrti from the Vimalakīrti Sūtra . Chōmei introduces the essay with analogies emphasizing

11252-400: The situations but to no effect. Beggars began to fill the streets, and the famine became an epidemic in the second year. Bodies of those who starved lined the streets with almost no passage for horses and carriages. Some tore down their houses for simple resources to sell for spare change; others went to the extent of stealing Buddhist images and temple furnishings to sell. Chōmei reveals that he

11368-424: The time of death, such as visualising Amitābha in the heaven (sun) over their head (Western horizon), think his name as a mantra, and leaving the body as a soul through the acupuncture point Bai Hui (百會). East Asian Buddhist traditions commonly invoke Amitābha's name in a practice known as nianfo ( 念佛 ) in Chinese and nembutsu in Japanese. This is the central practice of East Asian Pure Land Buddhism which

11484-424: The trees on the peak. Because I do not mingle with others I am not embarrassed by my appearance…” “Of all the follies of human endeavor, none is more pointless than expending treasures and spirit to build houses in so dangerous place as the capital.” Chōmei often makes a point that no matter where individuals may be, the world still impacts them. Chōmei believes that the discontent in many people's lives come from

11600-399: The type of people people like, and the way he treats his body. When he feels distressed, he rests his body. When he feels strong, he works it. He is also unaffected by society's standards and is not embarrassed by his appearance. Chōmei then goes to say that “The Three Worlds exist in only one mind.” This is based on Buddhist beliefs of three worlds: the world of desire, the world of form, and

11716-458: The underlying Indic form: oṃ amṛta-teje hara hūṃ . The proper form of Amitābha's name in Sanskrit is Amitābha , masculine, and the nominative singular is Amitābhaḥ . This is a compound of the Sanskrit words amita ("without bound, infinite") and ābhā ("light, splendor"). Consequently, the name is to be interpreted as "he who possesses light without bound, he whose splendor

11832-501: The universe, and the sad beauty of human suffering. As Chōmei is describing the great earthquake that occurred in his time period, he reveals this sense of beauty in the universe and the sad beauty of human suffering, which can be seen in the quote, “A dreadful earthquake shook the land. The effects were remarkable. Mountains crumbled and dammed the rivers; the sea tilted and inundated the land. The earth split open and water gushed forth…people who were inside their houses might be crushed in

11948-666: The versions of the sutra widely known in China, Vietnam, Korea and Japan, Dharmākara's eighteenth vow was that any being in any universe desiring to be reborn into Amitābha's pure land ( Chinese : 淨土 ; pinyin : jìngtǔ ; Japanese pronunciation : jōdo ; Korean : 정토 ; romaja : jeongto ; Vietnamese : tịnh độ ) and calling upon his name with sincerity, even as few as ten times will be guaranteed rebirth there. His nineteenth vow promises that he, together with his bodhisattvas and other blessed Buddhists, will appear before those who, at

12064-566: The west, which is where the Pure Land of Amitābha is said to dwell. Amitābha is the center of a number of mantras in Vajrayana practices. The Sanskrit form of the mantra of Amitābha is oṃ amitābha hrīḥ ). An alternative Tibetan mantra is Om ami dewa hri (Sanskrit: oṃ amideva hrīḥ ). Amitabha's main mantra in Shingon Buddhism is Om amirita teizei kara um (Japanese: オン・アミリタ・テイゼイ・カラ・ウン ), which represents

12180-449: The wilderness, we are left with a wealth of knowledge in various writings from the multitude of intellectuals and transcendentalists that secluded themselves in the wilderness, preserved over the years and translated. Unusually for works of the period, Chōmei's original manuscript survives. Numerous copies have been made and circulated, some complete and some abridged. The complete editions are further categorized into old and popular, while

12296-641: The work in English language goes as far back as to 1873, when Ernest Mason Satow in an article on Japan briefly mentioned this work while discussing Japanese Literature . However, the first English translation of the work was attempted by Natsume Sōseki in 1891, one of the most prominent Japanese literary figures in modern times. He translated the work into English upon the request of James Main Dixon , his English literature professor at Tokyo Imperial University . Dixon consequently came out with his own translation of

12412-782: The work that was mostly based on Sōseki's translation. Later on William George Aston , Frederick Victor Dickins , Minakata Kumagusu , and many others translated the work into English again. Notable modern translations were prepared by Yasuhiko Moriguchi & David Jenkins (1998), Meredith McKinney (2014), and Matthew Stavros (2020; republished by Tuttle Books in 2024). The work has also been translated into many other foreign languages. Japanese literature Japanese literature throughout most of its history has been influenced by cultural contact with neighboring Asian literatures , most notably China and its literature . Early texts were often written in pure Classical Chinese or lit.   ' Chinese writing ' ( 漢文 , kanbun ) ,

12528-486: The world of formlessness. Kamo no Chōmei experienced the change of the aristocratic Heian era to the tumultuous Shōgun rule at the age of thirty. Military rulers seized the court and set about a medieval feudal -like structure. During this era, the influence of Buddhism significantly faded. Cyclic cosmology foretold of its decline in which aristocrats enacted the move from city life to reclusion in nature for religious Buddhist pursuits. This impacted Chōmei's decision to

12644-629: The worst in living at the capital. In context, Chōmei is referring to the great fire that consumed nearly all the houses in Kyoto. From this one experience, he advises others that investing in a residence in a capital is irrational. Another example of Chōmei's pessimistic philosophy is here: “The powerful man is consumed by greed; he who stands alone is mocked. Wealth brings many fears poverty brings cruel hardship. Look to another for help and you will belong to him. Take someone under your wing, and your heart will be shackled by affection.” Chōmei, who came from

12760-546: Was Konjaku Monogatarishū , a collection of over a thousand stories in 31 volumes. The volumes cover various tales from India , China and Japan. The 10th-century Japanese narrative, The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter ( Taketori Monogatari ) , can be considered an early example of proto- science fiction . The protagonist of the story, Kaguya- hime , is a princess from the Moon who is sent to Earth for safety during

12876-518: Was an intellectual movement situated in Edo and centered on the study of Dutch (and by subsequently western ) science and technology, history, philosophy, art, and language, based primarily on the Dutch books imported via Nagasaki. The polymath Hiraga Gennai (1728–1780) was a scholar of rangaku and a writer of popular fiction. Sugita Genpaku (1733–1817) was a Japanese scholar known for his translation of Kaitai Shinsho (New Book of Anatomy) from

12992-410: Was born in this age, and he recounts that one of the saddest occurrences is when loved ones died first by starving to feed their family or lovers. Chōmei also gruesomely describes, " I also saw a small child who, not knowing that his mother was dead, lay beside her, sucking at her breast." The priest Ryugo of Ninna Temple grievingly marked the first letter of the Sanskrit alphabet on the foreheads of

13108-406: Was brought in by Mori Ōgai with his anthology of translated poems (1889) and carried to its height by Tōson Shimazaki , alongside magazines such as Myōjō and Bungaku-kai in the early 1900s. Mori also wrote some modern novels including The Dancing Girl (1890), The Wild Geese (1911), then later wrote historical novels. Natsume Sōseki, who is often compared with Mori Ōgai, wrote I Am

13224-531: Was highly praised by Soseki, wrote short stories including Rashōmon (1915) with an intellectual and analytic attitude and represented Neo-realism in the mid-1910s. During the 1920s and early 1930s the proletarian literary movement, comprising such writers as Takiji Kobayashi , Denji Kuroshima , Yuriko Miyamoto and Ineko Sata produced a politically radical literature depicting the harsh lives of workers, peasants, women, and other downtrodden members of society, and their struggles for change. Pre-war Japan saw

13340-467: Was jobless and had no income. Chōmei spent five years living on Mount Ohara. When Chōmei reached the age of 60, he decided to build another house that would last him until the end of his life. This house was significantly smaller than the others he built: only ten feet square in terms of area, and seven feet in height. Land is not necessary for him, according to Chōmei, because with a makeshift house, he can easily move it around. Chōmei describes how he built

13456-463: Was written during the largely peaceful Tokugawa shogunate (commonly referred to as the Edo period ). Due in large part to the rise of the working and middle classes in the new capital of Edo (modern Tokyo ), forms of popular drama developed which would later evolve into kabuki . The jōruri and kabuki dramatist Chikamatsu Monzaemon (1653–1725) became popular at the end of the 17th century, and he

#515484