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98-566: Konstantin "Kosta" Milovanović Pećanac ( Serbian Cyrillic : Константин "Коста" Миловановић Пећанац ; 1879–1944) was a Serbian and Yugoslav Chetnik commander ( vojvoda ) during the Balkan Wars , World War I and World War II . Pećanac fought on the Serbian side in both Balkan Wars and World War I, joining the forces of Kosta Vojinović during the Toplica uprising of 1917. Between

196-808: A 2014 survey, 47% of the Serbian population write in the Latin alphabet whereas 36% write in Cyrillic. The following table provides the upper and lower case forms of the Serbian Cyrillic alphabet, along with the equivalent forms in the Serbian Latin alphabet and the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) value for each letter. The letters do not have names, and consonants are normally pronounced as such when spelling

294-465: A century beginning from failed attempts of Selim III (1789) to a period of Ottoman military reforms (1826–1858) and finally Abdulhamid II. Abdulhamid II, as early as 1880 sought, and two years later secured, German assistance, which culminated in the appointment of Lt. Col. Kohler. However. Although the consensus that Abdulhamid favored the modernization of the Ottoman army and the professionalization of

392-539: A challenge in Unicode modeling, as the glyphs differ only in italic versions, and historically non-italic letters have been used in the same code positions. Serbian professional typography uses fonts specially crafted for the language to overcome the problem, but texts printed from common computers contain East Slavic rather than Serbian italic glyphs. Cyrillic fonts from Adobe, Microsoft (Windows Vista and later) and

490-457: A few other font houses include the Serbian variations (both regular and italic). If the underlying font and Web technology provides support, the proper glyphs can be obtained by marking the text with appropriate language codes. Thus, in non-italic mode: whereas: Since Unicode unifies different glyphs in same characters, font support must be present to display the correct variant. The standard Serbian keyboard layout for personal computers

588-475: A force of Crusaders, and later Başkent and Chaldoran against the Aq Qoyunlu and Safavids. Ottoman Classical Army was the military structure and the founding and main army established by Mehmed II , during his reorganization of the state and the military efforts. This is the major reorganization following Orhan I which organized a standing army paid by salary rather than booty or fiefs. This army

686-578: A half-million kilograms of food per day. The Ottoman forces fared better than the Russians, but the expenses crippled both national treasuries. Supplies on both sides came using fixed prices, taxes, and confiscation. Sultan Selim III in 1789 to 1807 set up the " Nizam-i Cedid " [new order] army to replace the inefficient and outmoded imperial army. The old system depended on Janissaries , who had largely lost their military effectiveness. Selim closely followed Western military forms. It would be expensive for

784-547: A massacre of 200 Muslims in 1921. Pećanac became the president of the Chetnik Association in 1932. By opening membership of the Chetnik Association to new younger members that had not served in World War I, he grew the organisation during the 1930s from a nationalist veterans' association focused on protecting veterans' rights to an aggressively partisan Serb political organisation with 500,000 members throughout

882-586: A new army, so a new treasury ['Irad-i Cedid'] was established . The result was the Porte now had an efficient, European-trained army equipped with modern weapons. However it had fewer than 10,000 soldiers in an era when Western armies were ten to fifty times larger. Furthermore, the Sultan was upsetting the well-established traditional political powers. As a result, it was rarely used, apart from its use against Napoleon's expeditionary force at Gaza and Rosetta. The new army

980-526: A new system dates before 1826. Sultan Selim III formed the Nizam-ı Cedid army (Nizam-ı Cedid meaning New Order) in the late 18th century and early 19th century. This was the first serious attempt to transform the Ottoman military forces into a modern army. However, the Nizam-ı Cedid was short lived, dissolving after the abdication of Selim III in 1807. Sultan Mahmud II, Selim III's successor and nephew, who

1078-615: A railway station, destroying a bridge and raiding a Bulgarian village on the border. Pećanac avoided a further offensive by the occupation forces in July by disappearing into the mountains once again. After emerging for a short time, in September–October 1917 Pećanac again dispersed his guerrillas and infiltrated the Austro-Hungarian occupied zone , where he remained in hiding until mid-1918. During his period in hiding, he met with

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1176-529: A request to Milan Nedić , the head of the Serbian puppet government , for stronger organisation, supplies, arms, salary funds, and more. Over time, his requests were fulfilled and a German liaison officer was appointed at Pećanac's headquarters to help coordinate actions. According to German data, on 17 January 1942 a total of 72 Chetnik officers and 7,963 men were being provided for by the Serbian Gendarmerie Command. This fell short of

1274-702: A reserve officer. He later worked with the border gendarmerie near Vranje as a corporal . Pećanac was discharged at some point for reasons unknown and later joined the Chetniks. While serving with them he was given the nickname "Pećanac", derived from the name of the town in which he grew up. In 1895, war broke out in Macedonia against the Ottoman Empire . Pećanac joined the Serbian Chetnik Organization in 1903, and fought against

1372-573: A traitor. His continuing collaboration ruined what remained of the reputation he had developed in the Balkan Wars and World War I. The Germans soon found that Pećanac's units were inefficient, unreliable, and of little military use. Pećanac's Chetniks regularly clashed and had rivalries with other German auxiliaries, such as the Serbian State Guard and Serbian Volunteer Command , as well as with Mihailović's Chetniks. The Germans and

1470-588: Is accepted as the establishment. The organisation is sometimes referred to as the Ottoman Air Force. According to Edward J. Erickson, the very term Ottoman Air Force is a gross exaggeration and the term Osmanlı Hava Kuvvetleri (Ottoman Air Force) unfortunately is often repeated in contemporary Turkish sources. The fleet size reached its greatest in December 1916, when the Ottoman aviation squadrons had 90 airplanes. The Aviation Squadrons were reorganized as

1568-488: Is as follows: Ottoman army The military of the Ottoman Empire ( Turkish : Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun silahlı kuvvetleri ) was the armed forces of the Ottoman Empire . It was founded in 1299 and dissolved in 1922. The Military of the Ottoman Empire can be divided in five main periods. The foundation era covers the years between 1300 (Byzantine expedition) and 1453 ( Conquest of Constantinople ),

1666-520: Is known as Auspicious Incident . By the reign of Mahmud the second, the elite janissaries had become corrupt and always stood in the way of modernization efforts meaning they were more of a liability than an asset. By the siege of Constantinople in 1453, the Ottomans had large enough cannons to batter the walls of the city, to the surprise of the defenders. The Dardanelles Gun was designed and cast in bronze in 1464 by Munir Ali. The Dardanelles Gun

1764-636: Is necessary (or followed by a short schwa , e.g. /fə/).: Summary tables According to tradition, Glagolitic was invented by the Byzantine Christian missionaries and brothers Saints Cyril and Methodius in the 860s, amid the Christianization of the Slavs . Glagolitic alphabet appears to be older, predating the introduction of Christianity, only formalized by Cyril and expanded to cover non-Greek sounds. The Glagolitic alphabet

1862-486: Is the forerunner of the Turkish Armed Forces . The earliest form of the Ottoman military was a steppe-nomadic cavalry force. This was centralized by Osman I from Turkoman tribesmen inhabiting western Anatolia in the late 13th century. These horsemen became an irregular force of raiders used as shock troops , armed with weapons like bows and spears. They were given fiefs called timars in

1960-477: Is the only one in official use. The ligatures : were developed specially for the Serbian alphabet. Serbian Cyrillic does not use several letters encountered in other Slavic Cyrillic alphabets. It does not use hard sign ( ъ ) and soft sign ( ь ), particularly due to a lack of distinction between iotated consonants and non-iotated consonants, but the aforementioned soft-sign ligatures instead. It does not have Russian/Belarusian Э , Ukrainian/Belarusian І ,

2058-637: The Battle of Bregalnica with the Bulgarians . After the Bulgarian attacks failed, they sent parliamentarians to seek a truce, but the Serbian side refused and the fighting continued. After his division had endured six days of heavy fighting, the Bulgarians were defeated at Grljani near Vinica . Following the disastrous end to the Serbian campaign in late 1915, Pećanac escaped to Corfu along with

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2156-544: The Bosphorus and started a naval science course that laid the foundation stone for the later Turkish Naval Academy . He could only achieve limited success, however. Unfortunately it was almost impossible for him to divert soldiers from the regular army into the new units. The new ships and guns that made it into service were too few to have much of an influence on the Ottoman army and de Tott returned home. When they had requested French help in 1795, young Napoleon Bonaparte

2254-712: The German military administration and their puppet government in the German-occupied territory of Serbia . Just before the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941, the Yugoslav government provided Pećanac with funds and arms to raise guerrilla units in southern Serbia, Macedonia and Kosovo . He formed a detachment of about 300 men, mostly in the Toplica river valley in southern Serbia, which avoided destruction during

2352-688: The Kingdom of Yugoslavia . During this period, Pećanac formed close ties with the far-right Yugoslav Radical Union government of Milan Stojadinović . Pećanac was known for his hostility to the Communist Party of Yugoslavia , which made him popular with conservatives, especially those in Stojadinović's party. Shortly before the Axis invasion of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in April 1941, Pećanac

2450-566: The Nazi puppet Independent State of Croatia banned the use of Cyrillic, having regulated it on 25 April 1941, and in June 1941 began eliminating " Eastern " (Serbian) words from Croatian, and shut down Serbian schools. The Serbian Cyrillic alphabet was used as a basis for the Macedonian alphabet with the work of Krste Misirkov and Venko Markovski . The Serbian Cyrillic script was one of

2548-573: The Ottoman army in several significant battles including that of Šuplja Stena (near Pčinja ) and Čelopek (near Staro Nagoričane ). The deacon of the Vladika of Žiča and commander ( Serbo-Croatian : vojvoda , војвода ) Jovan Grković-Gapon suggested awarding Pećanac the title of vojvoda ; at a Christmas-day meeting in 1904, Pećanac received the title at the age of 25. In the period between 1905 and 1907, he led several major battles against

2646-531: The Ottoman military band , performed by the Janissary since the 16th century. The main theme of this period is reforming the Janissaries . The Janissary corps were originally made up of enslaved young Christian boys, generally from the western Balkans, who were forced to convert to Islam and were educated in military matters under the Ottoman Empire. During the 15th and 16th Centuries they became known as

2744-732: The Royal Naval Academy . After the demise of the Ottoman Empire the school renamed itself as Naval Academy (Turkey) under the Republic of Turkey The system of ranks and insignia followed the patterns of the German Empire. The Ottoman War Medal , better known as the Gallipoli Star, was instituted by the Sultan Mehmed Reshad V on 1 March 1915 for gallantry in battle. The Iftikhar Sanayi Medal

2842-539: The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 . In 1883, both of his parents were killed in an attack by Albanians on the monastery. After that point, Pećanac was looked after by his uncle in the village of Đurakovac near Peć for an unknown amount of time. He arrived in Serbia in 1892 at the age of 14 and worked as a mercenary . When he was 21, he was called up for army service and served in the engineer corps, becoming

2940-403: The Toplica region) to prepare a guerrilla uprising in support of a planned Allied offensive. There, Pećanac contacted several groups of guerrillas, known as comitadji . Pećanac joined forces with local leader Kosta Vojinović, and they both established headquarters on Mount Kopaonik . Rivalry quickly developed between the two leaders, mainly because Pećanac only had orders to prepare to support

3038-495: The djerv (Ꙉꙉ) for the Serbian reflexes of Pre-Slavic *tj and *dj (* t͡ɕ , * d͡ʑ , * d͡ʒ , and * tɕ ), later the letter evolved to dje (Ђђ) and tshe (Ћћ) letters . Vuk Stefanović Karadžić fled Serbia during the Serbian Revolution in 1813, to Vienna. There he met Jernej Kopitar , a linguist with interest in slavistics. Kopitar and Sava Mrkalj helped Vuk to reform Serbian and its orthography. He finalized

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3136-537: The Štip region. He also served as a commander with the Organization of Yugoslav Nationalists (ORJUNA). In 1922, after the failed assassination of a prominent People's Radical Party member in the Deževa district, the authorities sent Pećanac and his Chetniks to fight Jusuf Mehonjić , who was behind the attempted assassination, and his unit of outlaws. In this action, Pećanac's Chetniks killed 28 Muslim inhabitants of

3234-496: The "General Inspectorate of Air Forces" ( Kuva-yı Havaiye Müfettiş-i Umumiliği ) on 29 July 1918. With the signing of the Armistice of Mudros on 30 October 1918, the Ottoman military aviation effectively came to an end. At the time of the armistice, the Ottoman military aviation had around 100 pilots ; 17 land-based airplane companies (4 planes each); and 3 seaplane companies (4 planes each); totalling 80 aircraft. In 1389

3332-503: The 3 and 13 October 1914 banned the use of Serbian Cyrillic in the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia , limiting it for use in religious instruction. A decree was passed on January 3, 1915, that banned Serbian Cyrillic completely from public use. An imperial order on October 25, 1915, banned the use of Serbian Cyrillic in the Condominium of Bosnia and Herzegovina , except "within the scope of Serbian Orthodox Church authorities". In 1941,

3430-620: The Azabs were the bashi-bazouk (başıbozuk). These specialized in close combat and were sometimes mounted. Recruited from the homeless, vagrants and criminals, they became notorious for their undisciplined brutality. The Ottoman Military College in Istanbul was the Ottoman Empire's two-year military staff college, which aimed to educate staff officers for the Ottoman Army. Marshal Ahmed Fevzi Pasha together with Mehmed Namık Pasha formed

3528-655: The German occupation forces and the puppet government of Milan Nedić to collaborate with them and fight the communist -led Partisans . In July 1942, rival Chetnik leader Draža Mihailović arranged for the Yugoslav government-in-exile to denounce Pećanac as a traitor, and his continuing collaboration with the Germans ruined what remained of the reputation he had developed in the Balkan Wars and World War I. The Germans rapidly realised that Pećanac's Chetniks, whose numbers had grown to 8,000, were inefficient and unreliable, and even

3626-509: The Germans, on 18 August 1941 Pećanac received a letter from Draža Mihailović requesting an agreement be reached where Pećanac would control the Chetniks south of the Western Morava River while Mihailović would control the Chetniks in all other areas. Pećanac declined his request and suggested that he might offer Mihailović the chief of staff position and recommended Mihailović's detachments disband and join his detachments. In

3724-594: The Kosovar Albanian leader Azem Galica to discuss joint actions against the occupation forces. Pećanac was the most prominent figure in the Chetnik movement during the interwar period . During the 1920 Constitutional Assembly elections for the newly created Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes , Prime Minister Nikola Pašić sent Pećanac to the Sandžak with orders to intimidate the local Muslim population in

3822-697: The Latin script is almost always used in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina , whereas Cyrillic is in everyday use in Republika Srpska . The Serbian language in Croatia is officially recognized as a minority language; however, the use of Cyrillic in bilingual signs has sparked protests and vandalism . Serbian Cyrillic is an important symbol of Serbian identity. In Serbia, official documents are printed in Cyrillic only even though, according to

3920-608: The Nedić government had no confidence in them. They were completely disbanded by March 1943. Pećanac was interned by the Nedić regime for some time, and was killed by agents of Mihailović in May or June 1944. Kosta Milovanović was born in a village near Dečani in 1879, although some sources mistakenly identify the year as 1871. His father Milovan was a guardian of the Visoki Dečani monastery. Pećanac's father and his brother Milosav fought in

4018-653: The Ottoman army in the Skopje region. In 1908, Pećanac married Sofia Milosavljević from the town of Aleksinac . He went on to father four children with her. In 1910, as the struggles in Macedonia intensified, he left his children and pregnant wife, and returned to the battlefield. In the First Balkan War , fought from October 1912 to May 1913, Pećanac was mobilised in the Serbian Third Army, holding

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4116-517: The Ottoman military, was appointed for the establishment of a course to provide education on plane geometry and navigation . The course, attended also by civilian captains of the merchant marine, took place on board a galleon anchored at Kasimpaşa in Istanbul and lasted three months. The temporary course turned into a continuous education on land with the establishment of "Naval Mathematical College" in February 1776. With growing numbers of cadets,

4214-461: The Ottomans introduced a system of military conscription. In times of need every town, quarter , and village had the duty to present a fully equipped conscript at the recruiting office. The new force of irregular infantrymen, called Azabs , was used in a number of different ways. They supported the supplies to the front-line, they dug roads and built bridges. On rare occasions they were used as cannon fodder to slow down an enemy advance. A branch of

4312-489: The Pećanac Chetnik detachments, which were put under the command of the local German division or area command post. These orders also required the deployment of a German liaison officer with all detachments engaged in operations, and limited their movement outside their assigned area. Supply of arms and ammunition was also controlled. In July 1942, Mihailović arranged for the Yugoslav government-in-exile to denounce Pećanac as

4410-473: The Sipahi were treated differently primarily in that they got their income from the land that was given to them from the Sultan under the timariot system. Within these agricultural lands, the Sipahi were in charge of collecting the taxes which would serve as their salary. At the same time they were responsible for maintaining peace and order there. They were also expected to be able to serve in the military whenever

4508-485: The Sultan deemed their service necessary. In 1621, the Chinese Wu Pei Chih described Ottoman muskets that used a rack-and-pinion mechanism, which was not known to have been used in any European or Chinese firearms at the time. The Ottoman Empire made numerous efforts to recruit French experts for its modernization. The French officer and adventurer Claude-Alexandre de Bonneval (1675–1747) went in

4606-547: The academy in 1834 as the Mekteb-i Harbiye (Ottoman Turkish: lit. "War School"), and the first class of officers graduated in 1841. This foundation occurred in the context of military reforms within the Ottoman Empire, which recognized the need for more educated officers to modernize its army. The need for a new military order was part of the reforms of Sultan Mahmud II ( r.  1808–1839 ), continued by his son Sultan Abdulmejid I ( r.  1839–1861 ). After

4704-576: The alphabet in 1818 with the Serbian Dictionary . Karadžić reformed standard Serbian and standardised the Serbian Cyrillic alphabet by following strict phonemic principles on the Johann Christoph Adelung ' model and Jan Hus ' Czech alphabet . Karadžić's reforms of standard Serbian modernised it and distanced it from Serbian and Russian Church Slavonic , instead bringing it closer to common folk speech, specifically, to

4802-414: The classical period covers the years between 1451 (second enthronement of Sultan Mehmed II ) and 1606 ( Peace of Zsitvatorok ), the reformation period covers the years between 1606 and 1826 ( Vaka-i Hayriye ), the modernisation period covers the years between 1826 and 1858 and decline period covers the years between 1861 (enthronement of Sultan Abdülaziz ) and 1918 ( Armistice of Mudros ). The Ottoman army

4900-431: The college building at the naval shipyard was extended. On 22 October 1784 the college, renamed the "Imperial Naval Engineering School" ( Ottoman Turkish : Mühendishâne-i Bahrî-i Hümâyûn ), started its three-year education courses in the new building. From 1795 on, the training was divided into navigation and cartography for officers of the deck , and naval architecture and shipbuilding for naval engineers . In 1838

4998-458: The conflict citing involvement of Pećanac's men on attack on Novi Pazar . Pećanac was forced to answer to quisling government's Minister of Interior Milan Aćimović and German representative. He said that his commander Mešan Đurović possibly participated in the attack and banned him from attacking Albanian forces in the region. In return, Germans guaranteed that Albanian forces will enter Serbian territory less often. On 7 October 1941, Pećanac sent

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5096-548: The conquered lands, and were later called timariots . In addition they acquired wealth during campaigns. Orhan organized a standing army paid by salary rather than looting or fiefs. The infantry were called yayas and the cavalry was known as müsellem s. The force was made up by foreign mercenaries for the most part, and only a few Turks were content to accept salaries in place of timars. Foreign mercenaries were not required to convert to Islam as long as they obeyed their Ottoman commanders. The Ottomans began using guns in

5194-469: The demise of the Ottoman Empire the school renamed itself as Turkish Military Academy under the Republic of Turkey The origin of the Naval Academy goes back to 1773, when Sultan Mustafa III 's Grand Vizier and Admiral Cezayirli Gazi Hasan Pasha founded a naval school under the name of "Naval Engineering at Golden Horn Naval Shipyard". François Baron de Tott , a French officer and advisor to

5292-423: The dialect of Eastern Herzegovina which he spoke. Karadžić was, together with Đuro Daničić , the main Serbian signatory to the Vienna Literary Agreement of 1850 which, encouraged by Austrian authorities, laid the foundation for Serbian, various forms of which are used by Serbs in Serbia , Montenegro , Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia today. Karadžić also translated the New Testament into Serbian, which

5390-425: The early summer of 1941. At this time and for a considerable time after, only detachments under Pećanac were identified by the term "Chetnik". With the rise of the communist Partisans , Pećanac gave up any interest in resistance and by late August reached agreements with both the Serbian puppet government and the German authorities to carry out attacks against the Partisans. While he was concluding arrangements with

5488-466: The end of October, the Germans decided to stop arming the "unreliable" elements within Pećanac's Chetniks, and attached the remainder to their other Serbian auxiliary forces. On November 16, German occupier held a meeting in Niš between representatives of Nedić's government and prominent Albanian collaborators from Kosovo to stop continuation of ethnic and religious violence between collaborationist groups. Albanian side blamed Serbian side as instigator of

5586-446: The forests immediately return to their homes and that acts of sabotage against the occupiers cease or the perpetrators would face death. In September 1941, some of Pećanac's subordinates broke ranks to join with the Partisans in fighting the Germans and their Serbian auxiliaries. In the Kopaonik region, a previously loyal subordinate of Pećanac began attacking local gendarmerie stations and clashing with armed bands of Albanian Muslims. By

5684-427: The hope of keeping the turnout low. In the same year, attempts by the Yugoslav government to disarm and conscript Kosovo Albanians were met by revolts. Pećanac was sent to Kosovo to form detachments made up of local Serbs to fight the rebels. This resulted in rebel attacks on Serb villages. Pećanac had a leading role in the Association against Bulgarian Bandits , an organisation that arbitrarily terrorised Bulgarians in

5782-435: The invasion. In the first three months after the surrender, Pećanac gathered more troops from Serb refugees fleeing Macedonia and Kosovo. However, his Chetniks fought only Albanian groups in the region, and did not engage the Germans. Following the uprising in the occupied territory in early July 1941, Pećanac quickly resolved to abandon resistance against the occupiers, and by the end of August had concluded agreements with

5880-411: The late 14th century. Following that, other troop types began to appear, such as the regular musketeers ( Piyade Topçu , literally "foot artillery"); regular cavalry armed with firearms ( Süvari Topçu Neferi , literally "mounted artillery soldier"), similar to the later European reiter or carabinier ; and bombardiers ( Humbaracı ), consisting of grenadiers who threw explosives called khımbara and

5978-425: The leaders, and they were essentially joining a popular uprising that was already underway. After guerrillas under Pećanac's command engaged the Bulgarians , he was hailed as a leader of the resistance, although he had serious reservations about the eventual outcome once the Bulgarians and Austro-Hungarians committed large numbers of troops to subdue the uprising. The guerrillas were closing on Niš in early March when

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6076-494: The manufacturing and handling of firearms ." But it was their use of artillery shocked their adversaries and impelled the other two Islamic Gunpowder Empires to accelerate their weapons program. The Ottomans had artillery at least by the reign of Bayezid I and used them in the sieges of Constantinople in 1399 and 1402. They finally proved their worth as siege engines in the successful siege of Salonica in 1430. The Ottoman military's regularized use of firearms proceeded ahead of

6174-494: The maximum authorised size of 8,745 men and included two or three thousand of Mihailović's Chetniks who were legalised in November 1941. In the same month, Pećanac sought permission from the Italians for his forces to move into eastern Montenegro , but was refused over Italian concerns that the Chetniks would move into the Sandžak. In April 1942, the German Commanding General in Serbia, General der Artillerie (General) Paul Bader , issued orders giving unit numbers C–39 to C–101 to

6272-431: The meantime, Pećanac had arranged for the transfer of several thousand of his Chetniks to the Serbian Gendarmerie to act as German auxiliaries. On 27 August, Pećanac issued an open "Proclamation to the Dear People", in which he portrayed himself as a defender and protector of Serbs and called "on detachments that have been formed without his approval" to come together under his command. He demanded that individuals hiding in

6370-548: The most efficient and effective military unit in Europe. By 1570 born Muslims were accepted into the Janissaries corps and by the 17th century most would be born Muslims. According to Jason Goodwin in the 17th and 18th centuries most Janissaries were Muslim Albanians. Aside from the Janissary infantry, there was also the Sipahi Cavalry. They were, however, different from the Janissaries in that they had both military and administrative duties. The Janissaries were tied strictly to being able to perform military duties at any time, however

6468-403: The naval school moved into its new building in Kasımpaşa. With the beginning (1839) of the reformation efforts , the school was renamed "Naval School" ( Ottoman Turkish : Mekteb-i Bahriye ) and continued to operate in Kasımpaşa for 12 years. Then it was relocated in 1850 to Heybeliada for the last time. During the Second Constitutional Era , an upgraded education system was adapted in 1909 from

6566-405: The occupying forces went on the offensive. Pećanac advised his fighters to hide out in the woods and mountains, while Vojinović ordered his to fight to the death. By 25 March, the uprising had been crushed. Pećanac's participation in the rebellion came at a great personal cost; three of his children died whilst in Bulgarian internment. In April 1917, Pećanac re-emerged with his guerrillas, attacking

6664-422: The officer corps was fairly general, it seems that he neglected the military during the last fifteen years of his reign, and he also cut down the military budget. The formation of Ottoman Modern Army was a slow process with ups and downs. The Ottoman Navy , also known as the Ottoman Fleet , was established in the early 14th century after the empire first expanded to reach the sea in 1323 by capturing Karamürsel ,

6762-457: The official status (designated in the constitution as the " official script ", compared to Latin's status of "script in official use" designated by a lower-level act, for national minorities). It is also an official script in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro , along with Gaj's Latin alphabet . Serbian Cyrillic is in official use in Serbia , Montenegro , and Bosnia and Herzegovina . Although Bosnia "officially accept[s] both alphabets",

6860-456: The pace of their European counterparts. The Janissaries had initially been an infantry bodyguard using bows and arrows. By the time of Sultan Mehmed II , they had been drilled with firearms and became "perhaps the first standing infantry force equipped with firearms in the world." The Janissaries are thus considered the first modern standing armies. The combination of artillery and Janissary firepower proved decisive at Varna in 1444 against

6958-419: The planned Allied offensive, but Vojinović was conducting operations that might result in pre-emptive action by the Bulgarian occupation forces. Matters came to a head in January – February 1917 when the Bulgarians began conscripting local Serbs for military service. At a meeting of guerrilla leaders to discuss whether they should commence a general uprising, Pećanac was outvoted. However, events had overtaken

7056-567: The puppet government commenced disbanding them in September 1942, and all but one were dissolved by the end of 1942. The last detachment was dissolved in March 1943. Pećanac's followers were dispersed to other German auxiliary forces, German labour units, and prisoner-of-war camps. Many deserted to join Mihailović. Nothing is known of Pećanac's activities in the months that followed except that he

7154-698: The rank of sergeant in the Morava Division . He took part in the defeat of the Albanians in Merdare , the Battle of Kumanovo and the capture of Metohija . During the Second Balkan War , fought from 29 June to 10 August 1913, Pećanac is believed to have been stationed at the front at Kitka on Osogovo Mountain along the Zletovska and Bregalnica rivers. There, his division took part in

7252-715: The retreating Serbian army and government, and ultimately joined the Salonika front . In 1915, Pećanac had received various medals for his "merit in fighting" including three gold medals for bravery, one for military virtue, and the Order of the Star of Karađorđe (4th Class) for his service in World War I and possibly also for his prior military accomplishments. In September 1916, the Serbian High Command sent then-Lieutenant Pećanac by air to Mehane (south-west of Niš in

7350-494: The same period, linguists led by Ljudevit Gaj adapted the Latin alphabet, in use in western South Slavic areas, using the same principles. As a result of this joint effort, Serbian Cyrillic and Gaj's Latin alphabets have a complete one-to-one congruence, with the Latin digraphs Lj, Nj, and Dž counting as single letters. The updated Serbian Cyrillic alphabet was officially adopted in the Principality of Serbia in 1868, and

7448-768: The semi-vowels Й or Ў , nor the iotated letters Я (Russian/Bulgarian ya ), Є (Ukrainian ye ), Ї ( yi ), Ё (Russian yo ) or Ю ( yu ), which are instead written as two separate letters: Ја, Је, Ји, Јо, Ју . Ј can also be used as a semi-vowel, in place of й . The letter Щ is not used. When necessary, it is transliterated as either ШЧ , ШЋ or ШТ . Serbian italic and cursive forms of lowercase letters б , г , д , п , and т (Russian Cyrillic alphabet) differ from those used in other Cyrillic alphabets: б , г , д , п , and т (Serbian Cyrillic alphabet). The regular (upright) shapes are generally standardized among languages and there are no officially recognized variations. That presents

7546-454: The service of Sultan Mahmud I , converted to Islam , and endeavoured to modernize the Ottoman army , creating cannon foundries, powder and musket factories and a military engineering school. Another officer François Baron de Tott was involved in the reform efforts for the Ottoman military . He succeeded in having a new foundry built to make howitzers , and was instrumental in the creation of mobile artillery units. He built fortifications on

7644-654: The site of the first Ottoman naval shipyard and the nucleus of the future Navy. During its long existence, it was involved in many conflicts and signed a number of maritime treaties. At its height, the Navy extended to the Indian Ocean , sending an expedition to Indonesia in 1565. For much of its history, the Navy was led by the position of the Kapudan Pasha (Grand Admiral; literally "Captain Pasha"). This position

7742-473: The soldiers who served the artillery with maintenance and powder supplies. The Ottoman Empire was the first of the three Islamic Gunpowder Empires , followed by Safavid Persia and Mughal India . By the 14th century, the Ottomans had adopted gunpowder artillery . The adoption of the gunpowder weapons by the Ottomans was so rapid that they "preceded both their European and Middle Eastern adversaries in establishing centralized and permanent troops specialized in

7840-429: The soldiers' lives predictable, thus creating a more manageable military for the Pasha. The main theme of this period is organizing and training the newly formed units. The change of French system to German system occurred as the German military mission was most effective during the period. The military units formed were used in the Balkan Wars and World War I . The shift from Classical Army (1451–1606) took more than

7938-598: The two official scripts used to write Serbo-Croatian in Yugoslavia since its establishment in 1918, the other being Gaj's Latin alphabet ( latinica ). Following the breakup of Yugoslavia in the 1990s, Serbian Cyrillic is no longer used in Croatia on national level, while in Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro it remained an official script. Under the Constitution of Serbia of 2006, Cyrillic script

8036-424: The village of Starčevići near Tutin . They failed to catch Mehonjić, and ultimately Mehonjić's unit defeated Pećanac's Chetniks in a battle. Pećanac was present as a member of parliament at the assassination of Croatian Peasant Party (HSS) leader Stjepan Radić and HSS deputies Pavle Radić and Đuro Basariček on 20 June 1928. Prior to the shooting, he was accused by HSS deputy Ivan Pernar of being responsible for

8134-488: The wars he was an important leader of Chetnik veteran associations, and was known for his strong hostility to the Yugoslav Communist Party , which made him popular in conservative circles. As president of the Chetnik Association during the 1930s, he transformed it into an aggressively partisan Serb political organisation with over half a million members. During World War II, Pećanac collaborated with both

8232-436: The way the military was both conducted by the leadership and also perceived by the rest of society. New military law codes resulted in isolation, extreme surveillance, and severe punishments to enforce obedience. The Pasha's goal was to create a high regard for the law and strict obedience stemming from sincere want. This shift from direct control by bodily punishment to indirect control through strict law enforcement aimed to make

8330-504: Was a great reformer, disbanded the Janissaries in 1826 with so-called known as "Vaka-ı Hayriye" (the auspicious incident). The Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye was established, as a contemporary modern army. Egypt, as part of the empire, also underwent drastic military changes during Muhammad Ali Pasha 's reign. The two largest military reforms were the effective practices of indoctrination and surveillance, which dramatically changed

8428-725: Was abolished in 1867, when it was replaced by the Minister of the Navy ( Turkish : Bahriye Nazırı ) and a number of Fleet Commanders ( Turkish : Donanma Komutanları ). After the demise of the Ottoman Empire, the Navy's tradition was continued under the Turkish Naval Forces of the Republic of Turkey in 1923. The Ottoman Aviation Squadrons were military aviation units of the Ottoman Army and Navy . The history of Ottoman military aviation dates back to June 1909 or July 1911 depending if active duty assignment

8526-493: Was assassinated on 6 June 1944 by Chetniks loyal to Mihailović. Serbian Cyrillic alphabet Reformed Serbian based its alphabet on the previous 18th century Slavonic-Serbian script, following the principle of "write as you speak and read as it is written", removing obsolete letters and letters representing iotated vowels , introducing ⟨J⟩ from the Latin alphabet instead, and adding several consonant letters for sounds specific to Serbian phonology . During

8624-630: Was based on the Slavic dialect of Thessaloniki . Part of the Serbian literary heritage of the Middle Ages are works such as Miroslav Gospel , Vukan Gospels , St. Sava's Nomocanon , Dušan's Code , Munich Serbian Psalter , and others. The first printed book in Serbian was the Cetinje Octoechos (1494). It's notable extensive use of diacritical signs by the Resava dialect and use of

8722-558: Was dissolved by reactionary elements with the overthrow of Selim in 1807, but it became the model of the new Ottoman Army created later in the 19th century. The main theme of this period is disbanding the Janissary, which happened in 1826, and changing the military culture. The major event is "Vaka-ı Hayriye" translated as Auspicious Incident . The military units formed were used in the Crimean War , Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) , and Greco-Turkish War (1897) . The failed efforts of

8820-631: Was gradually superseded in later centuries by the Cyrillic script, developed around by Cyril's disciples, perhaps at the Preslav Literary School at the end of the 9th century. The earliest form of Cyrillic was the ustav , based on Greek uncial script, augmented by ligatures and letters from the Glagolitic alphabet for consonants not found in Greek. There was no distinction between capital and lowercase letters. The standard language

8918-579: Was in exclusive use in the country up to the interwar period . Both alphabets were official in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and later in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia . Due to the shared cultural area, Gaj's Latin alphabet saw a gradual adoption in the Socialist Republic of Serbia since, and both scripts are used to write modern standard Serbian. In Serbia , Cyrillic is seen as being more traditional, and has

9016-406: Was interned for some time by the Serbian puppet government. Accounts of Pećanac's capture and death vary. According to one account, Pećanac, four of his leaders and 40 of their followers were captured by forces loyal to Mihailović in February 1944. All were killed within days except Pećanac, who remained in custody to write his war memoirs before being executed on 5 May 1944. Another source states he

9114-569: Was later used in the production of firearms such as the musket from the 16th century. At the Battle of Mohács in 1526, the Janissaries equipped with 2000 muskets "formed 8 consecutive rows and they fired their weapons row by row," in a "kneeling or standing position without the need for additional support or rest." The Chinese attempted to adopted the Ottoman kneeling position for firing. In 1598, Chinese writer Zhao Shizhen described Turkish muskets as being superior to European muskets. The marching band and military band both have their origins in

9212-582: Was published in 1868. He wrote several books; Mala prostonarodna slaveno-serbska pesnarica and Pismenica serbskoga jezika in 1814, and two more in 1815 and 1818, all with the alphabet still in progress. In his letters from 1815 to 1818 he used: Ю, Я, Ы and Ѳ. In his 1815 song book he dropped the Ѣ. The alphabet was officially adopted in 1868, four years after his death. From the Old Slavic script Vuk retained these 24 letters: He added one Latin letter: And 5 new ones: He removed: Orders issued on

9310-709: Was requested by the Yugoslav Ministry of the Army and Navy to prepare for guerrilla operations and guard the southern area of Serbia, Macedonia, and Kosovo from pro-Bulgarians and pro-Albanians rebels. He was given money and weapons, and managed to arm several hundred men in the Toplica River valley in southern Serbia. Pećanac's force remained intact after the German occupation of Serbia and supplemented its strength from Serb refugees fleeing Macedonia and Kosovo. Pećanac's detachments fought against Albanian bands in

9408-676: Was scheduled to be sent to Constantinople to help organize Ottoman artillery. He did not go, for just days before he was to embark for the Near East he proved himself useful to the Directory by putting down a Parisian mob at 13 Vendémiaire and was kept in France. The supply of Ottoman forces operating in Moldavia and Wallachia was a major challenge that required well organized logistics. An army of 60,000 soldiers and 40,000 horses required

9506-528: Was still present for duty more than 340 years later in 1807, when a Royal Navy force appeared and commenced the Dardanelles Operation . Turkish forces loaded the ancient relics with propellant and projectiles , then fired them at the British ships. The British squadron suffered 28 casualties from this bombardment. The musket first appeared in the Ottoman Empire by 1465. Damascus steel

9604-431: Was the force during rise of the Ottoman Empire . The organization was twofold, central (Kapu Kulu) and peripheral (Eyalet). The classical Ottoman army was the most disciplined and feared military force of its time, mainly due to its high level of organization, logistical capabilities and its elite troops. Following a century long reform efforts, this Army was forced to disbandment by Sultan Mahmud II on 15 June 1826 by what

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