Misplaced Pages

#89910

83-647: The Laurel–Langley Agreement ended the free American market for sugar produced in the Philippines; it had been, before the agreement, exported to the U.S. duty-free. After the 1960s, exports from the Philippines increased significantly due to the American embargo against Cuba . The agreement also ended the authority of the United States to control the exchange rate of the Philippine peso . Up until

166-401: A cultivated variety of Beta vulgaris in the family Amaranthaceae , the tuberous root of which contains a high proportion of sucrose. It is cultivated as a root crop in temperate regions with adequate rainfall and requires a fertile soil. The crop is harvested mechanically in the autumn and the crown of leaves and excess soil removed. The roots do not deteriorate rapidly and may be left in

249-419: A derivative . A derivative is one of the words which have their source in a root word, and were at some time created from the root word using morphological constructs such as suffixes, prefixes, and slight changes to the vowels or to the consonants of the root word. For example unhappy , happily , and unhappily are all derivatives of the root word happy . The terms root and derivative are used in

332-475: A suffixed etymon that was once meaningful, Latin castrum ' fort ' . Reflex is the name given to a descendant word in a daughter language, descended from an earlier language. For example, Modern English heat is the reflex of the Old English hǣtu. Rarely, this word is used in reverse, and the 'reflex' is actually the root word rather than the descendant word. However, this usage is usually filled by

415-476: A comprehensive and chronological catalogue of all meanings and changes that a word (and its related parts) carries throughout its history. The origin of any particular word is also known as its etymology . For languages with a long written history , etymologists make use of texts, particularly texts about the language itself, to gather knowledge about how words were used during earlier periods, how they developed in meaning and form , or when and how they entered

498-494: A diet high in free sugar, especially refined sugar, was damaging to human health . In 2015, the World Health Organization strongly recommended that adults and children reduce their intake of free sugars to less than 10% of their total energy intake and encouraged a reduction to below 5%. In general, high sugar consumption damages human health more than it provides nutritional benefit and is associated with

581-955: A high standard with the German Dictionary of the Brothers Grimm . The successes of the comparative approach culminated in the Neogrammarian school of the late 19th century. Still in the 19th century, German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche used etymological strategies (principally and most famously in On the Genealogy of Morals , but also elsewhere) to argue that moral values have definite historical (specifically, cultural) origins where modulations in meaning regarding certain concepts (such as "good" and "evil") show how these ideas had changed over time—according to which value-system appropriated them. This strategy gained popularity in

664-576: A negligible amount of iron or any other nutrient. Because brown sugar contains 5–10% molasses reintroduced during processing, its value to some consumers is a richer flavor than white sugar. High sugar consumption damages human health more than it provides nutritional benefit, and in particular is associated with a risk of cardiometabolic health detriments. Sugar refiners and manufacturers of sugary foods and drinks have sought to influence medical research and public health recommendations, with substantial and largely clandestine spending documented from

747-522: A risk of cardiometabolic and other health detriments. The etymology of sugar reflects the commodity's spread. From Sanskrit śarkarā , meaning "ground or candied sugar", came Persian shakar and Arabic sukkar . The Arabic word was borrowed in Medieval Latin as succarum , whence came the 12th century French sucre and the English sugar . Sugar was introduced into Europe by

830-451: A sweet taste but are not classified as sugar. Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants. Honey and fruits are abundant natural sources of simple sugars. Sucrose is especially concentrated in sugarcane and sugar beet , making them ideal for efficient commercial extraction to make refined sugar. In 2016, the combined world production of those two crops was about two billion tonnes . Maltose may be produced by malting grain. Lactose

913-498: A truth ' , and the suffix -logia , denoting ' the study or logic of ' . The etymon refers to the predicate (i.e. stem or root ) from which a later word or morpheme derives. For example, the Latin word candidus , which means ' white ' , is the etymon of English candid . Relationships are often less transparent, however. English place names such as Winchester , Gloucester , Tadcaster share in different modern forms

SECTION 10

#1732772072090

996-440: A very limited extent, though ruminants can do so with the help of symbiotic bacteria in their gut. DNA and RNA are built up of the monosaccharides deoxyribose and ribose , respectively. Deoxyribose has the formula C 5 H 10 O 4 and ribose the formula C 5 H 10 O 5 . Because sugars burn easily when exposed to flame, the handling of sugars risks dust explosion . The risk of explosion

1079-415: A whiter product. About 2,500 litres (660 US gal) of irrigation water is needed for every one kilogram (2.2 pounds) of sugar produced. In 2020, global production of sugar beets was 253 million tonnes , led by Russia with 13% of the world total (table). Sugar beet became a major source of sugar in the 19th century when methods for extracting the sugar became available. It is a biennial plant ,

1162-421: Is a refined form of sucrose. In the body, compound sugars are hydrolysed into simple sugars. Longer chains of monosaccharides (>2) are not regarded as sugars and are called oligosaccharides or polysaccharides . Starch is a glucose polymer found in plants, the most abundant source of energy in human food . Some other chemical substances, such as ethylene glycol , glycerol and sugar alcohols , may have

1245-478: Is any of several species, or their hybrids, of giant grasses in the genus Saccharum in the family Poaceae . They have been cultivated in tropical climates in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia over centuries for the sucrose found in their stems. Sugar cane requires a frost-free climate with sufficient rainfall during the growing season to make full use of the plant's substantial growth potential. The crop

1328-489: Is due to the amount of molasses they contain. They may be classified based on their darkness or country of origin. Worldwide sugar provides 10% of the daily calories (based on a 2000 kcal diet). In 1750, the average Briton got 72 calories a day from sugar. In 1913, this had risen to 395. In 2015, sugar still provided around 14% of the calories in British diets. According to one source, per capita consumption of sugar in 2016

1411-437: Is filtered out, many of the impurities are removed at the same time. Removal of color is achieved by using either a granular activated carbon or an ion-exchange resin . The sugar syrup is concentrated by boiling and then cooled and seeded with sugar crystals, causing the sugar to crystallize out. The liquor is spun off in a centrifuge and the white crystals are dried in hot air and ready to be packaged or used. The surplus liquor

1494-444: Is harvested mechanically or by hand, chopped into lengths and conveyed rapidly to the processing plant (commonly known as a sugar mill ) where it is either milled and the juice extracted with water or extracted by diffusion. The juice is clarified with lime and heated to destroy enzymes . The resulting thin syrup is concentrated in a series of evaporators, after which further water is removed. The resulting supersaturated solution

1577-418: Is higher when the sugar has been milled to superfine texture, such as for use in chewing gum . The 2008 Georgia sugar refinery explosion , which killed 14 people and injured 36, and destroyed most of the refinery, was caused by the ignition of sugar dust. In its culinary use, exposing sugar to heat causes caramelization . As the process occurs, volatile chemicals such as diacetyl are released, producing

1660-399: Is known as affination and involves immersing the sugar crystals in a concentrated syrup that softens and removes the sticky brown coating without dissolving them. The crystals are then separated from the liquor and dissolved in water. The resulting syrup is treated either by a carbonatation or by a phosphatation process. Both involve the precipitation of a fine solid in the syrup and when this

1743-616: Is known. The earliest of attested etymologies can be found in Vedic literature in the philosophical explanations of the Brahmanas , Aranyakas , and Upanishads . The analyses of Sanskrit grammar done by the previously mentioned linguists involved extensive studies on the etymology (called Nirukta or Vyutpatti in Sanskrit) of Sanskrit words, because the ancient Indians considered sound and speech itself to be sacred and, for them,

SECTION 20

#1732772072090

1826-429: Is made from raw sugar that has undergone a refining process to remove the molasses . Raw sugar is sucrose which is extracted from sugarcane or sugar beet . While raw sugar can be consumed, the refining process removes unwanted tastes and results in refined sugar or white sugar. The sugar may be transported in bulk to the country where it will be used and the refining process often takes place there. The first stage

1909-454: Is made into refiners' molasses. The International Commission for Uniform Methods of Sugar Analysis sets standards for the measurement of the purity of refined sugar, known as ICUMSA numbers; lower numbers indicate a higher level of purity in the refined sugar. Refined sugar is widely used for industrial needs for higher quality. Refined sugar is purer (ICUMSA below 300) than raw sugar (ICUMSA over 1,500). The level of purity associated with

1992-423: Is not readily obvious that the English word set is related to the word sit (the former is originally a causative formation of the latter). It is even less obvious that bless is related to blood (the former was originally a derivative with the meaning "to mark with blood"). Semantic change may also occur. For example, the English word bead originally meant "prayer". It acquired its modern meaning through

2075-528: Is often traced to Sir William Jones , a Welsh philologist living in India , who in 1782 observed the genetic relationship between Sanskrit , Greek and Latin . Jones published his The Sanscrit Language in 1786, laying the foundation for the field of Indo-European linguistics . The study of etymology in Germanic philology was introduced by Rasmus Christian Rask in the early 19th century and elevated to

2158-414: Is seeded with sugar crystals, facilitating crystal formation and drying. Molasses is a by-product of the process and the fiber from the stems, known as bagasse , is burned to provide energy for the sugar extraction process. The crystals of raw sugar have a sticky brown coating and either can be used as they are, can be bleached by sulfur dioxide , or can be treated in a carbonatation process to produce

2241-420: Is sometimes used as a sweetener for foods (e.g., toast and cereal) and beverages (e.g., coffee and tea). The average person consumes about 24 kilograms (53 pounds) of sugar each year. North and South Americans consume up to 50 kg (110 lb), and Africans consume under 20 kg (44 lb). As free sugar consumption grew in the latter part of the 20th century, researchers began to examine whether

2324-529: Is still used locally to make desserts today. Sugarcane is native of tropical areas such as the Indian subcontinent (South Asia) and Southeast Asia. Different species seem to have originated from different locations; Saccharum barberi originated in India, and S. edule and S. officinarum came from New Guinea . One of the earliest historical references to sugarcane is in Chinese manuscripts dating to

2407-552: Is the most absurd, which derives this word from pons, and assigns the priests the title of bridge-makers. The sacrifices performed on the bridge were amongst the most sacred and ancient, and the keeping and repairing of the bridge attached, like any other public sacred office, to the priesthood. Isidore of Seville compiled a volume of etymologies to illuminate the triumph of religion. Each saint's legend in Jacobus de Varagine 's Legenda Aurea begins with an etymological discourse on

2490-439: Is the only sugar that cannot be extracted from plants. It can only be found in milk, including human breast milk, and in some dairy products . A cheap source of sugar is corn syrup , industrially produced by converting corn starch into sugars, such as maltose, fructose and glucose. Sucrose is used in prepared foods (e.g., cookies and cakes), is sometimes added to commercially available ultra-processed food and beverages, and

2573-435: Is the study of the origin and evolution of words, including their constituent units of sound and of meaning , across time. In the 21st century a subfield within linguistics , etymology has become a more rigorously scientific study. Most directly tied to historical linguistics , philology , and semiotics , it additionally draws upon comparative semantics , morphology , pragmatics , and phonetics in order to attempt

Laurel–Langley Agreement - Misplaced Pages Continue

2656-605: The Khyber Pass and caravan routes. It was not plentiful or cheap in early times, and in most parts of the world, honey was more often used for sweetening. Originally, people chewed raw sugarcane to extract its sweetness. Even after refined sugarcane became more widely available during the European colonial era, palm sugar was preferred in Java and other sugar producing parts of southeast Asia, and along with coconut sugar ,

2739-591: The World Health Organization (WHO) provides evidence that high intake of sugary drinks (including fruit juice ) increases the risk of obesity by adding to overall energy intake . By itself, sugar is doubtfully a factor causing obesity and metabolic syndrome . Meta-analysis showed that excessive consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages increased the risk of developing type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome – including weight gain and obesity – in adults and children. Etymology Etymology ( / ˌ ɛ t ɪ ˈ m ɒ l ə dʒ i / , ET -im- OL -ə-jee )

2822-516: The molecular formula C 6 H 12 O 6 . The names of typical sugars end with - ose , as in "glucose" and " fructose ". Sometimes such words may also refer to any types of carbohydrates soluble in water. The acyclic mono- and disaccharides contain either aldehyde groups or ketone groups. These carbon-oxygen double bonds (C=O) are the reactive centers. All saccharides with more than one ring in their structure result from two or more monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds with

2905-454: The 12th century, the Republic of Venice acquired some villages near Tyre and set up estates to produce sugar for export to Europe. It supplemented the use of honey, which had previously been the only available sweetener. Crusade chronicler William of Tyre , writing in the late 12th century, described sugar as "very necessary for the use and health of mankind". In the 15th century, Venice

2988-557: The 1960s to 2016. The results of research on the health effects of sugary food and drink differ significantly, depending on whether the researcher has financial ties to the food and drink industry. A 2013 medical review concluded that "unhealthy commodity industries should have no role in the formation of national or international NCD [ non-communicable disease ] policy". Similar efforts to steer coverage of sugar-related health information have been made in popular media, including news media and social media. A 2003 technical report by

3071-680: The 8th century BCE, which state that the use of sugarcane originated in India. In the tradition of Indian medicine ( āyurveda ), sugarcane is known by the name Ikṣu , and sugarcane juice is known as Phāṇita . Its varieties, synonyms and characteristics are defined in nighaṇṭus such as the Bhāvaprakāśa (1.6.23, group of sugarcanes). Sugar remained relatively unimportant until the Indians discovered methods of turning sugarcane juice into granulated crystals that were easier to store and transport. The Greek physician Pedanius Dioscorides attested to

3154-678: The Arabs in Sicily and Spain. The English word jaggery , a coarse brown sugar made from date palm sap or sugarcane juice, has a similar etymological origin: Portuguese jágara from the Malayalam cakkarā , which is from the Sanskrit śarkarā . Sugar has been produced in the Indian subcontinent for thousands of years. Sugarcane cultivation spread from there into China via

3237-615: The Elder also described sugar in his 1st century CE Natural History : " Sugar is made in Arabia as well, but Indian sugar is better. It is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut. Sugar is used only for medical purposes. " Crusaders brought sugar back to Europe after their campaigns in the Holy Land , where they encountered caravans carrying "sweet salt". Early in

3320-402: The adoption of " loanwords " from other languages); word formation such as derivation and compounding ; and onomatopoeia and sound symbolism (i.e., the creation of imitative words such as "click" or "grunt"). While the origin of newly emerged words is often more or less transparent, it tends to become obscured through time due to sound change or semantic change. Due to sound change , it

3403-809: The agreement, it had been pegged to the American dollar at the rate of two pesos to one dollar. This Philippines -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article related to a treaty is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Sugar This is an accepted version of this page Sugar is the generic name for sweet-tasting , soluble carbohydrates , many of which are used in food. Simple sugars, also called monosaccharides , include glucose , fructose , and galactose . Compound sugars, also called disaccharides or double sugars, are molecules made of two bonded monosaccharides; common examples are sucrose (glucose + fructose), lactose (glucose + galactose), and maltose (two molecules of glucose). White sugar

Laurel–Langley Agreement - Misplaced Pages Continue

3486-423: The analysis of morphological derivation within a language in studies that are not concerned with historical linguistics and that do not cross the language barrier. Etymologists apply a number of methods to study the origins of words, some of which are: Etymological theory recognizes that words originate through a limited number of basic mechanisms, the most important of which are language change , borrowing (i.e.,

3569-472: The best and most complete account we have of a late medieval banquet" includes the first mention of sugar sculptures, as the final food brought in was "a heraldic menagerie sculpted in sugar: lions, stags, monkeys ... each holding in paw or beak the arms of the Hungarian king ". Other recorded grand feasts in the decades following included similar pieces. Originally the sculptures seem to have been eaten in

3652-456: The centers of distribution, became known for candied fruit, while Venice specialized in pastries, sweets (candies), and sugar sculptures . Sugar was considered to have "valuable medicinal properties" as a "warm" food under prevailing categories, being "helpful to the stomach, to cure cold diseases, and sooth lung complaints". A feast given in Tours in 1457 by Gaston de Foix , which is "probably

3735-479: The characteristic caramel flavor. Fructose, galactose, and glucose are all simple sugars, monosaccharides, with the general formula C 6 H 12 O 6 . They have five hydroxyl groups (−OH) and a carbonyl group (C=O) and are cyclic when dissolved in water. They each exist as several isomers with dextro- and laevo-rotatory forms that cause polarized light to diverge to the right or the left. Lactose, maltose, and sucrose are all compound sugars, disaccharides, with

3818-437: The colonization of tropical islands and areas where labor-intensive sugarcane plantations and sugar manufacturing facilities could be successful. World consumption increased more than 100 times from 1850 to 2000, led by Britain, where it increased from about 2 pounds per head per year in 1650 to 90 pounds by the early 20th century. In the late 18th century Britain consumed about half the sugar which reached Europe. After slavery

3901-409: The colors of sugar, expressed by standard number ICUMSA , the smaller ICUMSA numbers indicate the higher purity of sugar. Brown sugars are granulated sugars, either containing residual molasses, or with the grains deliberately coated with molasses to produce a light- or dark-colored sugar such as muscovado and turbinado . They are used in baked goods, confectionery, and toffees . Their darkness

3984-444: The development and use of various artificial sweeteners . Scientifically, sugar loosely refers to a number of carbohydrates , such as monosaccharides , disaccharides , or oligosaccharides . Monosaccharides are also called "simple sugars", the most important being glucose. Most monosaccharides have a formula that conforms to C n H 2n O n with n between 3 and 7 ( deoxyribose being an exception). Glucose has

4067-640: The difficulty of importing sugar when shipping was subject to blockade . By 1880 the sugar beet was the main source of sugar in Europe. It was also cultivated in Lincolnshire and other parts of England, although the United Kingdom continued to import the main part of its sugar from its colonies. Until the late nineteenth century, sugar was purchased in loaves , which had to be cut using implements called sugar nips . In later years, granulated sugar

4150-459: The field for some weeks before being transported to the processing plant where the crop is washed and sliced, and the sugar extracted by diffusion. Milk of lime is added to the raw juice with calcium carbonate . After water is evaporated by boiling the syrup under a vacuum, the syrup is cooled and seeded with sugar crystals. The white sugar that crystallizes can be separated in a centrifuge and dried, requiring no further refining. Refined sugar

4233-448: The first to make a comprehensive analysis of linguistics and etymology. The study of Sanskrit etymology has provided Western scholars with the basis of historical linguistics and modern etymology. Four of the most famous Sanskrit linguists are: These linguists were not the earliest Sanskrit grammarians, however. They followed a line of ancient grammarians of Sanskrit who lived several centuries earlier like Sakatayana of whom very little

SECTION 50

#1732772072090

4316-463: The form of storage polysaccharides such as starch or inulin . Starch, consisting of two different polymers of glucose, is a readily degradable form of chemical energy stored by cells , and can be converted to other types of energy. Another polymer of glucose is cellulose, which is a linear chain composed of several hundred or thousand glucose units. It is used by plants as a structural component in their cell walls. Humans can digest cellulose only to

4399-498: The general formula C 12 H 22 O 11 . They are formed by the combination of two monosaccharide molecules with the exclusion of a molecule of water. The sugar contents of common fruits and vegetables are presented in Table 1. Due to rising demand, sugar production in general increased some 14% over the period 2009 to 2018. The largest importers were China, Indonesia , and the United States. In 2022/3 world production of sugar

4482-437: The language. Etymologists also apply the methods of comparative linguistics to reconstruct information about forms that are too old for any direct information to be available. By analyzing related languages with a technique known as the comparative method , linguists can make inferences about their shared parent language and its vocabulary. In this way, word roots in many European languages, for example, can be traced back to

4565-512: The meal, but later they become merely table decorations, the most elaborate called trionfi . Several significant sculptors are known to have produced them; in some cases their preliminary drawings survive. Early ones were in brown sugar, partly cast in molds, with the final touches carved. They continued to be used until at least the Coronation Banquet for Edward VII of the United Kingdom in 1903; among other sculptures every guest

4648-403: The method in his 1st century CE medical treatise De Materia Medica : There is a kind of coalesced honey called sakcharon [i.e. sugar] found in reeds in India and Eudaimon Arabia similar in consistency to salt and brittle enough to be broken between the teeth like salt, In the local Indian language, these crystals were called khanda ( Devanagari : खण्ड, Khaṇḍa ), which is the source of

4731-526: The molecules in the open-chain form. Biopolymers of sugars are common in nature. Through photosynthesis, plants produce glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P), a phosphated 3-carbon sugar that is used by the cell to make monosaccharides such as glucose ( C 6 H 12 O 6 ) or (as in cane and beet) sucrose ( C 12 H 22 O 11 ). Monosaccharides may be further converted into structural polysaccharides such as cellulose and pectin for cell wall construction or into energy reserves in

4814-507: The north coast of Brazil, Demarara , and Surinam . It took until 1600 for Brazilian sugar production to exceed that of São Tomé , which was the main center of sugar production in sixteenth century. Sugar was a luxury in Europe until the early 19th century, when it became more widely available, due to the rise of beet sugar in Prussia , and later in France under Napoleon . Beet sugar

4897-426: The obvious, and actual "bridge-builder": The priests, called Pontifices.... have the name of Pontifices from potens , powerful because they attend the service of the gods, who have power and command overall. Others make the word refer to exceptions of impossible cases; the priests were to perform all the duties possible; if anything lays beyond their power, the exception was not to be cavilled. The most common opinion

4980-580: The origin of the Indo-European language family . Even though etymological research originated from the philological tradition, much current etymological research is done on language families where little or no early documentation is available, such as Uralic and Austronesian . The word etymology is derived from the Ancient Greek word ἐτυμολογία ( ἐτυμολογία ), itself from ἔτυμον ( ἔτυμον ), meaning ' true sense or sense of

5063-433: The practice of counting the recitation of prayers by using beads. The search for meaningful origins for familiar or strange words is far older than the modern understanding of linguistic evolution and the relationships of languages, which began no earlier than the 18th century. From Antiquity through the 17th century, from Pāṇini to Pindar to Sir Thomas Browne , etymology had been a form of witty wordplay, in which

SECTION 60

#1732772072090

5146-402: The principal monosaccharides present in the blood and internal tissues include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Many pentoses and hexoses can form ring structures . In these closed-chain forms, the aldehyde or ketone group remains non-free, so many of the reactions typical of these groups cannot occur. Glucose in solution exists mostly in the ring form at equilibrium , with less than 0.1% of

5229-460: The relationship between two languages on the basis of similarity of grammar and lexicon was made in 1770 by the Hungarian, János Sajnovics , when he attempted to demonstrate the relationship between Sami and Hungarian (work that was later extended to the whole Finno-Ugric language family in 1799 by his fellow countryman, Samuel Gyarmathi ). The origin of modern historical linguistics

5312-407: The resultant loss of a molecule of water ( H 2 O ) per bond. Monosaccharides in a closed-chain form can form glycosidic bonds with other monosaccharides, creating disaccharides (such as sucrose ) and polysaccharides (such as starch or cellulose ). Enzymes must hydrolyze or otherwise break these glycosidic bonds before such compounds become metabolized . After digestion and absorption

5395-510: The saint's name: Lucy is said of light, and light is beauty in beholding, after that S. Ambrose saith: The nature of light is such, she is gracious in beholding, she spreadeth over all without lying down, she passeth in going right without crooking by right long line; and it is without dilation of tarrying, and therefore it is showed the blessed Lucy hath beauty of virginity without any corruption; essence of charity without disordinate love; rightful going and devotion to God, without squaring out of

5478-402: The same language. Although they have the same etymological root, they tend to have different phonological forms, and to have entered the language through different routes. A root is the source of related words within a single language (no language barrier is crossed). Similar to the distinction between etymon and root , a nuanced distinction can sometimes be made between a descendant and

5561-568: The seventh century. Chinese documents confirm at least two missions to India, initiated in 647 CE, to obtain technology for sugar refining. Nearchus , admiral of Alexander the Great , knew of sugar during the year 325 BC because of his participation in the campaign of India led by Alexander ( Arrian , Anabasis ). In addition to the Greek physician Pedanius Dioscorides , the Roman Pliny

5644-408: The sixteenth century. Etymologicum genuinum is a grammatical encyclopedia edited at Constantinople in the ninth century, one of several similar Byzantine works. The thirteenth-century Legenda Aurea , as written by Jacobus de Varagine , begins each vita of a saint with a fanciful excursus in the form of an etymology. The Sanskrit linguists and grammarians of ancient India were

5727-490: The supposed origins of words were creatively imagined to satisfy contemporary requirements; for example, the Greek poet Pindar (born in approximately 522 BCE) employed inventive etymologies to flatter his patrons. Plutarch employed etymologies insecurely based on fancied resemblances in sounds . Isidore of Seville 's Etymologiae was an encyclopedic tracing of "first things" that remained uncritically in use in Europe until

5810-427: The term etymon instead. A reflex will sometimes be described simply as a descendant , derivative or derived from an etymon (but see below). Cognates or lexical cognates are sets of words that have been inherited in direct descent from an etymological ancestor in a common parent language. Doublets or etymological twins or twinlings (or possibly triplets, and so forth) are specifically cognates within

5893-464: The way; right long line by continual work without negligence of slothful tarrying. In Lucy is said, the way of light. Etymology in the modern sense emerged in the late 18th-century European academia, within the context of the wider " Age of Enlightenment ", although preceded by 17th century pioneers such as Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn , Gerardus Vossius , Stephen Skinner , Elisha Coles , and William Wotton . The first known systematic attempt to prove

5976-620: The word candy . Indian sailors, who carried clarified butter and sugar as supplies, introduced knowledge of sugar along the various trade routes they travelled. Traveling Buddhist monks took sugar crystallization methods to China. During the reign of Harsha (r. 606–647) in North India , Indian envoys in Tang China taught methods of cultivating sugarcane after Emperor Taizong of Tang (r. 626–649) made known his interest in sugar. China established its first sugarcane plantations in

6059-691: The words of the sacred Vedas contained deep encoding of the mysteries of the soul and God. One of the earliest philosophical texts of the Classical Greek period to address etymology was the Socratic dialogue Cratylus ( c.  360 BCE ) by Plato . During much of the dialogue, Socrates makes guesses as to the origins of many words, including the names of the gods. In his Odes Pindar spins complimentary etymologies to flatter his patrons. Plutarch ( Life of Numa Pompilius ) spins an etymology for pontifex , while explicitly dismissing

6142-591: Was abolished , the demand for workers in European colonies in the Caribbean was filled by indentured laborers from the Indian subcontinent . Millions of enslaved or indentured laborers were brought to various European colonies in the Americas, Africa and Asia (as a result of demand in Europe for among other commodities, sugar), influencing the ethnic mixture of numerous nations around the globe. Sugar also led to some industrialization of areas where sugar cane

6225-429: Was 186 Mt, and in 2023/4 an estimated 194 Mt - a surplus of 5 Mt, according to Ragus . Sugar cane accounted for around 21% of the global crop production over the 2000–2021 period. The Americas was the leading region in the production of sugar cane (52% of the world total). Global production of sugarcane in 2020 was 1.9 billion tonnes, with Brazil producing 40% of the world total and India 20% (table). Sugarcane

6308-483: Was a German invention, since, in 1747, Andreas Sigismund Marggraf announced the discovery of sugar in beets and devised a method using alcohol to extract it. Marggraf's student, Franz Karl Achard , devised an economical industrial method to extract the sugar in its pure form in the late 18th century. Achard first produced beet sugar in 1783 in Kaulsdorf , and in 1801, the world's first beet sugar production facility

6391-522: Was another early manufacturer of sugar cubes at his refineries in Liverpool and London. Tate purchased a patent for sugar-cube manufacture from German Eugen Langen , who in 1872 had invented a different method of processing of sugar cubes. Sugar was rationed during World War I , though it was said that "No previous war in history has been fought so largely on sugar and so little on alcohol", and more sharply during World War II . Rationing led to

6474-599: Was established in Cunern , Silesia (then part of Prussia, now Poland ). The works of Marggraf and Achard were the starting point for the sugar industry in Europe, and for the modern sugar industry in general, since sugar was no longer a luxury product and a product almost only produced in warmer climates. Sugar became highly popular and by the 19th century, was found in every household. This evolution of taste and demand for sugar as an essential food ingredient resulted in major economic and social changes. Demand drove, in part,

6557-845: Was given a sugar crown to take away. In August 1492, Christopher Columbus collected sugar cane samples in La Gomera in the Canary Islands , and introduced it to the New World . The cuttings were planted and the first sugar-cane harvest in Hispaniola took place in 1501. Many sugar mills had been constructed in Cuba and Jamaica by the 1520s. The Portuguese took sugar cane to Brazil. By 1540, there were 800 cane-sugar mills in Santa Catarina Island and another 2,000 on

6640-799: Was grown. For example, in the 1790s Lieutenant J. Paterson, of the Bengal Presidency promoted to the British parliament the idea that sugar cane could grow in British India , where it had started, with many advantages and at less expense than in the West Indies . As a result, sugar factories were established in Bihar in eastern India. During the Napoleonic Wars , sugar-beet production increased in continental Europe because of

6723-566: Was highest in the United States, followed by Germany and the Netherlands. Brown and white granulated sugar are 97% to nearly 100% carbohydrates, respectively, with less than 2% water, and no dietary fiber, protein or fat (table). Brown sugar contains a moderate amount of iron (15% of the Reference Daily Intake in a 100 gram amount, see table), but a typical serving of 4 grams (one teaspoon), would provide 15 calories and

6806-459: Was more usually sold in bags. Sugar cubes were produced in the nineteenth century. The first inventor of a process to produce sugar in cube form was Jakob Christof Rad , director of a sugar refinery in Dačice . In 1841, he produced the first sugar cube in the world. He began sugar-cube production after being granted a five-year patent for the process on 23 January 1843. Henry Tate of Tate & Lyle

6889-479: Was the chief sugar refining and distribution center in Europe. There was a drastic change in the mid-15th century, when Madeira and the Canary Islands were settled from Europe and sugar introduced there. After this an "all-consuming passion for sugar ... swept through society" as it became far more easily available, though initially still very expensive. By 1492, Madeira was producing over 1,400,000 kilograms (3,000,000 lb) of sugar annually. Genoa , one of

#89910